Instructions: Study and be able comprehend every concept provided on the reading material below which is lifted from

General
Biology 1. Alternative Delivery Mode. Quarter 1 – Module 2: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells, Plant and Animal Tissues First
Edition, 2020 Department of Education.

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

The Cell is the basic unit of life that helps attain the functions and structures of different organisms.
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
The single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro =
before; karyon– = nucleus). Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (eu = true). Cellular
structure determines which group an organism belongs to.
All cells share four common components: (1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates
the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; (2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell
in which other cellular components are found; (3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and (4) ribosomes,
particles that synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.

➢ Memory Check:

Directions: Write YES if it refers or describes the type of cell in columns A and B on the contrary write NO if it
does not refer or describe the type of cell.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cell

Description Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

1. Do they have DNA? YES YES

2. Do they have a nucleus? NO YES

3. Do they have ribosomes? YES YES

4. Do they have mitochondria? NO YES

5. Fungi NO YES

6. Amoeba YES NO

There are many different types of cells. For example, in you there are blood cells and skin cells and
bone cells and even bacteria. Here we have drawings of bacteria and human cells. However, all cells - whether
from bacteria, human, or any other organism - will be one of two general types. In fact, all cells other than
bacteria will be one type, and bacterial cells will be the other. And it all depends on how the cell stores its DNA.

As the name implies, unicellular organisms are made up of a single cell. They are the oldest form of life,
with fossil records dating back to about 3.8 billion years ago. Bacteria, amoeba, Paramecium, archaea, protozoa,
unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi are examples of unicellular organisms. These unicellular organisms are
mostly invisible to the naked eye, hence, they are also referred to as microscopic organisms. Most of the
unicellular organisms are also prokaryotes.

Some of the examples of unicellular organisms are: Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, Plasmodium,
Nostoc, Salmonella (Prokaryotic unicellular organisms) Protozoans, Fungi, Algae (Eukaryotic unicellular
organisms)

Organisms that are composed of more than one cell are called multicellular organisms. Multicellular
organisms are almost always eukaryotes. However, bacteria can form large interlinked structures such as colonies
or biofilms but these can’t be classified as multicellular organisms. Some of the examples of multicellular
organisms are vertebrates and invertebrates, all angiosperms, gymnosperms and higher land plants.
 There is another basic cell structure that is present in many but not all living cells: the nucleus. The nucleus of a
cell is a structure in the cytoplasm that is surrounded by a membrane (the nuclear membrane) and contains, and
protects, most of the cell's DNA. Based on whether they have a nucleus, there are two basic types of cells:
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the cytoplasm rather than enclosed within a
nuclear membrane. Prokaryotic cells are found in single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, like the one shown in the. Organisms with
prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes. They were the first type of organisms to evolve and are still the most

The figures below are common examples of prokaryotic cells.

Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells, and they are found mainly in
multicellular organisms. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes, and they range from fungi to people (animal
kingdom).

Eukaryotic cells also contain Eukaryotic cell

other organelles besides the nucleus. An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs a specific job
in the cell. Organelles called mitochondria, for example, provide energy to the cell, and organelles called vacuoles
store substances in the cell. Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions than prokaryotic cells can. This allows
eukaryotic cells to have greater cell specificity than prokaryotic cells. Ribosomes, the organelle where proteins are made, are the only
organelles in prokaryotic cells. The figure below shows an example of a eukaryotic cell.
 Plant and Animal Tissues

In the case of eukaryotes, particularly plants and animals, they can attain multicellularity. Higher organisms achieve this
multicellularity via differential gene expression and cytoplasmic determinants, morphogens and many other epigenetic factors. In
higher animals such as fishes, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and other vertebrates, there are major types of cells found in
their body. These are somatic cells (body cells) and germinal cells (sex cells). Somatic cells are diverse in the body of an organism;
examples are neurons, epithelial cells, liver cells, somite and much more. Somatic cells play a physiological role in the overall function
of the organism. Sperm and egg cells represent germinal cells, which are essential for reproduction

Plant tissue Facts

Plant tissue is divided into Meristematic and Permanent tissues, and furthermore, this permanent plant tissue is divided into simple
and complex ones .

Meristematic tissue which is responsible for the making of new cells by mitosis. Meristematic tissue contains actively dividing cells
that result in formation of other tissue types (e.g. vascular, dermal or ground tissue)

Permanent tissue which is incapable of cell division. The permanent tissues in a plant are those tissues that contain non-dividing
cells. The cells are also modified to perform specific functions in the plants. The cells of the permanent tissue are derived from the
meristematic tissue. Permanent tissue cells may be living or dead.

Permanent tissues are made of cells that are produced by the meristems and are formed to various shapes and sizes depending on
their intended function in the plant. Sometimes the tissues are composed of the same type of cells throughout, or sometimes they
are mixed.

