EDUC 600

METHODS OF RESEARCH:
Quantitative
CYRIL JOHN A. DOMINGO, M.Sc.
Writing Exercises
•1. Draw a visual model of the variables for your proposed research.
•2. Write a theoretical perspective section for your research proposal
following the script for a quantitative theory discussion presented in
this lecture.
Writing Exercise
•Write two sets of questions. The first set should be descriptive
questions about the independent and dependent variables in the
study. The second set should pose questions that relate (or compare)
the independent variable(s) with the dependent variable(s). This
follows the model presented in this chapter for combining
descriptive and inferential questions.
Date Activity
June 5 Study Design, Population and sample, Survey
Writing Exercise
June 12 Lecture on experimental and quasi (10AM-11AM)
Midterm EXAM (11AM-2PM)
June 19 Methodology and Instrument Critic
June 21-25 Data Collection
June 26 Data Analysis
Results and Discussion
July Finalize Research Paper
Final EXAM (objective-50%+ final research paper and
presentation-50%)
CHAPTER V:
STUDY DESIGN, POPULATION AND SAMPLE, SURVEY
Steps in
Quantitative
Research
Selecting a Study Design
Is there a treatment?
No Yes

Is the primary purpose Is the treatment tightly controlled

examination of relationships? by the researcher?

No Yes No Yes

Descriptive Will the sample be Quasi-Experimental Will a randomly assigned

Design studied as a single Study control group be used
group?
No Yes
No Yes
Is the original sample
Correlational randomly selected?
Design
No Yes

Experimental
Study
Population
and
Sample
Population Sample
Advertisements for IT jobs in the The top 50 search results for
Philippines advertisements for IT jobs in the
Philippines on May 1, 2020

Songs from the Himig Handog Song

Contest
Winning songs from the Himig
Handog Song Contest that were
Population
Junior High school students in the
performed in English

300 Junior High students from three

and
Sultan Kudarat Division High Schools who volunteer for your
research study Sample
All countries of the world Countries with published data
available on birth rates and GDP since
2000
Collecting data from a population

Populations are used when your research question requires, or when

you have access to, data from every member of the population.

Usually, it is only straightforward to collect data from a whole

population when it is small, accessible and cooperative.
Example: Collecting data from a
population
•A high school administrator wants to analyze the final exam scores of
all graduating seniors to see if there is a trend. Since they are only
interested in applying their findings to the graduating seniors in this
high school, they use the whole population dataset.
Collecting data from a sample
•When your population is large in size, geographically dispersed, or
difficult to contact, it’s necessary to use a sample. With statistical
analysis, you can use sample data to make estimates or
test hypotheses about population data.
Example: Collecting data from a sample
•You want to study political attitudes in young people. Your
population is the 300,000 undergraduate students in the
Netherlands. Because it’s not practical to collect data from all of
them, you use a sample of 300 undergraduate volunteers from three
Dutch universities – this is the group who will complete your online
survey.
Reasons for sampling
•Necessity: Sometimes it’s simply not possible to study the whole
population due to its size or inaccessibility.
•Practicality: It’s easier and more efficient to collect data from a
sample.
•Cost-effectiveness: There are fewer participant, laboratory,
equipment, and researcher costs involved.
•Manageability: Storing and running statistical analyses on smaller
datasets is easier and reliable.
Sampling Methods
•Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to
make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
•Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
Simple Random Sampling
•A simple random sample is a randomly selected subset of
a population. In this sampling method, each member of the
population has an exactly equal chance of being selected.
•This method is the most straightforward of all the probability
sampling methods, since it only involves a single random selection
and requires little advance knowledge about the population.
Because it uses randomization, any research performed on this
sample should have high internal and external validity.
Randomly select your sample
•In the lottery method, you choose the sample at random by
“drawing from a hat” or by using a computer program that will
simulate the same action.
•In the random number method, you assign every individual a
number. By using a random number generator or random number
tables, you then randomly pick a subset of the population. You can
also use the random number function (RAND) in Microsoft Excel to
generate random numbers.
Systematic Sampling
•Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method in which
researchers select members of the population at a regular interval
(or k) determined in advance.
•You should not use systematic sampling if your population is ordered
cyclically or periodically, as your resulting sample cannot be
guaranteed to be representative.
Example: Alternating list
•Your population list alternates between men (on the even numbers)
and women (on the odd numbers). You choose to sample every
tenth individual, which will therefore result in______________?
Example: Cyclically ordered list
•You are sampling from a population list of approximately 1000
hospital patients. The list is divided into 50 departments of around
20 patients each. Within each department, the list is ordered by age,
from youngest to oldest. This results in a list of 20 repeated age cycle
Systematic Sampling
Sample size and sampling interval
•Although you do not know exactly how many people will visit your
store ahead of time, you can estimate the total population by using
an average of the prior few weeks’ foot traffic.
•You estimate that around 7500 people visit your store each week,
and based on this estimate you calculate an ideal sample size of 366.
Your sampling interval k thus equals 7500/366 = 20.49, which you
round to 20.
Stratified Sampling
•In a stratified sample, researchers divide a population into homogeneous
subpopulations called strata (the plural of stratum) based on specific
characteristics (e.g., race, gender, location, etc.). Every member of the
population should be in exactly one stratum.
•Each stratum is then sampled using another probability sampling method,
such as cluster or simple random sampling, allowing researchers to
estimate statistical measures for each sub-population.
•Researchers rely on stratified sampling when a population’s
characteristics are diverse and they want to ensure that every
characteristic is properly represented in the sample.
Characteristic Strata Groups

