IC Engine Classifications and Types

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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS - MVJ19ME42

MODULE 3 : INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Prepared by : Dr. Vivekanand Huddar
Approved by AICTE |Affiliated to VTU | Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B) status |Accredited by NBA and NAAC 1
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES:
1. Classification of IC engines
2. Combustion of SI engine and CI engine
3. Detonation and factors affecting detonation
4. Performance analysis of I.C Engines
5. Heat balance
6. Morse test, & Willian’s line method
7. (Numerical problems on Heat balance sheet and Morse test only)
HISTORY
• In 1698, Thomas Savery (c. 1650-1715), a British military engineer, built the "Miner's Friend," a
device that used steam pressure to pump water out of flooded mines.
• A few years later, Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) would expand upon Savery's design and create
the first true engine.
• Newcomen's engine, unlike both Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) and Savery's, used a piston that
was attached to the engine itself.
• It could therefore produce continual (though hardly smooth) power.
• Three conditions present during the nineteenth century encouraged the development of the internal
combustion engine.
• The main condition was the demand for power presented by the Industrial Revolution.
• Second, physicists were beginning to understand the key concepts upon which the internal
combustion engine was built.
• Third, the fuel needed to power the engine was becoming more available
• Between 1700 and 1900 scientists developed the field of thermodynamics, which gave inventors the tools
to calculate the efficiency and power output of different types of engines.
• These calculations suggested that the internal combustion engine was potentially far more efficient than
the steam engine (which, in contrast, was an external combustion engine, meaning it ignites the fuel
outside of the engine itself).
• The most important event in the early history of the internal combustion engine occurred in 1859 at the
hands of Belgian inventor Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822-1900).
• In 1862, Lenoir invented the world's first automobile.
• During the 1860s, Nikolaus Otto (1832-1891). Otto was a grocery salesman;
• he had no technical education or experience.
• Three methods were developed between 1885 and 1892: carburetion, hot bulb vaporization, and
the diesel engine.
• German engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) invented a process in which the gas ignites itself.
IMPORTANCE
• Physicists call the internal combustion engine a "prime mover," meaning it uses some form of energy
(e.g., gasoline) to move objects.
• The first reliable internal combustion engines were developed in the middle of the nineteenth century
and were almost immediately put to use for transportation.
• The development of the internal combustion engine helped to free men from the hardest manual labor,
made possible the airplane and other forms of transportation, and helped to revolutionize power
generation.
• By the turn of the century, internal combustion engines had become integral to Western life.
• Industrial plants throughout Europe and America used them extensively, and the gateway for the large-
scale automobile production of the 1900s opened.
• In the area of transportation, the gasoline internal combustion engine and its variants (primarily
the diesel engine) have been adapted for use in travel by sea, land, and air.
• The diesel engine is an outgrowth of the internal combustion engine.
• Diesel engines are powerful, require less maintenance, and use less highly refined fuel than gasoline
engines.
APPLICATIONS
Internal Combustion (IC) Engine
Type Application
Gasoline Engines Automotive, Marine, Aircraft
Gas Engines Industrial Power
Diesel Engines Automotive, Railways, Power, Marine
Gas Turbines Power, Aircraft, Industrial, Marine
INTRODUCTION OR BRIDGING
Heat engine:
A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and uses this
energy to produce mechanical work. It is classified into two types-
(a) External combustion engine
(b) Internal combustion engine
External combustion engine:
In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to a second fluid which is the
working fluid of the cycle.
Examples:
• In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam
which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating type engine) or a turbine (rotary type engine) for useful
work.
• In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an external furnace is transferred to gas, usually
air which is the working fluid of the cycle.
EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1. IC ENGINES - CLASSIFICATION
In this engine, the combustion of air and fuels take place inside the cylinder and are used as the direct
motive force.
It can be classified into the following types:
1. According to the basic engine design - (a) Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston arrangement),
(b) Rotary engine (Use of turbine)
2. According to the type of fuel used - (a) Petrol engine, (b) Diesel engine, (c) Gas engine (CNG, LPG),
(d) Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle - (a) Four stroke and (b) Two stroke engine
4. According to the method of igniting the fuel - (a) Spark ignition engine, (b) Compression ignition
engine and (c) hot spot ignition engine
5. According to the working cycle - (a) Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine, (b) Diesel cycle
(constant pressure cycle) engine, (c) Dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine.
6. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation - (a) Carburetted type (fuel supplied through
the carburettor), (b) Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold, fuel injected into the
cylinder just before ignition).
7. According to the number of cylinder - (a) Single cylinder and (b) multi-cylinder engine
8. Method of cooling - Water cooled or air cooled
9. Speed of the engine - Slow speed, medium speed and high speed engine
10.Cylinder arrangement -Vertical, horizontal, inline, V-type, radial, opposed cylinder or piston engines.
11.Valve or port design and location - Overhead (I head), side valve (L head); in two stroke engines:
cross scavenging, loop scavenging, uniflow scavenging.
12.Method of governing - Hit and miss governed engines, quantitatively governed engines and
qualitatively governed engine
13.Application - Automotive engines for land transport, marine engines for propulsion of ships, aircraft
engines for aircraft propulsion, industrial engines, prime movers for electrical generators.
1. CLASSIFICATIONOF IC ENGINES
IC Engines are classified into,

