The Oxbow-Connecticut River by Thomas Cole: 1836

New England American Indian Place Names

Ancient Voices Remembered
Dr. Frank Waabu O’Brien
Aquidneck Indian Council
Newport, RI
╪
September 24, 2022

1
 Professor Philip Henry Phenix ✜ A Holy Man
Mathematician, Physicist, Theologian, Philosopher, Educator
Man and His Becoming, 1964
Man and His Becoming – Religion Online (religion-online.org)
Teachers College, Columbia University

Sample quotes on History, Language, Linguistics & Anthropology

on a higher plane

Reading & Reflection Material

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 Interplay of Language and Culture

More than scientific linguistics is needed to understand the

American Indian past including Place Names

Essay on a single word.

A non-Indian ecologist/theologian travels to the Past in his
imagination to understand the meaning of an “extinct” word

“Bear” ~ Paukŭnawaw, Noun

Narragansett Language

Implications for Place Names ?

Accurate documentation rescues each Name from
“the night of nonbeing”

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 INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS LINGUISTICS?

&

ALGONQUIAN INDIAN LANGUAGES

&

NEW ENGLAND INDIAN PLACE NAMES

╬

History of Academic linguistics

History of Berkeley Linguistics | Linguistics

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41
 Human Language
A Rule Bound Communication
System of Symbols
LEXICAL DEFINITION
Language is a system of communication by speaking, writing, or making signs in a way
that can be understood, or any of the different systems of communication used
in particular regions.” Cambridge Dict.
◆
NATIVE AMERICAN THEORETICAL DEFINITION
A language gives the ability of human beings to do anything within possibility. The
capability to Pray, Sing, Name and Speak forms the multidimensional quartrad of all
audible and inaudible human communication within and between the natural, preternatural
and supernatural realms of Being and Doing. To say it another way—Praying, Singing,
Naming and Speaking are the gifts of the Creator available to men, woman and children of
this land.
Grammatical Studies in the Narragansett Language (2nd ed., 2009)
Dr. Frank Waabu O’Brien, Aquidneck Indian Council

A rule bound communication system consisting of a grammar and vocabulary. Next give Aquidneck
Indian Council definition of language

LEXICAL DEFINITION

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 Language is Universal

There can be found nowhere in the world, past or

present, such an entity that might be described as
an inferior, defective, deficient, primitive or
underdeveloped language … .

F. O’Brien, Columbia Ph. D. Dissertation, 1980 , pg. 7.

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 Linguistics, Grammar
Linguistics
The scientific study of human language consisting of the four domains of

Visual Form Morphology

Sound Phonology
Meaning Semantics
Rules Syntax
vocabulary + grammar
and divided up into the areas of
(a) descriptive
(b) historical
(c) comparative and
(d) geographical linguistics.

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 Grammar

The whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general,

usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and
sometimes also phonology and semantics.

The study of the forms and structures of a language; the rules for changing the
meaning of words and sentences in a language.

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 Our Indian Tongues Studied by Scholars
Algonquian languages are a family of indigenous languages of North America that
are a subfamily of the Algic languages family. The Algonquian family is divided into
three (3) main geographic groups: Plains, Central and Eastern.

The American Indian tribes of southern New England spoke similar

languages/dialects comprising a uniform subset of the Eastern Algonquian
Language Family (Goddard, 1978). These oral languages were highly structured,
complicated and only imperfectly recorded before they passed into Silence.

Family comprises about 30+ languages with many dialects descended from a
“Proto Algonquian” Grandfather Language from ca. 2,500 - 3,000 years ago.

Scholarly Reference Surveys: Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 15

and Vol. 17), Smithsonian Institution, 1978/1996.

Popular Family Reference: Algonquian Language Family (Algonkian Indian

Languages, Algic, Algonquian Indians, Algonquians) (native-languages.org)
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Eastern Algonquian Indian Languages—in Green
Ojibwa once said to be among the most
complicated languages in the world to learn
[Smithsonian Vols. 15/17 better maps]

48 (C) 2022 Francis J. O'Brien Jr.

ALGONQUIAN LANGUAGES

Important for Place Name

Translation, Recovery

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 Algonquian Languages are Very Complex
Four (4) Categories of Speech

Scholars classify Algonquian Indian languages into four major categories of

speech: NOUNS, PRONOUNS, VERBS and PARTICLES.

These major parts of speech, in turn, are further subdivided into types,
classes, and other subsets. For ex., adverbs, adjectives, prepositions,
interjections and conjunctions are subsumed under the global categories as
“modifiers,” each of which enjoys its own technical Algonquian linguistic term
(e.g., Prenoun, Locative, etc.).