Gender •Female 1.Male bachelor’s

•Male graduates,
2.Female bachelor’s
graduates,
3.Male master’s graduates,
4.Female master’s
Degree •Bachelor’s graduates,
•Master’s 5.Male doctoral graduates,
•Doctorate 6.Female doctoral
graduates.
Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling, researchers divide a population into smaller groups known

as clusters. They then randomly select among these clusters to form a sample.

Cluster sampling is a method of probability sampling that is often used to study large
populations, particularly those that are widely geographically dispersed. Researchers
usually use pre-existing units such as schools or cities as their clusters.
Research example
•You are interested in the average reading level of all the seventh-
graders in your city.
•It would be very difficult to obtain a list of all seventh-graders and
collect data from a random sample spread across the city. However,
you can easily obtain a list of all schools and collect data from a
subset of these. You thus decide to use the cluster sampling method.
Determining sample size: how to make sure
you get the correct sample size

https://www.qualtrics.com/uk/experience-
management/research/determine-sample-size/
How to avoid or correct sampling bias
•Using careful research design and sampling procedures can help you
avoid sampling bias.
•Define a target population and a sampling frame (the list of
individuals that the sample will be drawn from). Match the sampling
frame to the target population as much as possible to reduce the risk
of sampling bias.
•Make online surveys as short and accessible as possible.
•Follow up on non-responders.
•Avoid convenience sampling.
DEFINING SURVEYS AND EXPERIMENTS
•A survey design provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends,
attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.
•From sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes claims about the
population.
• In an experiment, investigators may also identify a sample and generalize to a
population; however, the basic intent of an experimental design is to test the
impact of a treatment (or an intervention) on an outcome, controlling for all
other factors that might influence that outcome. As one form of control,
researchers randomly assign individuals to groups. When one group receives a
treatment and the other group does not, the experimenter can isolate whether
it is the treatment and not other factors that influence the outcome.
How to do survey research?
•Determine who will participate in the survey
•Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)
•Design the survey questions and layout
•Distribute the survey
•Analyze the responses
•Write up the results
Step 1: Define the population and
sample
•Before you start conducting survey research, you should already
have a clear research question that defines what you want to find
out. Based on this question, you need to determine exactly who you
will target to participate in the survey.
Step 2: Decide on the type of survey
•There are two main types of survey:
•A questionnaire, where a list of questions is distributed by mail,
online or in person, and respondents fill it out themselves.
•An interview, where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone
or in person and records the responses.
•Which type you choose depends on the sample size and location, as
well as the focus of the research.
Questionnaires: Mail
•Sending out a paper survey by mail is a common method of
gathering demographic information (for example, in a government
census of the population).
/ You can easily access a large sample.
/ You have some control over who is included in the sample (e.g.
residents of a specific region).
X The response rate is often low.
Questionnaires: In-person
•If your research focuses on a specific location, you can distribute a written
questionnaire to be completed by respondents on the spot. For example,
you could approach the customers of a shopping mall or ask all students
to complete a questionnaire at the end of a class.
/ You can screen respondents to make sure only people in the target
population are included in the sample.
/ You can collect time- and location-specific data (e.g. the opinions of a
store’s weekday customers).
X The sample size will be smaller, so this method is less suitable for
collecting data on broad populations.
Questionnaires: Online
•Online surveys are a popular choice for students doing dissertation
research, due to the low cost and flexibility of this method. There are
many online tools available for constructing surveys, such
as SurveyMonkey and Google Forms.
/ You can quickly access a large sample without constraints on time
or location.
/ The data is easy to process and analyze.
X The anonymity and accessibility of online surveys mean you have
less control over who responds.
Interviews
•Oral interviews are a useful method for smaller sample sizes. They
