1

COURSE OUTLINE

I. INTRODUCTION: aims of the course 1

II. Guessing meanings from context 3

III. Affixes and word meanings 9

IV. Cognates 15

V. Indefinite pronouns some, any, no and their compounds 18

VI. Expressing some speech acts 18

VII. Reading comprehension 22

22
- Text 1: The place and scope of geology

22
- Text 2: Contract and contract law

24
- Text 3: Court

25
- Text 4: Will English become entrenched as

26
- Text 5: English criminal law

- Text 6: Rule of law 27

28
- Text 7: Trial

28
- Text 8: Crime

29
- Text 9: Lawyer

30
- Text 10: International criminal law

VIII. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 31

1
 2

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Aims of the course

The general aim of this course is to initiate students into practising technical
text interpretation in the light of reading strategies. It can be detailed in specific objectives
along the course outlines as follows:

- Guessing meanings from context: to initiate students into techniques of English for
Academic Reading;
- Affixes and word meanings: to improve students’ ability in identifying word meanings
through the knowledge of prefixes, suffixes and word stems as well as ;
- Cognates: to help students rely on their knowledge of French to guess at the meanings
of English words;
- Indefinite pronouns: to help students distinguish the meanings and use of these
grammatical categories;
- Expressing some speech acts: to improve students’ ability in using language
communicatively;
- Reading comprehension: to practise reading strategies in interpreting technical texts,
and to familiarize students with the register of law in English;

As prerequisites, students should draw on their knowledge of grammar and

conversation in English, as well as on reading strategies learnt in the second year. At the
end of this course, students are expected to be able to guess at the meanings of words, to
use correctly the given grammatical notions, to practise speech acts efficiently and to
master some register of law in English.

2. Methodology
In order to achieve these objectives, the following methods will be used: (a) direct and
audio-aural methods to encourage students to speak English, (b) interactive method to
make them practise English with their classmates, and (c) oral presentations to guide
students to use English in public.
3. Evaluation
Given the large size of the class, students will be evaluated on the basis of written
individual and collaborative tasks, one quiz, one oral presentation and the final exam.
Lecture attendances will also be taken into account.

2
 3

II. GUESSING MEANINGS FROM CONTEXTS

One of the main activities in English for Academic Purposes (EAP),

particularly English for Academic Reading (EAR) is how to understand a text. There are
many techniques which can help the reader, among which: vocabulary interpretation,
sentence analysis, paragraph analysis and cognates.

2.1. READING STRATEGIES

Technical texts contain important information that readers need to retrieve in

order to understand them efficiently. Following are some of the reading strategies required to
this end:

1. Vocabulary interpretation

When the reader encounters a new word, he can do the following in order to
understand it:
a) Use a dictionary
Depending on the context, the reader can use a bilingual (French-English) or a
monolingual (English alone) dictionary. The bilingual dictionary gives the translation of the
word whereas the monolingual dictionary supplies either the definition or the explanation of
the word. This technique is very simple and helps the learner to solve his comprehension
problem quickly. However, the user must learn meaning discriminations which are shown in
parentheses ( ) or in brackets [ ] in order to know the context in which to use such or such a
translation.
Louer1 [lwe] v.tr. 1. (a) to hire, rent, let, (out) (à, to); maison à l.,
house to let; l. une ferme à bail, to lease out a farm; (b) (of farmland)
se l. pour la saison, to engage oneself for the season. 2. To rent
(house, etc.) (à, from); to reserve, book (seat, etc.); l. une maison
pour l’été, to take a house for the summer; cet appartement se loue
très cher, this flat is very expensive to rent.
Louer2 1. v.tr. to praise; to commend; l. qn de, pour, qch., to praise
s.o. for sth.; louons le seigneur! Dieu soit loué thank God! 2. se l.
d’avoir fait qch., to congratulate oneself upon having done sth.; Se l.
de qch., to be pleased, well satisfied, with sth; je n’ai qu’à me l. de
lui, I have nothing but praise for him. (Harrap’s Shorter).

E.g. Louervt1. (glorifier) to praise 2. (donner en location) to rent

(out), to let (out) (UK); ~- à louer for rent, to let (UK). 3. (prendre en
location) to rent. 4. (réserver) to book.

3
 4

Se louervpsout (se féliciter)~se louer de qqch/de faire qqch to be

very pleased about sthg/about doing sthg. (Larousse, Dictionnaire de
poche)

a) Analysis of the word into its parts

This is also called ‘morphological analysis’ because the learner analyzes the
word into its meaningful elements. If he can identify the prefixes, suffixes and word stems (or
Greek and Latin origins) and if he knows their meanings, he can guess at the meaning of the
whole:
e.g. Mary is both philanthropic and bibliophile.
The first word can be analyzed as:
phil-: love of
anthrop-: of human being
ic: adjective suffix maker.

Hence philanthropic should mean something like: lover of human beings

The second word can be analyzed as:
Biblio-: of books
Phile: lover of.

The whole bibliophile thus means lover of books.

b) Guessing the meaning from the context

This strategy requires that the reader relies on some context elements such as words, phrases,
punctuation marks. They can take one of these forms:

1. Definition
A word may be formally defined, or the sentence itself may contain enough
explanation to make the meaning easy to find:
E.g. Urbanism – the city dweller’s way of life – has preoccupied
sociologists since the 19th century.