NOTE: Grammar important for local Place Name understanding, analysis,

translation & reconstruction. OFTEN > 1 translation in New England since
documentation/spellings are so poor.

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Grammar: Categories of Algonquian Nouns
Grammatical Studies, 2009

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 Toponymy: Study of Place Names

Toponymy is the scientific study of place names: their origins, meanings and use.
In southern New England numerous Indian place names populate or did populate
our States, maps, cities and towns, institutions, waterways, hills and mountains,
thoroughfares, and so much more.

Place naming is a gesture of thanks-giving for a Gift from the Creator such as “the
good fishing place.” Knowledge passed on through Oral Tradition. Meanings
transcend the mere written shadow “description.”

1. Leon

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 Indian Place Names Blanket North America

“The native peoples of North America named their physical environment

with a dense blanket of place-names”
❖
Afable, Patricia O. & Madison S. Beeler. “Place Names”. Pp. 185-199 in
Ives Goddard (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians (vol. 17).
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1996, p. 185

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 Why Indian Place Names are Important

“Where place names can be accurately analyzed within the language of origin
they can throw light on the history, cultural attitudes, and values of the people
that used them".
Afable & Beeler, 1996, Vol. 17, Smithsonian Institution, p. 185
Conditional statement ─”Where place names can be accurately analyzed ….”
◆
Southern New England Names are challenging to understand. An important
point to be expanded upon…

“As a consequence, examples of reliably analyzed place-names are

relatively scarce from the Northeast” p. 186

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 Place Names Tell Us About Native Lifeways

• Names reflect an encyclopedic knowledge of the environment

• How people perceive and make use of their surroundings
• Insight into important geographic features and flora/fauna & other resources
• Sites of recurring activities or singular events
• Areas of cultural importance
• Important part of oral tradition and major source of knowledge and instruction
• Many, many more categories relating to Indian lifeways

❑ Afable & Beeler, 1996, Vol. 17, Smithsonian Institution,

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 Little Known Facts About Indian Place Names
in Southern New England
◆
TAKE WAY SUMMARY

The list of place names can virtually never be sufficiently completed as

there are hundreds of thousands of place names in New England.
(1) MANY “INDIAN NAMES” ARE DIM SHADOWS OF INDIAN WORDS (Boxet)
(2) MOST INDIAN NAMES RECORDED BY HAPPENSTANCE NOT ENUMERATION
(3) MANY NAMES ARE “INDECIHERABLE” (Escoheag) OR WITH MULTIPLE
TRANSLATIONS
(4) MOST NAMES WERE CHANGED UNDER THE SCYTHE OF COLONIZATION
● (Rhode Island “lost” 65% of the estimated historic Indian names) ●

▬ We will expand, justify & exemplify throughout Talk ▬

Name erasure destroys the history & culture of Native Americans
Cultural “Identity Theft”

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NEW ENGLAND REFERENCE MAPS

Modern & Historical

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Present Day States

Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Rhode Island
Connecticut
Massachusetts

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 John Smith 1616
Map
John Smith
Coined the Term
New England on
This 1616 Map |
History|
Smithsonian
Magazine

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Ancient Tribal Territories in Southern New England.
[See Vol. 15 in Smithsonian Handbook for better maps]

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Early Tribal Names Recorded by Europeans

Translations

Indian Place
Names and Map
(rootsweb.com)

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Wampanoag | National Geographic Society

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 Structure of Typical
New England Place Name

Most place names of this region seem to consist of a noun + an

adjective/verb with or without a diminutive, locative and pluralization
stem. In addition, an Indian place name is quite literal in its descriptive
simplicity, summarizing a referenced landmark, or reference to a
geographical feature (either exact or proximate in location), historical
event, animal habitat, important person, and place of importance for
survival or daily life (see Afable & Beeler, 1996, Vol. 17 Smithsonian for
more details).

Many American Indian place names were erased and renamed in all
States of New England, and throughout USA.