Tissues form organs which combine to allow organisms to exist. A tissue is a group of cells, in close proximity, organizedto
perform one or more specific functions. Histology is the study of cells, tissues and organs as seen through the micro- scope.
It also includes cellular detail down to the molecular level that can be observed using an electron microscope.

Plant and animal cells have structures related to their functions. Plant tissues are broadly divided
into Dividing or Meristematic and Permanent tissues. Animal tissues are made up of epithelial,
connective, muscle and nerve tissue.

PLANT TISSUES

As for all animals, your body is made of four types of tissue: epidermal, muscle, nerve, and connective tissues.
Plants, too, are built of tissues, but not surprisingly, their very different lifestyles derive from different kinds of
tissues. All three types of plant cells are found in most plant tissues.

Three Major Types of Plant Tissues

Plant Tissues can be classified by following ways.

I. On the basis of the part of the plant they are present.

1. Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis. You can think of
the epidermis as the plant’s skin. It mediates most of the interactions between a plant and its environment.
Epidermal cells secrete a waxy substance called cuticle, which coats, waterproofs, and protects the
aboveground parts of plants. Cuticles help prevent water loss, abrasions, infections, and damage from toxins.

This tissue includes several types of specialized cells. Pavement cells, large, irregularly shaped parenchymal
cells which lack chloroplasts, make up the majority of the epidermis. Within the The epidermis of Arabidopsis
shows epidermis, thousands of pairs of both pavement cells (A) and stomata made of sclerenchyma guard
cells (B), bean-shaped sclerenchyma guard which control water loss and gas cells swell and shrink by
osmosis to open and close stomata, tiny pores which control the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases
and the release of water vapor. The lower surfaces of some leaves contain as many as 100,000 stomata per
square centimeter.

Epidermis - the exchange of matter between the plant and the environment. (a) the epidermis on above
ground organs (leaves and stems) is involved with gas exchange. (b) the epidermis on below ground organs
(roots) is involved with water and ion uptake

2. Ground tissue makes up much of the interior of a plant and carries out basic metabolic functions.
Ground tissue in stems provides support and may store food or water. Ground tissues in roots may also store
food.

3. Vascular tissue runs through the ground tissue inside a plant. Your body was able to grow from a single
cell to perhaps 100 trillion cells because, 21 days after fertilization, a tiny heart began to pump blood
throughout your tiny self – and it hasn’t stopped since. The blood it pumps carries water, oxygen and nutrients
to each one of your trillions of cells, and removes CO2 and other wastes. Of course plants don’t have hearts,
but they do have vessels that transport water, minerals, and nutrients through the plant. These vessels are the
vascular tissue, and consist of xylem and phloem. Xylem and phloem are packaged together in bundles, as
shown in Figure on the right. Bundles of xylem and phloem run through the ground tissue inside this stalk of
celery. What function do these tissues serve?

II. On the basis of kind of cells they contain

 Permanent Plant Tissues

Simple Permanent Tissues Parenchyma Tissue

1. They are living cells, polygonal, round or irregular in shape. The cells have thin cell walls.
2. Have large intercellular spaces in between the cells.
3. Forms the basic ground tissue and stores food.
4. When the cells contain chlorophyll, they can carry photosynthesis and are called chlorenchyma.
5. In aquatic plants they contain air cavities to help the plant to remain afloat, there they are called
aerenchyma.
6. In stems and roots they may store nutrients.
7. Some plants with parenchyma tissues are the Caladium and Taro plants.

Collenchyma Tissue
1. They are living cells, round, oval and elongated in shape. The cells have cell walls thickened unevenly at
the corners.
2. Have little or no intercellular spaces as the corners of cell walls are thickened with pectin.
3. Present below the epidermis in leaves and stems.
4. They give mechanical support to the plant.
5. Can carry photosynthesis if chlorophyll is present.
6. Celery and Banana are some plants with Collenchyma tissue.

Sclerenchyma
1. They are dead cells, long and narrow cells, that appear angular in the cross section. The cells have highly
thick cell walls.
2. Cells do not have intercellular spaces as the cell walls are thickened with lignin. Lignin is like a strong
cement that binds the cells together. Often there is no space and cytoplasm left in the cells.
3. Present in the vascular bundles in xylem and phloem in stem, roots and in the veins of leaves. Also
present in the hard seed coat covering.
4. Provide strong mechanical support, rigidity and flexibility to the plant.
5. Cells are dead but are connected through the pits, pits are places where lignin is absent.
6. Coconut and palm trees are plants with Sclerenchyma tissue.

Complex Permanent Tissues Vascular Tissues

The vascular tissues are specialized to transport food, water and minerals. They consist of long, narrow cells
arranged end-to-end, forming tubes. There are two different types of vascular tissues, called xylem and phloem.
Both are shown in figure below.
• Xylem is vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to stems and
leaves. This type of tissue consists of dead cells that lack end walls between adjacent cells. The
side walls are thick and reinforced with lignin, which makes them stiff and waterproof.