The use of an incisive structure in dashes shows the definition of the first word urbanism.

2. Consequence/Results

If we know the consequence or result of something, we can guess at the

meaning of what could lead to this consequence:

E.g. The question was so tough that no student succeeded.

Interpretation or inference: a question to which no one succeeds is very difficult; hence

tough must mean ‘very difficult’.

4
 5

3. Cause/effect relationship

We can see a cause/effect relationship that will help us identify a word’s meaning:

E.g. The book was lying open on the table. Because it looked interesting,
Mary perused it while she waited.

Something which is interesting is likely to used to a great extent (=persused).

4. Reason

The knowledge of the reason can also help guess at the meaning of the word:

E.g. Pamela is barren; that is why she has no baby since she married.

Women who do not give birth are sterile; therefore barren should mean ‘sterile’.

5. Contrast/opposition
When two words are contrasted, if the meaning of one of them is known, this
helps to explain the meaning of the other:
E.g. The question was important to the child, but it appeared trivial to the
teacher.
The connective but contrasts important to trivial (therefore, not important).

6. Comparison
Often a comparison is expressed that can help us guess at the meanings of a word:
E.g. At first the road might be well, yet after many years of use, it will be
bumpier.
When a road is used for many years, it deteriorates (= with bumps).

2. Sentence interpretation

Sometimes the text becomes difficult to understand because of complex

sentences. Therefore, the learner should proceed to one of these strategies:

a) Sentence Analysis

Sentence analysis can be used in order to find out the relationship among
words. Such is particularly the case with complex noun modification:

1. The English course postponement : the attempt to postpone (or of the

attempt postponement of) the course of English.

2. Students’ general meeting recall : the notice about the recall of the general

5
 6

notice meeting of students.

3. The V.A.T. new regulation : the announcement of the modification of

modification announcement the new regulation of V.A.T.

N.B.: In English, complex nouns are processed (analyzed) from right to left,
apart from adjectives which remain in front of the nouns that they modify.

EXERCISE

Proceed to sentence interpretation by simplifying these complex nouns:

 Political system classification: .....................................................................

.............................................................................................................................

 Typhoid treatment requirements:…………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………….….
 The tuberculosis vaccination campaign:…………………………………
……………………………..…………………………………………………………
 The hospital repair cost:…………………………………………………

2) Recognition of punctuation clues

Commas, parentheses, colons and other punctuation marks can also give us clues to
the meaning of a word:
E.g. The sand provides the silica; the soda ash, the soda.
The semi-colon (;) replaces and, while the comma (,) replaces the verb provides:
The sand provides the silica and the soda provides soda.

3) Recognition of reference terms (co-reference)

Scientific writing uses grammatical words such as pronouns (he, she, it, they),
demonstrative words (those, these, that, this), relative pronouns (which, that, whom etc), other
pro-forms (the latter, the former, so etc.)They should be able to find the relationship between
a word and its co-referent, that is, a word which refers to it:
E.g. Two other kinds of printers are thermal printers and laser printers. The
former use heat print output on paper and the latter use a letter-strong beam of
light.

4) Recognition of signal words

A signal word is a word or phrase that functions as a connective (or

connector/conjunction) between sentences or paragraphs. They can show one of these
relationships:

6
 7

Doubt/hypothesis : possibly, probably, perhaps, maybe etc.

Cause/effect : accordingly, hence, henceforth, due to, as a result, so, on account of

etc.

Sequence : at first, first, second, eventually, later on, after a short time etc.

Condition : if, when, on condition that, suppose that, unless, provided, suppose
that, supposing that

Comparison : like, unlike, likewise, in the same way

Contrast/opposition : but, though, although, even though, still, yet, however, whereas etc.

Examples and : for example, for instance, that is, namely, such as etc.
restatements

Emphasis : above all, really, in effect, particularly, especially, in particular etc.

Alternative : either … or, neither … nor, or, etc.

Purpose/aims : in order to, so as, so that, etc.

Addition : and, also, as well as, and also, besides, apart from, in addition,
moreover, furthermore etc.

EXERCISE

GIVE THE MEANINGS (comparison, sequence, doubt, cause/effect, alternative, example,

contrast, condition, emphasis, hypothesis, purpose, addition etc) OF THE UNDERLINED
SIGNAL WORDS FOR EACH SENTENCE:
a) Similarly, one can pay by means of a traveler cheque: ……………………………………
b) An insurer will pay all the taxes accordingly: ………………………………………………
c) Although money is a good servant, it is a bad master: ……………………………………
d) Inflation will certainly strike the economies of developing countries:
………………………
e) Crisis will probably strike developing countries: ………………………………..…………
f) Finally, students will learn English: …………………………………………………………
g) Likewise, one can pay by means of a bank card:……… ……………………………………

7. Paragraph analysis

7
 8

Sometimes a student can understand all the sentences in the reading material
and yet not be able to understand the whole text. He should therefore learn to recognize the
organization and presentation of information in the passage. He should learn to recognize: 1)
the topic, 2) the main idea, 3) the major supporting details and the minor supporting details.