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 Sample New England Place Names
Polysynthetic Morphological Analysis
Algonquian (etymology)
Aquapauksit =
ukque-paug-es-it
Massachusetts =
massa-(w)adchu-ash-et
Connecticut = quinni-tuk-ut
Aquidneck = ahquedn-eck
Kittemaug = kehte-âmaug
Kuttuck (now Titicut) =
kehte-tuk-ut
Massapaug = massa-paug
Mashantucket =
missi-tugk-et
Translation
At the end of the small pond
Ives Goddard:
Most are educated
At or near the Great Hills guesses
(ref. Trumbull, 1881, p. 23)
◆
On the long tidal river
Work backwards
On (some kind of) island from “translation” to
“reconstruct” if
Great (principal) fishing place morphology exists.
Need confirmatory
Principal river place evidence
Large pond
Place of much wood (“well-
forested”)
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Place Name Sample of Massachusetts
(Language) State Place Names
Translation(s)
Aquinnah (Wampanoag) land under the hill
[officially changed 1998]
Assonet (Narragansett) at the rock place
Neponset (Natick) a good fall
Quinebequin (Wampanoag) long (or winding) river
Charles River
Ives
Merrimack (Pennacook) -- swift water place
River -- deep place (common trans.) Goddard:
Most are
Chappaquiddick (Wampanoag) separated island
educated
Swampscott (Natick) at the red rock place guesses
Shawmut (Boston and surroundings -- at the neck (where we pull up
& Wampanoag village) (Natick) our canoes)
-- canoe landing place

Achastapac (Pocumtuck) land of rivers & mountains

Quissett (Nipmuc) at the place of small pines

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Survey of Erasing American Indian Names
Across the Centuries
and
Local Efforts to Commemorate
Indian Place Names

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 Broad Survey of Renaming Across America 17th-19th Centuries
Yearning to Bring Back Indian Heritage Lost to Conquest

Denali and America's Long History of Using (or Not Using) Indian
Names | At the Smithsonian| Smithsonian Magazine

Sample of Observations

“Early Puritan settlers largely ignored Indian names, preferring

to appropriate the names of Old England or culled from the
Old Testament, though Indian names were retained for
smaller villages and many topographic features.

In the late-17th century Indian names were used in land

transactions to assure mutual understanding, but later English
surveys largely ignored the Indian terms.

In the latter part of the 1800s, with Indians being

simultaneously relocated onto reservations and targeted by
government policies aimed at assimilation, nostalgia for things
Indian began to grow, particularly in the East where Indians
had all but disappeared from view” ….

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Regional Example of Commemorating Indian Names

Native American Names in the Greater Boston Area

With Maps
Literature and Digital Diversity
Elizabeth Maddock Dillon and Sarah Connell
Northeastern University
Native American Names in the Greater Boston Area
– Literature and Digital
Diversity (northeastern.edu)

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 Place Name Categories
Requirements and Barriers
to Collecting Accurate Place Names

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 PLACE NAME CATEGORIES

• Descriptive – 6 subdivisions (animals, plants, etc.)

• Locational & Directional & Orientational Names
• Names Referring to Human Activities
• Names Referring to History, Mythologies or Folklore

Example: Connecticut → quinni-tuk-ut = “on the long tidal river”

is
Locational, Directional & Orientational

◆
❑Southern New England Place names conform to 4 categories

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 Requirements for Any
Indian Place Name Study
• Correct spelling of name
• How name is pronounced
• Knowledge of language grammar
• Knowledgeable native speaker informant
or in southern New England primarily─
➢ RECONSTRUCTED from historical records and from knowledge of language
❖ NOTE: Recommend visit to the location for a “visual sense” of “name meaning”
◆
“…[M]uch of the literature is of questionable validity because most writers on the
subject have not been conversant with the languages involved.”

Afable, Patricia O. & Madison S. Beeler. “Place Names” , p.189

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 Barriers to Collecting Accurate
Southern New England Indian Names

• Few Colonists could speak Algonquian. Indians could not

well speak English → Foreign language communication
barrier
• Indians sometimes not sure themselves what place called
• Names were misheard, misunderstood, misreported or mere
guesses with rare exceptions. Hence, few with
interpretable MORPHOLOGY exist for translation accuracy.
Southern New England toponym documentation rarely
meet standards of Smithsonian Institution in previous
slide, Afable and Beeler
❑ Most New England Indian names hide in the
Darkness of Nonbeing

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 Why I Study Indian Place Names
The Last and Lasting Memory of American Indians

To the average American citizen New England Indian place names

seem to be all that is left from millennia of existence of
God’s First Children on this Land
◆

Native American Use of Place Names Research

“Appendix II, ‘Translation of Some Indian Place Names in Southern
New England’ provides a useful tool for those researching historical
deeds and documents that reference locations whose names have
changed over time. This resource would also be useful for language
revitalization.”
Review of A Cultural History of the Native People of Southern New England: Voices
from Past and Present, Rae Gould, The American Indian Quarterly, vol. 34, No.3,
Summer 2010, pp. 397-399)

Remember and commemorate what we have left.