• Phloem is vascular tissue that transports food (sugar dissolved in water) from photosynthetic
cells to other parts of the plant for growth or storage. This type of tissue consists of living cells
that are separated by end walls with tiny perforations, or holes.

ANIMAL TISSUES

The animal cells are grouped together to form animal tissues. These tissues vary in their
structure, function, and origin. The animal tissues are divided into epithelial, connective, muscular and
nervous tissues. Let us have a glimpse of each type of animal tissue in detail.
Types of Animal Tissue

The different types of animal tissues include:

1. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues form the protective covering and inner lining of the body and organs. These tissues were the first to
evolve during evolution and were first formed during embryonic development. They develop from the ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm of the embryo.
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues
Following are the important characteristics of epithelial tissues:
1. These can be single-layered or multi-layered.
2. The tissues have the power to regenerate.
3. These are held together by gap junctions, tight junctions, zonula adheren, desmosomes, or interdigitating.
4. The plasma membrane of these cells is specialized into flagella, cilia, and microvilli.
The epithelial tissues Classification of Epithelial Tissues can be classified as:

Classification Function

Sensory epithelium To perceive stimuli

Glandular epithelium Secretes chemicals

Pigmented epithelium Imparts colour in retina

Absorptive epithelium For absorption

2. Connective Tissue
Connective tissues develop from the mesodermal cells of the embryo. They support and bind other tissues in the
body. These are made up of three components:
• Intercellular Matrix: It is made up of mucopolysaccharide, specifically hyaluronic acid.
• Cells: The major cells include fibroblasts, adipocytes, plasma cells and mast cells.
• Fibres: Connective tissues are made up of three types of fibres, namely, collagen fibre, elastic fibre, and reticular
fibre.
The connective tissues perform the following functions:
1. They attach organs and tissues together.
2. They store fat in the form of adipose tissues.
3. They help in repairing tissues.
4. They prevent the organs from mechanical shocks.
5. The organs also help in defence.
Classification of Connective Tissues
The connective tissues are classified as follows:
 Classification Function

Connective Tissue Proper Provides support and protection to the body

Vascular Tissue Transport of materials in the body

Skeletal Tissue It supports the body and gives it proper shape and form

3. Muscular Tissue
The muscular tissue develops from the mesoderm of the embryo. It is classified into three types:
• Cardiac muscle - (involuntary in action, with striations) – ex. walls of the heart.
• Smooth muscle ((involuntary in action, have no striations) – ex. found on the walls of hollow visceral organs like
intestines, stomach, liver, lungs, pancreas.
• Skeletal muscle (voluntary in action, with striations) – ex. muscles attached to the bones, tendons, nerves, joints.

Muscular tissue performs the following functions:

1. It helps in movement and locomotion.
2. It supports the bones and other structures.
3. It is responsible for peristalsis and parturition.

Classification of Muscular Tissue

The muscular tissue can be classified as:

Classification Function

Cardiac It helps in blood circulation and keeps the heart pumping

Smooth These help in peristalsis and other involuntary functions of the body.

Skeletal Provide support, help in movement and maintain homeostasis

4. Nervous tissue

This type of tissue makes up the peripheral and the central nervous system. It develops from the ectoderm of the
embryo. It possesses the ability to initiate and transmit the nerve impulse. Its main components include:
• Neurons – These are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. It comprises an axon, cell body
and dendrites.
• Neuroglia – These are special cells found in the brain and spinal cord. They provide support to the neurons and
fibres.
• Neurosecretory Cells – These function as endocrine organs. They release chemicals from the axons directly into
blood.

PLANT TISSUE vs. ANIMAL TISSUE

Plant Tissue Animal Tissue

In plants, dead supportive tissues are more abundant In multicellular animals living tissues are more
as compared to living tissues. common as compared to dead tissues.
 They require less maintenance energy as they are They require more maintenance energy as they are
autotrophic and can make their own food. heterotrophic and have to move in search of food.

There is a differentiation of tissues into meristematic Such differentiation is absent in animals as their
and permanent tissues, which are localized in certain growth is uniform
regions of plants based on their dividing capacity

Due to the activity of meristematic tissue plants Animals do not show growth after reaching maturity.
continue to grow throughout life. Reparative growth is, however present.

Organization of plants tissues is simple Organization of animal tissues is complex with the
development of more specialized and localized
organs and organ systems.

Tissue organization is meant for Tissue organization is targeted towards high mobility
stationary habit of plants of animals.

References

Books:
Renato A. Dela Pena, Jr, Daniel E. Garcia & Christian Pangilinan (2016) General Biology.

Bagui Ana Liza & Vilmar Eugene J. (2007) SciLINKS Module 3, Tour of the Cell.

Laylay Marilou H. & Vilmar Eugene J. (2007) SciLINKS Module 1, The Cell

Website:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-wmopenbiology1/chapter/
prokaryotes-and-eukaryotes/
https://www.technologynetworks.com/cell-science/articles/prokaryotes-vseukaryotes-what-
are-the-key-differences-336095

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