allow you to gather more in-depth information on people’s opinions
and preferences. You can conduct interviews by phone or in person.
/ You have personal contact with respondents, so you know exactly
who will be included in the sample in advance.
/ You can clarify questions and ask for follow-up information when
necessary.
X The lack of anonymity may cause respondents to answer less
honestly, and there is more risk of researcher bias.
Step 3: Design the survey questions
•Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you
will ask them. It’s important to consider:
•The type of questions
•The content of the questions
•The phrasing of the questions
•The ordering and layout of the survey
Table 1. Variables, Research Questions,
and Items on a Survey
Open-ended vs closed-ended questions
•There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended. Many
surveys use a combination of both.
•Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose
from. A closed-ended question can include:
•A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree)
•A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly
disagree)
•A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g. age categories)
•A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g. leisure interests)
•Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative research. They provide you with
numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to find patterns, trends,
and correlations.
Open-ended vs closed-ended questions
•Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of
question has no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead,
the respondent answers in their own words.
•Open questions are most common in interviews, but you can also
use them in questionnaires. They are often useful as follow-up
questions to ask for more detailed explanations of responses to the
closed questions.
The content of the survey questions
•To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, you need to
carefully consider each question in the survey. All questions should
be narrowly focused with enough context for the respondent to
answer accurately. Avoid questions that are not directly relevant to
the survey’s purpose.
•When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options
cover all possibilities. If you include a list of options that isn’t
exhaustive, you can add an “other” field.
Phrasing the survey questions
•In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and
precise as possible. Tailor the questions to your target population,
keeping in mind their level of knowledge of the topic.
•Use language that respondents will easily understand, and avoid
words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your
questions are phrased neutrally, with no bias towards one answer or
another.
Ordering the survey questions
•The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy,
non-sensitive, closed-ended questions that will encourage the
respondent to continue.
•If the survey covers several different topics or themes, group
together related questions. You can divide a questionnaire into
sections to help respondents understand what is being asked in each
part.
•If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous
question, they should be placed directly next to one another.
•Step 4: Distribute the survey and
collect responses
•Step 5: Analyze the survey results
•Step 6: Write up the survey results
Designing and analyzing Likert scales
•A Likert scale is a rating scale used to assess opinions, attitudes, or
behaviors. Likert scales are popular in survey research because they
allow you to easily operationalize personality traits or perceptions.
•To collect data, you present participants with Likert-type questions
or statements and a continuum of possible responses, usually with 5
or 7 items. Each item is given a numerical score so that the data can
be analyzed quantitatively.
Designing and analyzing Likert scales
Designing and analyzing Likert scales
Designing and analyzing Likert scales
Avoid double negatives
•Double negatives can lead to confusion and misinterpretations as
respondents will be unsure of what they are agreeing to.
Types of items
•Agreement: Strongly agree, Agree, Neither agree nor disagree,
Disagree, Strongly disagree
•Quality: Very poor, Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent
•Likelihood: Not at all likely, Somewhat likely, Extremely likely
•Experience: Very negative, Somewhat negative, Neutral, Somewhat
positive, Very positive
Writing Exercise:
•Define your population and sample for your study. How did you
come up with your sample size? Describe your sampling methods.
•Decide on the type of survey that you will be using.
•Design and construct your survey questions (don’t forget to cite your
reference). After constructing your survey questions, fill out this
table:
Variables Research Questions Item on Survey