a) Finding the topic

E.g. Animals produce a wide variety of sounds. Birds whistle, tortoises click,
wolves howl, and gorillas produce a drumlike sound as they beat their chests.
Topic:sounds of animals.
b) Finding the main idea
The main idea of a text can be a definition, a classification, an illustration, a
purpose, an explanation, a description or a comparison of the topic.
E.g. Latex is collected from the trees by tapping. Workers cut a narrow
stunting groove about halfway around the trunk. It is just deep enough to
pierce the living layers of cells beneath the bark. At the bottom of the cut a
metal spout is attached, and below it, a cup. The milky white latex oozes from
the cut and drips into the cup.
Topic:the collection of latex
Main idea: the first sentence (= how to collect latex: explanation of the latex
collection process).
c) Finding the major supporting details
The major supporting details modify or develop the main idea: definition,
explanation, illustration, comparison/contrast, cause/effect, restatements etc.
They can be identified thanks to the connectives above.
E.g. (1) Many scientists believe that life on earth will eventually end. (2) The
oxygen supply in our atmosphere, for example, has been gradually decreasing
and will be used up in a billion years. (3) Other fates may overtake us before
that time. (4) The sun may explode, as other stars occasionally do, destroying
life in an instant. (5) Or another star may pass so close as to disrupt the
gravitational pull between the sun and the earth and shift the earth closer to the
sun, where it will face destruction from the intense heat.
Topic: The end of life on earth
Main idea: sentence 1 (explanation of the causes of the end of the earth).
Major supporting details: expand the main idea by means of the illustrating
examples of how life on earth will eventually end: sentences 2, 4 and 5.

