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UNIT 1: Overview of Physiological/Biological Psychology

 

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of accomplishing this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Describe the nature of Physiological/Biological Psychology study

2. Cite an important event in the early biggening of Physiological/Biological Psychology
leading to the development of the field.
3. Evaluate through written analysis the importance of ethical guidelines in the conduct of
biological psychology studies.

1.1. Introduction

It is often said that Man is unique among animals. It is worth looking at this term unique
before we discuss our subject proper. The word may in this context have two slightly different
meanings. It may mean: Man is strikingly different—he is not identical with any animal. This is of
course true. It is true also of all other animals: Each species, even each individual, is unique in this
sense.
Niko Tinbergen (1973, p. 161)

Studying what makes a man unique will be the focus of this course. Unique in a
sense that human beings are capable of thinking and this process could be seen in
behavioral response. Physiological psychology, biological psychology, or behavioral
neuroscience in general is a field of psychology that connects behavior and mental
processes to bodily processes, and to the functions and actions of the brain. The brain in
turn affects behavior and mind. This field seeks to describe the physical mechanisms of the
body that mediate our movements and our mental activity.
In this chapter, we consider three major issues: the relationship between mind and
brain, the roles of nature and nurture, and the ethics of research conducted in
understanding human behavior. We also briefly consider some important events that took
place in the development of this field of study.
You are expected to accomplish each activity embedded in this topic and
work-out Activity No. 1 at the end of this learning packet. Deadline of
submission of the soft copy of your 1st activity will be on or before my upload
of Module 2. Submit your outputs to my institutional email account at
maryjane.cinco@ssu.edu.ph.

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1.2. Discussion

Biological psychologists are interested in measuring biological, physiological, or

genetic variables in an attempt to relate them to psychological or behavioral variables.
Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, biological psychologists
seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand behavior.

Key areas of focus include sensation and perception; motivated behavior (such as
hunger, thirst, and sex); control of movement; learning and memory; sleep and biological
rhythms; and emotion. As technical sophistication leads to advancements in research
methods, more advanced topics such as language, reasoning, decision making, and
consciousness are now being studied. So, what really is this field is all about? Let us all find
out.

Before we start our formal discussion, let us discover what we already

know about this field and its importance in understanding everyday behavior.
Okay, notice an important decision you have made today, past weeks or months
Exercise No. 1
and write down the factors that have made you come up with such decision/s.
What did you realize after, were you critical in coming up with such decision
Exercise
or you just decide right away. No.1
Write your thoughts about it.

Nature of Physiological/Biological Psychology

Biological psychology is defined as “the branch of psychology that studies the

biological foundations of behavior, emotions, and mental processes” (Pickett, 2000).
Researchers in biological psychology draw techniques and theories from psychology,
biology, physiology, biochemistry, the neurosciences, and related fields to identify the
relationships between the activity of the nervous system and observable behavior. In The
Principles of Psychology (1890), William James argued that the scientific study of
psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology.

The biological approach believes behavior to be as a consequence of our genetics

and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view. Therefore, all that is
psychological is first physiological. All thoughts, feeling & behavior ultimately have a
biological cause. A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in three
ways and each of these biological aspects can help explain human behavior.

1.  Comparative method: different species of animal can be studied and compared. This can
help in the search to understand human behavior.

2. Physiology: how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain functions, how
changes in structure and/or function can affect behavior. For example, we could ask how
prescribed drugs to treat depression affect behavior through their interaction with the
nervous system.

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3. Investigation of inheritance: what an animal inherits from its parents, mechanisms of

inheritance (genetics). For example, we might want to know whether high intelligence is
inherited from one generation to the next.

Biological psychologists address four types of questions about any behavior.

1. Physiological: How does it relate to the physiology of the brain and other organs.
2. Ontogenetic: How does it develop within the individual?
3. Evolutionary: How did the capacity for the behavior evolve?
4. Functional: Why did the capacity for this behavior evolve? (That is, what function does
it serve or did it serve?)

This field of study has its roots in early structuralist and functionalist psychological
studies, and as with all of the major perspectives, it has relevance today. In your Psych 101
class we were able to briefly discuss the history and development of functionalism and
structuralism. In this chapter, we extend this discussion to include the theoretical and
methodological aspects of these two approaches within the biological perspective and
provide examples of relevant studies.

The early structural and functional psychologists believed that the study of
conscious thoughts would be the key to understanding the mind. Their approaches to the
study of the mind were based on systematic and rigorous observation, laying the
foundation for modern psychological experimentation. In terms of research focus, Wundt
and Titchener explored topics such as attention span, reaction time, vision, emotion, and
time perception, all of which are still studied today.