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 IMPORTANT COLONIAL
AND
MODERN LANGUAGE WORKS
for
PLACE NAMES
THEORY AND APPLICATION

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Eliot Indian Bible–1663, 1685 (2nd ed.)
The Rev. John Eliot Indian Bible was the first translation of the
Christian Bible into an indigenous American language. A fundamental
source for vocabulary & grammar of regional languages. A primary
source for revival of Wampanoag Language, Jessie Little Doe Baird,
master's degree from MIT, MacArthur Fellowship, 2010.

J. H. Trumbull, Natick Dictionary

(Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of
American Ethnology - Bulletin 25), 1903

◆
Ives Goddard essay, vol. 17 Handbook .
Accuracy & importance of Indian Bible.

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 Eliot Indian Grammar—1666

Originally published in 1666, written by

John Eliot, a Puritan minister who went to
America to escape religious persecution
and found himself learning the native
Massachusett language, creating a
written language, articulating grammatical
rules, and finally translating the bible into
the native language.

Polysynthetic language  basis for place name analysis

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A Key into the Language of America –1643, Roger Williams

Narragansett language (dialect mixture)

—good for speech patterns in dialogue format

A primary source for revival efforts of this

Ancient extinct tongue
• Grammatical Studies in The Narragansett
Language 2ed | PDF | Grammatical
Number | Grammatical Gender
(scribd.com)
• Narragansett language - Wikipedia

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 Dr. Ives Goddard and Prof.
Kathleen J. Bragdon
Native Writings in
Massachusett
(Memoirs of the American
Philosophical Society, Vol.
185). American Philosophical
Society, 1988

• The opus magnus for extinct Massachusett Language. Basis

for revival programs in southern New England
• Review: nan_port_21_book_review_native_writings_in_ma.pdf
(weebly.com)
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 Regional Indian Place Names
Issues & Consequences

• Most names are “lost” or never recorded

➢ In Rhode Island 65% of known historical indigenous
names no longer exist in Federal Government data bases.

• Many names are “indecipherable,” esp. RI & CT.

➢ In Rhode Island ½ of names are “pure noise”

• Consequences of Conquest and Domination

➢ Lost of Cultural Identity and Erasure of American History
➢Reinforces Myth of Disappeared or Disappearing Indian

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 SOME OLDER and NEWER
CULTURE & INDIAN PLACE NAME
REFERENCE BOOKS

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Dr. James Hammond Trumbull
1881,1974

• The Ives Goddard of 19th century

linguistics (philology). Father of
regional Place Names
• Best place names work for
regional toponyms (Goddard 1977)
• Connecticut, parts of
Massachusetts and Rhode Island
• Interweaves history, geography,
comparative linguistics
• Reviewed by Ives Goddard
➢Goddard, Ives. “Indian Place Names in
Connecticut by James Hammond
Trumbull.” International Journal of
American Linguistics, vol. 43, no. 2,
April, 1977.

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 Prof. John C. Huden
1962

• Most popular comprehensive reference

• 50-year, lifetime project
• 284 pages
• Around 4,800 place names est. in 6
states of New England (G. Day)
➢ Around 4300 names found by Council
computer search
• Ives Goddard says book is limited in
authenticity; non linguistics based
• Missed almost 50 names in Rhode
Island (10%)
• Reviewed by Gordon Day
Amer. Anthro, 1963

Indian place names of New England

(si.edu)

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Prof. William Bright
2004

• Most authoritative work on

Toponyms in USA

• 11,000 placenames and etymologies

• Not much for New England. Relied

on Huden, a questionable source
(Ives Goddard)

• Southern New England Toponyms

remain in the Dark Age of Nonbeing

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Aquidneck Indian Council Book 2010

• Updated Rhode Island place names dB

at:
➢ American Indian Place Names In Rhode Island
(rootsweb.com)
• 1600 entries (all variant spellings)
➢65 diff. spellings for one name!
• Dictionary of Algonquian vocabulary
and misspelled “fragments” seen in
Southern New England toponyms
• Appendices by I. Goddard, roots, tribal
names, etc.
➢ Ives Goddard essay on “Aquidneck”

• 65% of names erased in Rhode Island

➢ Next slide analysis

❑ Examples below are from the book

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 Council Analysis of Numbers of
Rhode Island Names
A Replicable Major Finding
65% erased by Colonization
Source Data Number
GNIS Total “features” in present Govt. dB 5,565
(Geographic Names Information Survey)
Indian “features” in GNIS 187 (unduplicated names)
Historic (Aquidneck Indian Council) 534 names
% remaining today 187/534 = 35%
% missing today 1─ (187/534) = 65%

Number names missing from GNIS 534 ─187 = 347

347 Indian names are lost to the

Winds of History. Where are they?
I call for a study to locate the 347,
and map them. I have files.
Correlates of missing. Coastline?