8
 9

III. AFFIXES AND MEANINGS

PREFIXES MEANINGS EXAMPLES EXERCISES

a-, an- Not, without Apolitical, anonymous

Ante- Before Antecedent, anterior

Bene- Well Beneficiary, benevolent

Bi- Two, twice Bigamy, biannual

Com-, col-, With, together Colleague, cooperation

con-, cor-,
co-

Contra- Against Contraceptive, contradict

Dis- Not, opposite Disbelieve, disorder

Fore- Before, in Forename, foretell

front of

Hyper- Above Hyperinflation, hyperbole

In-, im-, il-, Not Illegal, irregular, inactive

ir-

Inter- Between, International, interlocutor

among

Intra-, Within Intrauterine, introvert

intro-

Macro- Big, Macrocosm,

extending macroeconomics

Micro- Small Microbe,

microeconomics

Mis- Wrong, Misdirection, misinterpret

unfavourable

Mono- One, alone Monolingual, monopoly

Multi- Many Multinational, multiply

Pan- All, Pan-African,

throughout panchromatic

Poly- Many Polygamous, polyvalent

Post- After Posterior, post-mortem

9
 10

Pre- Before Preliminary, pre-empt

Pro- Supporting, in Pro-American, pro-

favour of revolutionary

Pseudo- False, fake Pseudonym, pseudo-

intellectual

Re-, retro- Back, Retroactive, replace

backward

Semi- Half Semi-conscious, semi-

lingual

Sub-, suc-, Under Submarine, supposition

suf-, sup-,
sug-,sus-

Super- Above, over Superordinate,

supernumerary

Sy-, syl-, With, together Synod, sympathize

sym-, syl-

Trans- Across Transatlantic, transgress

Tri- Three Triangle, tripod

Ultra- Beyond, Ultraviolet, ultraorthodox

excessive

Un- Not Unable, untruth

Uni- One Unilateral, uniform

-ward In the Backward, homeward

direction of

-wise In the manner Clockwise, crabwise

of

-worthy Deserving Praiseworthy,

blameworthy

-y Full of, with Dusty, cloudy, rainy

SUFFIXES MEANINGS EXAMPLES EXERCISES

-able, -ible, Capable or fit Readable, legible

-ble for

-dom Condition, Freedom, kingdom

state, domain

10
 11

-er, -or The one who Inspector, teacher

-ful Full of, Beautiful, useful

having the
quality of

-fy To make Solidify, rectify, beautify

-hood Status, rank, Boyhood, womanhood,

condition of brotherhood
life

-ic, -al Relating to Commercial, economic

-ics Science Economics, physics

-ism, ist Doctrine, doer Socialism, capitalist

-ish National Childish, English

name,
resembling

-it is inflammation Sinusitis, appendicitis

-ize To make Realize, computerize

-less Without Treeless, childless,

useless

-let Small, Flatlet, booklet, piglet

diminutive

-like Resembling Childlike, godlike

-ly Like, regular Cowardly, daily, fatherly

occurrence

-oid Like, Ovoid, anthropoid

resembling

-ous, -ious, Full of, of the

-ose nature of

-tion, -ation Condition, the Jurisdiction,

act of communication

STEMS MEANINGS EXAMPLES EXERCISES

Ambi- Both, double, Ambiguous,

two ambidextrous

Anthro-, Man Anthropology,

anthropo- anthropomorphic

11
 12

Aster-, Star Astronaut, interstellar

astro-

Audi-, Hear Audit, audible

audit-

Auto- Self, alone Autonomous, autocracy

Biblio- of book Bibliography, bibliophile

Bio- Life Biology, biography

Capit- Head Decapitate

Chron- Time Chronology, anachronism

-cide Killing, killer Suicide, insecticide

Corp- Body Incorporate

-cracy, - Government, Democracy, autocracy

crat- rule

Dic-, dict- Say, speak Diction, interdict

Duc- Lead Conduct, abduct

Fact-, fect- Make, do Benefactor, to perfect

-gam- Marriage Monogamy, endogamy

Geo- Earth Geology, geography

-graph-, Write, writing Histogram, ethnography

gram-

Hetero- Different, Heteroglossia,

other heterogeneous

Homo- Same Homographs,

homogeneous

Hydr-, Water, liquid Hydration, hydrophobic

hydro-

-log-, alog- Speech, word Pathology, philology

study

-man-, Hand Manufacture, manual

manu-

Matri- Of mother Matriarch, matricide

-mega-, Great Megapolis, megaphone

12
 13

Metr-, Measure Metric, scientometrics

meter-

Mit-, miss- Send Transmit, mission

-morph- Form Morphology

-mort- Death Post-mortem, mortuary

-onym, Name Nomenclature, nominate

nomen-

Ortho- Straight, Orthodox, orthopaedic

correct

-pathy Feeling, Antipathy, sympathy

suffering

Patri- Of father Patriotism, paternal

Phil- Love Philosopher,

philanthropic

-Philia Excessive Anglophile, bibliophilia

love

-phobia Excessive fear Hydrophobia, xenophobic

of

-phon- Sound Telephone, phonology

-pod-, -ped- Foot Pedestrian, tripod

-polis- City Metropolis, megapolis

-port- Carry Transport, report

-psych- Mind Psychology, psychiatric

-scop- See, look at Telescope, microscope

-scope- Instrument for telescope,

seeing

-scrib-, Write Transcribe, manuscript

script-

-sequ-, Follow Prosecute, consecutive

secut-

Socio- Of society Sociology, socio-

economic

-spect- Look at Inspect, retrospect

13
 14

-spir- Breath Inspiration, respiratory

-soph- Wise Philosophy, sophist

-tele- Far Telegram,

telecommunication

-theo-, -the- God Theology, theocracy

-therm-, Heat Thermal, thermos

thermo-

-vene-, vent- Come Intervene, convene

-ver- True Veracity, verify

-voc- Call Advocate

EXERCISES ON WORD ANALYSIS

TEXT 1: THE PLACE AND SCOPE OF GEOLOGY

In a general way, we may say that physics is concerned with matter and energy and their
relation; chemistry, with the kinds of matter and their changes; astronomy, with matter and
motion in space beyond the earth; and biology, with living things and their development.
Geology is the study of the earth and its history (the word means “earth discourse”). Since
the earth is made up of matter, much of geology consists of studying earth materials (chiefly
minerals and rocks) in the light of physical and chemical principles. […]
Like the other sciences, geology embraces a number of divisions, or subsciences, several of
which may be considered as gradational into other fields. Mineralogy is the systematic study
of minerals; petrology, of rocks. In geophysics, we apply to the earth certain principles and
techniques of physics. Structural geology deals with the architecture of the earth; and
astrogeology, with rocks of the moon and with other bodies that we can observe in space.
The subject matter of stratigraphy is the earth’s layered, or stratified, rocks; of
paleontology, fossils and the history of life; of geochronology, the actual age of earth’s
rocks, the earth itself, and the solar system. Geochemistry is concerned with earth problems
in which chemical processes are especially significant. Geomorphology is concerned with
the nature and origin of landforms, and economic geology is the study of ore deposits, oil
pools, and other earth materials of economic value.
Exercise: On the basis of affixes, briefly define the words in bold faces in the text.

14
 15

2.1. COGNATES

Cognates are words found in two different languages but which are similar in
form and often also in meaning. Most of the time, they also have the same origin. Yet, for the
teaching purposes, all words which look alike in two different languages can be considered as
cognates because the learner treats them in the same way in his effort to retrieve their
meanings.

There are two types of cognates: 1) true cognates and 2) false or deceptive
cognates. The former have the same meanings in both languages (e.g. Observation in English
and French). The latter have similar forms but different meanings (e.g. the French librairie
‘bookshop’ and the English library ‘bibliothèque’).

A. TRUE COGNATES

In fact, there are many similarities between English and French nouns, verbs, and adjectives
etc. which facilitate meaning guess. There are correspondences among many suffixes in both
languages which can free the learner from using a dictionary:

English French English French

Verbs ending in –ate Verbs ending in –er Suffix –an/ian Suffix in –ien
To tolerate Tolérer Zambian Zambien

Verbs ending in –ish Verbs ending in – ir Suffix in –ous Suffix in –eux/-euse

To finish Finir curious Curieux/curieuse

Verbs ending in - ǿ Verbs ending in –er Suffix in –ese Suffix in –ois, -ais
To resist Resister Chinese, Togolese, Chinois, togolais,
Japanese japonais

Sometimes there are small spelling differences: debt/dette, establish/établir,

literature/iterature etc.

B. DECEPTIVE COGNATES
Deceptive cognates or false cognates are words which look alike but have different meanings.
Some of them have completely different meanings whereas others have two meanings: one
being similar to French/English, and another being very different (partially deceptive
cognates).