Wundt’s method of introspection which involves training people to concentrate and

report on their conscious experiences as they react to stimuli. This approach is still used in
modern neuroscience research; however, many scientists criticize the use of introspection for its
lack of empirical approach and objectivity.
Similarly, two Minnesota researchers (Jones & Schmid, 2000) used autoethnography, a
narrative approach to introspective analysis (Ellis, 1999), to study the phenomenological
experience of the prison world and the consequent adaptations and transformations that it
evokes. Participant of the study relied on his personal documentation of his experience to later
study the psychological impacts of his experience.

Built on structuralism’s concern for the anatomy of the mind, functionalism led to
greater concern about the functions of the mind, and later on to behaviorism.
Functionalism considers mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to the
person’s environment. William James’s functionalist approach to psychology was less
concerned with the composition of the mind than with examining the ways in which the
mind adapts to changing situations and environments.

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In this perspective, the brain is believed to have evolved for the purpose of bettering
the survival of its carrier by acting as an information processor. In processing information,
the brain is considered to execute functions similar to those executed by a computer and
much like what is shown in Figure 1 below of a complex adaptive system which showcases
the process of how behavior is influenced by information gathered from a changing
external environment. In the illustration below, the functionalists retained an emphasis on
conscious experience.

Figure 1. Complex Adaptive System

Biological psychology as a reductionist considers the simple is the source of the

complex. In other words, to explain a complex phenomenon (like human behavior) a
person needs to reduce it to its elements. In contrast, for the holist (gestalt psychology), the
whole is more than the sum of the parts. Explanations of a behavior at its simplest level can
be deemed reductionist.

The experimental and laboratory approach in various areas of psychology (e.g.,

behaviorist, biological, cognitive) reflects a reductionist position. This approach inevitably
must reduce a complex behavior to a simple set of variables that offer the possibility of
identifying a cause and an effect (i.e., the biological approach suggests that psychological
problems can be treated like a disease and are therefore often treatable with drugs).

1.2.2 History of Physiological/Biological Psychology

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While biopsychology might seem like a fairly recent development thanks to the
introduction of advanced tools and technology for examining the brain, the roots of the
field date back thousands of years to the time of the early philosophers.

Date Person Event

1805 - Charles Darwin The Voyage of the Beagle
1836
Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection
through observing animals while traveling the
world.
1848 Harlow Phineas Gage brain injury case study provides
neuroscience with significant information regarding
the working of the brain.
1859 Darwin publishes "On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection." 1,250 copies were printed, most
of which sold the first day.
1932 Charles Sherrington coins the term “synapse,” wins Nobel Prize
1957 Jane Goodall began her study of primates in Africa, discovering
that chimps have behaviors similar to all the human
cultures on the planet.
1975 Edward Wilson published his book, "Sociobiology" which brought
together evolutionary perspective to the psychology.
1992 Tooby and Cosmides The birth of Evolutionary Psychology begins with
the publication of an essay "The Psychological
Foundations of Culture"

1.2.3 Methods and Ethical considerations in studying Physiological/Biological Psychology

The methods that we will look into in this section have helped neuroscientists
discover the structure, connections, and functions of the nervous system and its
components. From the level of single nerve cells to the operation of large parts of the
nervous system, we now have the ability to make detailed observations that would likely
astonish the early pioneers of neuroscience. But before we continue, let us first grasp and
reflect on the question below.

Exercise No. 2
Describe the reasons biological psychologists conduct much of their research on
nonhuman animals. What ethical Principles do they follow in using non-human
participants?

Methods of Studying the Brain

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It is important to appreciate that the human brain is an extremely complicated piece

of biological machinery. Scientists have only just “scratched the surface” of understanding
the many functions of the workings of the human brain. The brain can influence many
types of behavior.

In addition to studying brain damaged patients, we can find out about the working
of the brain in three other ways. Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and
initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of
initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Neuro Surgery (Craniotomy)

A craniotomy is type of
brain surgery. It involves
removing part of the skull, or
cranium, to access the brain. The
bone is replaced when the surgery
is done.

In general, a craniotomy is
done to remove brain tumors and
treat aneurysms.

Electroencrphalograms (EEGs)

This is a way of recording the electrical activity of the brain (it doesn’t hurt, and it
isn’t dangerous). Electrodes are attached to the scalp and brain waves can be traced.
EEGs have been used to study sleep, and it has been found that during a typical night’s
sleep, we go through a series of stages marked by different patterns of brain wave.
Brain Scans

More recently methods of studying the brain

have been developed using various types of scanning
equipment hooked up to powerful computers.

The CT or CAT scan (Computerised Axial

Tomography) is a moving X-ray beam which takes
“pictures” from different angles around the head and
can be used to build up a 3-dimensional image of
which areas of the brain are damaged.