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 Changing a Place Name

Proposals to change the name of a natural feature

can be submitted to the U.S. Board on
Geographic Names. There must, however, be a
compelling reason to change it. The Board is
responsible by law for standardizing geographic
names throughout the Federal Government and
discourages name changes unless necessary.

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 More Examples of Corruption

“ORIGINAL” CORRUPTED
PLACE NAME MODERN SPELLING
Wannemetonomy Tammy, Tommony

Mashenupsuck Snipsic

Oggusse-paugsuck Oxyboxy

Tomheganompskut Higganum

Wequapaugset Boxet

Musquompskut Swampscott

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 SUMMARY
Place Name Categories
Southern New England

The vast majority of regional Indian place names denote:

land or country or waterway
fishing-place
hill and mountain & stone and rock
natural or man-made enclosure
island
other subcategories relating to daily survival or history of tribe

Recall 4 General Categories Smithsonian

• To these elemental features are added modifiers of size, number, and

locatives (and other grammatical features), and of course, intertribal
dialectical (phonetic & semantic) variations

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 Steps in Translation Process & Examples
Linguistic translation is last step

Can’t decipher/translate most “by inspection ”─bad spellings

1. Obtain oldest spelling of name—map, deed, historical document, etc.

2. Analyze deeds & other documents for possible clues to meaning, and
ascertain the language/dialect
3. Linguistic decomposition—morphological analysis
4. Correlate the translation with known information on possible meaning
of name
EXAMPLES of names with known morphology (decipherable)

Connecticut → quinni-tuk-ut = on the long tidal river

Massachusetts → massa-wadchu-ash-et = at or near the Great Hills

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 Review: Algonquian Toponymic Morphology

Analyzes the structure of words and parts of words such as

prefixes
stems
modifying suffixes of size, number, quality and locative
&
intertribal dialectical (phonetic & semantic) variations .

Known morphology is the basis for Place Name translations when sufficient
supplemental reliable, correlative & confirmatory data exist.
If no morphology exists “correct meaning” is meaningless but prevalent in numerous
compendia.

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 Chart Process Tracing Method

Aquidneck Indian Council Newport

INPUT → PROCESS → OUTPUT

PREFIX – STEM – SUFFIX

Helpful when morphology exists to piece together

morpheme fragments, reconstruct and translate

Very few are “high signal”—i.e., can be translated by

“eyeball linguistics”

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 Chart Process Tracing Method Analysis

Aquidneck Island
Narragansett Language, Southern Rhode Island
Aquidneck
Input →
aquidn- -eck

Translation ahquedn = -ick = in, on, at…

Process → island
Ahquedne-ick =
Aquidnick
On some kind of
island
Output →

“HIGH SIGNAL”
(Input matches output w/confirmatory evidence)

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 Chart Process Tracing Method Analysis

Swampscott

Massachusett (Natick) Language,

Northeast Massachusetts

Swampscott

sw- -ampsc- -ott

musqui = -ompsk- = -ut = at

red standing rock

musqui-ompsk-ut =
musquompskut
At the red rock

“LOW SIGNAL”
(Input ≠ Output)

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 Examples
(Assumes Morphology Exists)
Looking for patterns

“Escoheag” has 5-6 translations!

(Morphology does not exist)
Too many are like this!

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 Glossary of Indian Place Names
in Southern New England
Fragments Analysis

⊗ ⊗ ⊗ ⊗
List of selected Algonquian language roots and combining elements for
place name analysis in southern New England
Glossary of Indian Place Name Roots | PDF | Great Lakes Tribes |
Indigenous Peoples Of North America (scribd.com)

◆
Could write a computer program
for permutations analysis of morpho-fragments for new names
that may surface or poorly spelled known names
—need additional information to correlate

139 (C) 2022 Francis J. O'Brien Jr.

 Other References
This Internet website has many free documents
on Indians of Southern New England—
culture, language & bibliography
Frank Waabu O'Brien (Dr. Francis J. O'Brien Jr.) (frank_o_brien_5) | Scribd

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Wunnohteaonk
✜
MAY PEACE
BE IN
YOUR HEARTS

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 Talk Author
╪
Frank Waabu O’Brien, Ph.D.
Aquidneck Indian Council Newport
12 Curry Avenue
Newport, Rhode Island 02840-1412

Frank Waabu O'Brien (Dr. Francis J. O'Brien Jr.) (frank_o_brien_5) | Scribd

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 Summary

? ? ? ? Questions ? ? ? ?
Taûbotne
⊗⊗⊗⊗
Thank you

Wunniísh !
⊗⊗⊗⊗
(Let your journey be good !)

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