I. COMPLETELY DECEPTIVE COGNATES

15
 16

ENGLISH FRENCH FRENCH ENGLISH

Acceptation : acception Acceptation : acception

Actual : reel Actuel : present

Agenda : ordre du jour Agenda : diary

Beef : du boeuf Boeuf : ox

Blank : vide Blanc : white

Chef : maître cuisinier Chef : chief

Coin : pièce de monnaie Coin : corner

Comprehensive : exhaustif Comprehensif : understanding

Corpse : cadavre Corps : body

Deception : trompérie Deception : disappointment

Effectively : efficacement Effectivement : indeed

Engine : moteur Engin : device

Eventual : final Éventuel : probable

Lecture : conférence Lecture : reading

Library : bibliothèque Librairie : bookshop

Location : endroit Location : rental

Malicious : malveillant Malicieux : mischievous

Mutton : du mouton Mouton : sheep

Obeisance : révérence Obeisance : obedience

Petrol : essence Pétrole : petroleum

Photograph : photographie Photographe : photographer

Physician : médecin Physician : physicist

Pork : du porc (viande de Porc : pig, swine

porc)

Reliable : sûr Reliable : connectable

Response : réaction Réponse : reply

Résumé : CV résumé : summary

Route : itinéraire Route : road

16
 17

Serpent : mille-pattes serpent : snake

To achieve : accomplir Achever : to finish

To attend : être present à Attendre : to wait for

To demand : exiger Demander : to ask for

To dress : habiller Dresser : to train

To ignore : négliger Ignorer : not to know

To resume : reprendre Résumer : to summarize

Voyage : voyage par mer Voyage : trip

PARTIALLY DECEPTIVE COGNATES

French English first meaning English second meaning

Assister : assist (to help) : attend (to be present)

Conférence : conference (event) : lecture (speech)

Economie : Economy (management) : Economics (science)

Histoire : history : story

Parents : parents (father and mother) : relatives (uncles, aunts

etc.)

Politique : politics (science) : policy (management)

English French first meaning French second meaning

Barbarism : barbarisme : barbarie

Charm : charme : fétiche

Communal : communal : commun

Date : date : rendez-vous

Medicine : medicine : medicament

Party : parti : banquet

Theatre : theatre : salle d’opération

To contest : contester : combattre

17
 18

To endure : endure : durer

To marry : marier : épouser

To order : ordonner : commander

To realize : réaliser : Comprendre clairement

IV. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS SOME, ANY, NO AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

‘Some’ and ‘any’

Fill in the gaps with some or any.
1. This evening I am going out with .................... friends of mine.
2. I didn’t have .................... paper clips so I had to borrow .................... from my
colleague.
3. Can I please borrow .................... books about Timor?
4. There isn’t .................... water in the water cooler, it is empty.
5. Do you have .................... questions?
6. Would you like .................... coffee, sir?
7. My friend gave me .................... good advice yesterday.
8. The guest didn’t have .................... cash so he paid by credit card.
9. I was too tired to do .................... work.
10. If you don’t have .................... work to do please help in the kitchen.

Compounds with ‘some’ and ‘any’

INSERT THE CORRECT PRONOUN IN THE BLANKS.

1. Does ............................................ (someone/anyone) know where Mario has gone?
2. The nurse gave me ............................................ (something/anything) for my
toothache.
3. Has ............................................ (anyone/someone) seen my ticket? I can’t find it.
4. Josie can’t find her suitcase. ............................................ (anyone/someone) must have
taken it.
5. You should find ............................................ (someone/anyone) to help you move
that luggage.
6. My boss was angry, but I didn’t do ............................................ (something/anything)
wrong.
7. Does ............................................ (anybody/somebody) want to work my night shift
tonight?
8. Did you go ............................................ (anywhere/somewhere) last weekend, or did
you stay home?

18
 19

V. EXPRESSING SOME SPEECH ACTS

Some acts are most often specific ways of using language in order to express politeness

MAKING OFFERS

It is common that English speakers make offers in conversations in order to be polite and
helpful. When they do so they use these expressions:
 Can I …?
 Shall I …?
 Would you like …?
 How about …?

Making offers:
Can I Help you?
Shall Get you some juice?
Would you like A glass of water?
How about Some pizza?

Responding to offers

Accepting Declining

Yes please. I’d like to. It’s OK, I can do it myself.

That would be very kind of you. Don’t worry, I’ll do it.
Yes please, that would be lovely. No thanks
Yes please, I’d love to. No, thank you
If you wouldn’t mind.
Thank you that would be great.

Examples:

19
 20

 “Can I help you?” “Yes please, I’d love one.”

“No thanks, I’m just having a look.”
(With a shop assistant.)
 “Can I help you?”
“Do you know where the post office
is?”
 “Shall I help you with your maths
problem?”
“Yes, please. That would be very
nice of you.”
 “Would you like me to do the
ironing for you?”
“If you wouldn’t mind.”
“If you could.”
o I’ll do the washing, if you
like.”
“It’s OK, I can do it”
“Don’t worry, I’ll do it.”
“Thank you that would be great.”

EXPRESSING OBLIGATION
When it's necessary or obligatory to do something, you express obligation.
OBLIGATION IN THE PRESENT:
• I have to finish my work before this evening.
• I have got to learn English if I want to live in the USA.
• I must see the doctor soon because I don't feel well.
• It is obligatory that I shop when the traffic light turn red.
• It is necessary that I take a taxi. I'm late.
Obligation in the past:
• I had to work extra hours to pray my bills.
Obligation in the future:
• I'll have to borrow money

EXPRESSING PROHIBITION
To express prohibition the following expressions are used
To express prohibition you can use:
• It is prohibited to... • You aren't permitted to...
• You aren't allowed to... • It is forbidden to...
• You musn't...