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Even more sophisticated is the

PET scan (Positron Emission
Tomography) which uses a radioactive
marker as a way of studying the brain at
work. The procedure is based on the
principle that the brain requires energy
to function and that the regions more
involved in the performance of a task
will use up more energy. What the scan,
therefore, enables researchers to do is to
provide ongoing pictures of the brain as
it engages in mental activity.

These (and other) methods for producing images of brain structure and
functioning have been extensively used to study language and PET scans, in particular, are
producing evidence that suggests that the Wernicke-Gerschwind model may not after all
be the answer to the question of how language is possible.

Psychology Research Ethics

Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research.
We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. However
important the issue under investigation psychologists need to remember that they have a
duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants. This means that they must
abide by certain moral principles and rules of conduct.

The code of ethics for research are published by the Psychological Association of the
Philippines taken into consideration the standards set by the American Psychological
Association. The purpose of these codes of conduct is to protect research participants, the
reputation of psychology, and psychologists themselves.

Studies must now undergo an extensive review by an institutional review board in

the case of university researches, we need to secure research ethics clearance first to
proceed to our data gathering from the office of the Institutional Ethics Review Committee.
This Committee review proposals assess if the potential benefits of the research are
justifiable in the light of the possible risk of physical or psychological harm. The committee
may request researchers make changes to the study's design or procedure, or in extreme
cases deny approval of the study altogether. Some of the more important ethical issues are
as follows:

Informed Consent

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Whenever possible
investigators should obtain the consent of participants. In practice, this means it is not
sufficient to simply get potential participants to say “Yes”. They also need to know what it
is that they are agreeing to. In other words, the psychologist should, so far as is practicable
explain what is involved in advance and obtain the informed consent of participants.

Before the study begins the researcher must outline to the participants what the
research is about, and then ask their consent (i.e. permission) to take part. An adult (18ys +)
capable of giving permission to participate in a study can provide consent. Parents/legal
guardians of minors can also provide consent to allow their children to participate in a
study.

Participants must be given information relating to:

 A statement that participation is voluntary and that refusal to participate will not result
in any consequences or any loss of benefits that the person is otherwise entitled to
receive.
 Purpose of the research.
 All foreseeable risks and discomforts to the participant (if there are any). These include
not only physical injury but also possible psychological.
 Procedures involved in the research.
 Benefits of the research to society and possibly to the individual human subject.
 Length of time the subject is expected to participate.
 Person to contact for answers to questions or in the event of injury or emergency.
 Subjects' right to confidentiality and the right to withdraw from the study at any time
without any consequences.

In order that consent be ‘informed’, consent forms may need to be accompanied by an

information sheet for participants setting out information about the proposed study (in lay
terms) along with details about the investigators and how they can be contacted.

Debrief

After the research is over the participant

should be able to discuss the procedure and the
findings with the psychologist.   They must be
given a general idea of what the researcher was
investigating and why, and their part in the
research should be explained.

Participants must be told if they have been

deceived and given reasons why. They must be
asked if they have any questions and those
questions should be answered honestly and as
fully as possible.

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Debriefing should take place as soon as possible and be as full as possible;

experimenters should take reasonable steps to ensure that participants understand
debriefing.

“The purpose of debriefing is to remove any misconceptions and anxieties that the
participants have about the research and to leave them with a sense of dignity, knowledge,
and a perception of time not wasted” (Harris, 1998).

The aim of the debriefing is not just to provide information, but to help the
participant leave the experimental situation in a similar frame of mind as when he/she
entered it (Aronson, 1988).

Protection of Participants

Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will not be caused
distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means you must not
embarrass, frighten, offend or harm participants.

Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life, i.e. participants
should not be exposed to risks greater than or additional to those encountered in their
normal lifestyles.

The researcher must also ensure that if vulnerable groups are to be used (elderly,
disabled, children, etc.), they must receive special care. For example, if studying children,
make sure their participation is brief as they get tired easily and have a limited attention
span.
Researchers are not always accurately able to predict the risks of taking part in a
study and in some cases, a therapeutic debriefing may be necessary if participants have
become disturbed during the research (as happened to some participants in Zimbardo’s
prisoners/guards study).

Deception

This is where participants are misled or wrongly informed about the aims of the
research. Types of deception include (i) deliberate misleading, e.g. using confederates,
staged manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions; (ii) deception by omission,
e.g., failure to disclose full information about the study, or creating ambiguity.

For example, in Milgram’s study of obedience, the participants thought they there
giving electric shocks to a learner when they answered a question wrong. In reality, no
shocks were given and the learners were confederates of Milgram. This is sometimes
necessary in order to avoid demand characteristics (i.e. the clues in an experiment which
lead participants to think they know what the researcher is looking for).

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Another common example is when a stooge or confederate of the experimenter is

used (this was the case in both the experiments carried out by Asch). However, participants
must be deceived as little as possible, and any deception must not cause distress.  
Researchers can determine whether participants are likely to be distressed when deception
is disclosed, by consulting culturally relevant groups.