Examples :
• Parking is strictly prohibited between these gates
• Students aren't allowed to come too late to school
• Drives mustn't park their cars here

20
 21

TALKING ABOUT ABILITY

To express that someone has the power or skill to do something, can and able are used.
Examples:
 I can’t help you. I am busy.
 I’m unable to help you.
 When I was young I was able to earn my living pretty well; I could work hard. Now I
can’t. I’m too old.

Notice: Can in the past is was able or could, but will be able to in the future
Examples:
When I was young I was able to earn my living pretty well.
Now I can’t; I’m too old.
I couldn’t hear what he was saying.
When I finish my studies, I will be able to find a job.

ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION

When you ask for permission to use something that belongs to someone else you have to do
your best to be polite. It is desirable to use the word “please.”
Asking for permission:
 Can I go out, please?
 May I open the window, please?
 Please, can I have a look at your photo album?
 Please, may I taste that hot spicy couscous dish?
 Do you mind if I smoke?
 Would you mind if I asked you something?
 Is it okay if I sit here?
 Would it be all right if I borrowed your mobile phone?

Giving permission: Refusing to give permission:

 Yes, please do.  No, please don’t.
 Sure, go ahead.  I’m sorry, but that’s not possible.
 Sure.  I’m afraid, but you can’t.
 No problem.
 Please feel free.

21
 22

ASKING FOR AND GIVING ADVICE

EXPRESSIONS

ASKING FOR ADVICE :

• I've got a bad toothache. What do GIVING ADVICE
you suggest ?
• What do you advise me to do?
• What should I do ?
• What ought I to do?
• What's your device ?
• If you were me what would you do?
• If I were you, I would go to the
dentist.
• Why don't you go to the dentist?
• You'd better brush your teeth
regularly.
• You ought to/should avoid eating
sweets.
• If you take my advice, you'll go to
the dentist.

DECLINING TO GIVE ADVICE

• I don't know what to advise, I'm afraid.
• I wish I could suggest something, but I can't?
• I wish I could help.
• I'm afraid I can't really help you.

VII. READING COMPREHENSION AND DISCUSSION

TEXT 2: CONTRACT AND CONTRACT LAW

If you’ve ever signed up for a mobile phone, booked hotel room, or accepted a job offer,
you’ve made a contract. And there are several key aspects of every contract, beginning with
the intent to make one, an offer, and consideration for both sides.

Agreement on the specific elements of a contract leads to acceptance, at which point the
contract is legally binding to both parties. Of course, the parties must have made truthful
representations in the course of their negotiations.

A contract may also be threatened when one party does not fulfill its obligations, which can
lead to repudiation. There is also a situation of frustration when a contract cannot be
fulfilled for unforeseen reasons. When the two parties under contract cannot agree, they may
try to settle their dispute through a process of arbitration.

22
 23

If this doesn’t work, one party may attempt to sue the other in court, hoping to be awarded
damages in the case of a breach of contract.

VOCABULARY

Contract: any formal agreement between people or businesses. Whenever we make a

contract, we are creating a legal relationship.

E.g. Under John’s employment contract, he gets three weeks of vacation every year.

Intent: having the intent to make a contract means that you actually want to make one.
Without intent on both sides, there can be no contract.

E.g. While Tabitha wanted to make some sort of deal, Ron had no intent.

Offer: when you propose a contract, you are making an offer. That offer may be accepted,
rejected, or amended and sent back as a counteroffer.

E.g. The company lawyers sent the offer to the competitor’s legal team.

Consideration: every contract must include something of value however small, for both
sides.

E.g. Ben felt that the deal didn’t include enough consideration for his party.

Acceptance: it happens when both sides agree on a contract. Once the offer or contract is
formally accepted, the agreement becomes legal.

E.g. Acceptance of a contract depends on certain facts being verified.

Party: the parties in a contract are those who are agreeing to do something. Each part may be
a person, a group of people, a business, or another type of organization.

E.g. Because the two parties couldn’t agree on costs, they failed to make a deal.

Representation: (to make a representation)

Any time you make a statement of fat in a contract or in negotiating a contract, you are
making a representation.

E.g. The judge decided that Orel Inc.’s representations were truthful and accurate.

Frustration: frustration of a contract happens when the contract cannot be fulfilled for
reasons beyond anyone’s control. Frustration is not the fault of either party.

23
 24

E.g. Frustration of the contract came about when it was found to violate trade agreements.

To settle a dispute: when contracted parties can’t agree, they have a dispute. Finding a
solution to their disagreement is referred to as ‘settling the dispute’. They may do it in or
out of court.

E.g. It took the US and Canada years to settle their dispute over tobacco taxes.

Arbitration: contracted parties that have a disagreement will usually try to reach a solution
out of court through arbitration.

E.g. Wanting to avoid a costly legal battle, the two companies agreed to arbitration.

Damages: (to award damages)

If the contracted parties can’t settle their dispute through arbitration, they may go to court. In
this case, a judge may award damages usually in the form of money to the party that is able
to prove their claim.

E.g. The judge awarded damages to the complainant after a lengthy court case.

PRACTICE: FILL-IN THE BLANKS WITH APPROPRIATE MISSING WORDS

1. I met with the buyer in the lawyer’s office to sign the …………………………………
2. We wanted to settle the ……………………………….... out of court to save money.
3. I decided to refuse the …………………………….. because the price wasn’t right.
4. A contract becomes legal immediately after ……………………….………………. .
5. We celebrated when the judge decided to award us ……………………………………

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their
meanings.
4. Give some examples of contracts you have made in your life.
5. When can a contract be threatened?
6. What is the difference between arbitration and damages?

Text 3: Court

24
 25

A court is a tribunal, often as governmental institution, with the authority to adjudicate

legal disputes between parties and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal,
and administrative matters in accordance with the rule of law. In both common law and civil
law legal systems, courts are the central means for dispute resolution, and it is generally
understood that all persons have an ability to bring their claims before a court. Similarly, the
rights of those accused of a crime include the right to present a defence before a court.
The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is collectively known as the
judiciary. The place where a court sits is known as a venue. The room where court
proceedings occur is known as a courtroom, and the building as a courthouse; court facilities
range from simple and very small facilities in rural communities to large buildings in cities.

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings.
4. Why do people bring their claims before the court?
5. How is the system of courts called?
6. What is a venue?

Text 4: Will English become entrenched as the medium of international law?

My point can be made in quite a simple way, with a facetious question: Why
have I not used the correct Japanese name for “the International Criminal Court”, and why are
not the ICC judges, jurists, prosecutors and defendants all conducting their cases in Japanese?
Some will be quick—presumably Japanese jurists quickest of all—to assure me that all ICC
business is inspectable in Japanese, that everything such an international body says and does
is made available in Japanese, and indeed that where a Japanese judge or legal agent is
involved, some of the opinion writing or testimony may have originated in Japanese.
Actually it was only in July of this year, 2007, that Japan fully joined the ICC, so some of the
court’s documentation may not yet be easily available in Japanese!
There is no clash of languages, but a maintenance of each in parallel with all
the others. If English appears to predominate in some kinds of practical matters, this is for

25
 26

purely pragmatic reasons and therefore in a sense arbitrary: if the world had turned out
differently the pragmatic language choice could have been Spanish or Esperanto or Mandarin
or Hindi… I believe these answers leave some things out of the account, concerning the non-
arbitrary implications where a particular language and its shaping discourses emerges by
default as the adopted solution to a pragmatic communicational challenge.

The parity in principle of the world’s languages in the workings of global

institutions stands at some distance—greater or lesser—from their differential use and
importance in practice.

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings.
4. What is law according to Hart?
5. What does Austin say about law?
6. How does Dworkin describe law?

Text 5: English criminal law

English criminal law refers to the body of law in the jurisdiction of England and Wales
which deals with crimes and their consequences, and which is complementary to the civil law
of England and Wales.
Criminal acts are considered offences against the whole of a community. The state, in
addition to certain international organizations, has responsibility for crime prevention, for
bringing the culprits to justice, and for dealing with convicted offenders. The police, the
criminal courts and prisons are all publicly funded services, though the main focus of criminal
law concerns the role of the courts, how they apply criminal statutes and common law, and
why some forms of behaviour are considered criminal.
The English legal system is common within other Commonwealth states, notably
Australia, although government legislative practices and rare legal procedures, example being
court hierarchy, may differ to both a significant and minor extent.

26
 27

The fundamentals of a crime are known as the actus reus and the mens rea. These two
Latin terms mean "guilty act" (doing that which is prohibited) and "guilty mind" (i.e. the
intent to commit the crime). The traditional view is that moral culpability requires that one
should have recognized or intended that one was acting wrongly.
Defences exist to some crimes. A person who is accused may in certain circumstances
plead they are insane and did not understand what they were doing, that they were not in
control of their bodies, they were intoxicated, mistaken about what they were doing, acted in
self-defence, acted under duress or out of necessity, or were provoked. These are issues to be
raised at trial, for which there are detailed rules of evidence and procedure to be followed.

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their
meanings.
4. In what countries is English criminal law used?
5. Does it apply in commonwealth states?
6. Give two reasons that a suspect can plead.

Text 6: Rule of law

The rule of law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to
being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to
the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour,
including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16 th century
Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford used the
phrase in his argument against the divine right of kings. The rule of law was further
popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. The concept, if not the phrase,
was familiar to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, who wrote "Law should govern".
Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law, including law makers
themselves. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy

27
 28

where the rulers are held above the law. Lack of the rule of law can be found in both
democracies and dictatorships, for example because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and
the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms
for restoring it.

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings.
4. What is rule of law opposed to?
5. What does rule of law imply?
6. Who popularized the phrase rule of law in the 19th century?

Text 7: Trial

In law, a trial is a coming together of parties to a dispute, to present information (in the
form of evidence) in a tribunal, a formal setting with the authority to adjudicate claims or
disputes. One form of tribunal is a court. The tribunal, which may occur before a judge, jury,
or other designated Trier of fact, aims to achieve a resolution to their dispute.
A criminal trial is designed to resolve accusations brought (usually by a government)
against a person accused of a crime. In common law systems, most criminal defendants are
entitled to a trial held before a jury. Because the state is attempting to use its power to deprive
the accused of life, liberty, or property, the rights of the accused afforded to criminal
defendants are typically broad. The rules of criminal procedure provide rules for criminal
trials.
A civil trial is generally held to settle lawsuits or civil claims—non-criminal disputes.
In some countries, the government can both sue and be sued in a civil capacity. The rules of
civil procedure provide rules for civil trials.