If the participant is likely to object or be distressed once they discover the true
nature of the research at debriefing, then the study is unacceptable. If you have gained
participants’ informed consent by deception, then they will have agreed to take part
without actually knowing what they were consenting to.  The true nature of the research
should be revealed at the earliest possible opportunity, or at least during debriefing.
Some researchers argue that deception can never be justified and object to this
practice as it (i) violates an individual’s right to choose to participate; (ii) is a questionable
basis on which to build a discipline; and (iii) leads to distrust of psychology in the
community.

Confidentiality

Participants, and the data gained from them must be

kept anonymous unless they give their full consent.  No names
must be used in a lab report. What do we do if we find out
something which should be disclosed (e.g. criminal act)?

Researchers have no legal obligation to disclose criminal

acts and have to determine which is the most important
consideration: their duty to the participant vs. duty to the wider
community. Ultimately, decisions to disclose information will
have to be set in the context of the aims of the research.
Withdrawal from an Investigation

Participants should be able to leave a study at any time if they feel uncomfortable.
They should also be allowed to withdraw their data. They should be told at the start of the
study that they have the right to withdraw.

They should not have pressure placed upon them to continue if they do not want to
(a guideline flouted in Milgram’s research). Participants may feel they shouldn’t withdraw
as this may ‘spoil’ the study. Many participants are paid or receive course credits, they may
worry they won’t get this if they withdraw Even at the end of the study the participant has
a final opportunity to withdraw the data they have provided for the research.

Exercise No. 3 From the above ethical considerations, which of these are the most violated in
the conduct of psychological studies? Look for at least 3
studies online that have the same ethical issues that you
have chosen. If you will the researcher, how are you
going to modify the procedure to make it more ethical?
Justify your choices.

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1.3 References

Carlson, Neil R and Melissa A Birkett (2016). Physiology of behavior. Pearson.

Freberg, Laura A (2010). Discovering Biological Psychology, Cengage Learning, Singapore.,
Second Edition
Kalat, J. (2015). Biological psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. IBSN:
9781337408202
McLeod, S. A. (2015, January 14). Psychology research ethics. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Ethics.htm

1.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken
from the references cited above and google.com.

Quiz No. 1. Overview of Physio/Bio Psychology Date: _______________

Name___________________________________ Course, Year &

Section____________________

A. Multiple-choice Test. Please select the best answer by encircling the letter that best
describes every item.

___1. Of the following, which one is an example of an evolutionary explanation (as

opposed to a functional explanation)?
A. People evolved a fear of snakes because many snakes are dangerous.
B. Humans have a (tiny) tailbone because our ancient monkey-like ancestors had a tail.
C. People evolved an ability to recognize faces because that ability is essential for
cooperative social behaviors.
D. People evolved a tendency to form long-term male– female bonds because human
infants benefit from the help of two parents during their long period of dependence.

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___2. Of the following, which is a reason favoring the use of animals in biological
psychology research aimed at solving human problems?
A. Nonhuman animals engage in all the same behaviors as humans.
B. One human differs from another, but nonhumans are nearly the same as one another.
C. The nervous system of nonhuman animals resembles that of humans in many ways.
D. All of the above

__3. What does a “minimalist” favor with regard to animal research?

A. All research should have a minimum of at least 10 animals per group.
B. A minimum of three people should review each research proposal.
C. Interference with animal research should be held to a minimum.
D. Animal research is permissible but should be held to a minimum.

__4. Charles Sherrington in 1936, coins this term and wins Nobel Prize.
A. Evolution B. Neuron
C. Synapse D. Neurotransmission

__5. Aside from existing mental illness, what is another common way that biopsychology is
encountered by people?
A. animal studies B. advertising
C. injury D. all of these are correct

__6. Which of the following uses radioactive marker as a way of studying the brain at
work.?
A. EEG B. MRI C. PET scan d. CT scan7.

__7.  Why are ethical issues important in research?

A. They will help me pass the assignment
B. They indicate what the researcher ought to do and how they should treat people
C. They help the researcher write up their research
D. They indicate that all people are very sensitive

__8. What is an ethics committee?

A. People who like to talk a lot
B. A group of people who think about hypothetical research
C. A group of experienced people who will consider a research proposal and the degree to
which ethical issues have been considered appropriately

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D. A group of experienced people who are useful to draw on when writing a proposal as
an optional extra

__9. What is meant by ‘informed consent’?

A. Telling people who you are and what you are studying
B. The ethics committee is informed about the research
C. Participants are given a clear indication what the research is about and what their
involvement would entail
D. Participants are informed about the findings of the research at the end of the project

__10. Which of the following is a form of harm that might be suffered by research
participants?

A. Physical injury B. Stress and anxiety

C. Impaired development D. All of the above

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