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings.

28
 29

4. What is the aim of trials?

5. What do parties to a dispute present in a trial?
6. What is the state attempting to deprive the accused?

Text 8: Crime

In ordinary language, the term crime denotes an unlawful act punishable by a state. The
term "crime" does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted
definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most
popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime
if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime
or offence (or criminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual or individuals
but also to a community, society or the state ("a public wrong"). Such acts are forbidden and
punishable by law.
The notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists
worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by criminal law of each country.
While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, in some common law
countries no such comprehensive statute exists.
The state (government) has the power to severely restrict one's liberty for committing a
crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must
adhere. If found guilty, an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a
community sentence, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment,
life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, execution.
Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (actus reus)
must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal"
(mens rea).
While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime.
Breaches of private law (torts and breaches of contract) are not automatically punished by the
state, but can be enforced through civil procedure.

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).

29
 30

3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings.
4. Does crime have one universally accepted definition? Why?
5. What is the proposed definition of crime in this text?
6. What is the Latin for “intention to do something criminal”?

Text 9: Lawyer

A lawyer is a person who practices law, as a barrister, attorney, counsellor or solicitor

or chartered legal executive. Working as a lawyer involves the practical application of
abstract legal theories and knowledge to solve specific individualized problems, or to advance
the interests of those who hire lawyers to perform legal services.
The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, and so it can be treated
here in only the most general terms.
In practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as
being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the term "lawyer" may vary from place to place.
 In Canada, the word "lawyer" only refers to individuals who have been called to the
bar or, in Quebec, have qualified as civil law notaries. Common law lawyers in
Canada are formally and properly called "barristers and solicitors", but should not be
referred to as "attorneys", since that term has a different meaning in Canadian usage.
However, in Quebec, civil law advocates (or avocats in French) often call themselves
"attorney" and sometimes "barrister and solicitor" in English.
 In England and Wales, "lawyer" is used to refer to persons who provide reserved and
unreserved legal activities and includes practitioners such as barristers, attorneys,
solicitors, registered foreign lawyers, patent attorneys, trade mark attorneys, licensed
conveyancers, public notaries, commissioners for oaths, immigration advisers and
claims management services. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the "legal
activities" that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to
the Act. 'Lawyer' is not a protected title.
 In the United States, the term generally refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is
never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals. In fact, there are regulatory
restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law.

EXERCISE

30
 31

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their
meanings.
4. Why does the meaning of the term “lawyer” vary from place to place?
5. What is the English for avocat (in Quebec)?
6. Is ‘lawyer’ a protected title in England?

Text 10: The International Criminal Law

The de facto prominence of English and French and the arguable further pre-
eminence of the first of these, English, I believe raises the possibility, in principle, that a
discourse and literature of international criminal law could develop that drew overwhelmingly
on Chinese, or Japanese, or Napoleonic, criminal codes, concepts, and conventions, but
translated these into English—e.g. Chinese international criminal law in English translation.
But in practice I believe that possibility is fairly unlikely, for the simple reason that already
and long established within English language behaviour is a hugely developed and influential
discourse on criminal law, namely that of Anglo-American law, under constant refurbishment
and renewal in several influential countries around the world (US, UK, India, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, in several African states, and so on).

How will this proceed in practice? Take any key term or phrase, such as
torture or controlling mind or recklessness. Of course, there will be equivalent or near-
equivalent terms to these, in the other legal traditions that will feed into international law.
But how likely will it be for a Chinese or Japanese definition and conception of recklessness
to take hold in international legal jurisprudence where the latter is primarily articulated in
English, with the entire framework of English language legal definitions and discourses
shaping it? Nor is the difficulty, this weighted harmonization, one that applies only to the
worldwide institutions such as the international criminal court.

What is ‘torture’, and whose standard or definition of it should prevail? Is it

torture to subject a detained person to interrogation for 14 hours in any 24-hour period, or to
deprive them of coffee? Is it torture to continuously shout at the person, perhaps with the aid
of mechanical amplification, to the point that the person reports feeling ‘very uncomfortable’?

31
 32

EXERCISE

1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph).
2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place).
3. Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings.
4. Give some examples of torture in the Congolese criminal law.
5. Give some examples of controlling mind in the Congolese criminal law.
6. Why is English more used than Chinese in international criminal law?

32
 33

VI. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Eckersley, C. E. and J. M. Eckersley. 1974. A Comprehensive English Grammar for

Foreign Students. London: Longman.
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2013. Common Law.
Hornby, A.S. 2015.Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. New 9th
Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ioffe, O. S. and M. W. Janis. 1987. Soviet Law and Economy. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Martin, E. A. 2003. Oxford Dictionary of Law. Seventh Edition. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Thomson, A. J. and A. V. Martinet. 1980. A Practical English Grammar: Exercises 2. New
Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Victoria Law Foundation. 2021. A Plain Language Guide to Common Legal Terms.
Melbourne: Victoria Law Foundation.

33