(1) Cycle of operation (No of Strokes per cycle)
• Two Stroke cycle Engines
• Four Stroke Cycle Engines
(2) Thermodynamic Cycle or Method of Heat addition:
• Otto Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant volume)
• Diesel Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant Pressure)
• Semi Diesel Engines (Dual Combustion Engines)
(3) Types of Fuel Used : (6) Valves Location :
• Petrol Engines •L head (Side valve) engine
• Diesel Engines •T Head (Side valve) engine
• Gas Engines • I head (over head valve) engine
(4) Ignition Method : •F head (over head inlet and side exhaust) engine
• Spark Ignition (SI)
• Compression Ignition (CI)
(5) Cooling System:

•Air cooled Engines
•Water Cooled Engines
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
Spark ignition engine (SI engine)
An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is started by use of an external spark.
Compression ignition engine (CI engine)
An engine in which the combustion process starts when the air-fuel mixture self ignites due to high
temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression.
[Spark ignition and Compression Ignition engine operate on either a four stroke cycle or a two
stroke cycle]
ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
I.C ENGINE TERMINOLGOGY
The standard terms used in I.C Engines

are
1. Bore: Inside diameter of the cylinder is
termed as Bore.
2. Top Dead Center (TDC): The extreme
position reached by the piston at the top of
the cylinder in the vertical engine is called
Top Dead center.
3. Bottom Dead Center (BDC): The
extreme position reached by the piston at the
Bottom of the cylinder in the vertical engine
is called Bottom Dead center.
4. Stroke: The nominal distance travelled by the piston in
the cylinder between the extreme upper and lower
positions of the piston (TDC&BDC) is termed as stroke.
5. Compression ratio (r): It is the ratio of Maximum
cylinder volume to the Clearance volume.
6. Cylinder volume (v): It is the sum of swept volume
and the Clearance volume V = Vs + Vc
7. Swept volume (Vs): It is the volume of space generated

by the movement of piston from one dead center to another
dead center.
8. Clearance Volume( Vc): It is the space in the cylinder,
when the piston is at Top Dead Center
Main Components of IC Engines
Cylinder Block:
• It is the main block of the engine.
• It contains cylinders accurately finished to accommodate
pistons
• The cylinder block houses crank, camshaft, piston and other
engine parts. Cylinder block of motor
• In water cooled engines, the cylinder block is provided with
water jackets for the circulating cooling water.
• The materials used for cylinder are grey cast iron,
aluminium alloys etc.,
• It is usually made of a single casting
Cylinder block of cycle Car
Cylinder Head:
•The cylinder head is bolted to the cylinder Block by means of
studs.
•The water jackets are provided for cooling water circulation.
•The materials used for cylinder head are cast iron, aluminium alloy
etc.,
•This is also generally made of single cast iron.
Camshaft:
• Camshaft contains number of cams.
• It is used to convert rotary motion into linear or straight line
motion.
• It has so many cams as the number of valves in an engine.
• An additional cam is also provided to drive the fuel pump.
• A gear is provided in the cam shaft to drive the distributor or oil
pump.
• The opening and closing of the engine valves are controlled by
the cams provided on the cam shaft.
Cylinder Liners:
The liner is a sleeve which is fitted into the
cylinder bore.
It provides wear resisting surface for the
cylinder bores.
Liners are classified into
(a) Wet liner (b) Dry liner
Crankcase :
It may be cast integral with the cylinder
block.
Some times, it is cast separately
and then attached to the block.
These materials are used for crank case are cast iron,
aluminium alloys or alloy steels.
Oil pan or oil sump:
Oil sump is the bottom part of the engine. It contains
lubricating oil.
A drain plug is provided the oil sump to drain out the oil.
It is made of the pressed sheet.
Piston :
The piston serves the following purposes
• It acts as a movable gas tight seal to keep the gases
inside the cylinder
•It transmits the force of explosion in the cylinder to the
crankshaft through the connecting rod.
•Some of the materials used for piston are cast iron,
aluminium alloy, chrome nickel alloy, nickel iron alloy
and cast steel.
Piston rings :
Piston rings are inserted in the grooves provided in the
piston. Two types of piston rings are used in the piston.
1. Compression rings
2. Oil rings or oil control rings
Crank Shaft :
• It is the main rotating shaft of the engine.
• Power is obtained from the crank shaft.
• The crank shaft is combination with connecting rod
converts reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary
motion.
• The crank shaft is held in position by the main bearings.
• There are two main bearings to support the crank shaft.
• The materials used for crank shaft are billet steel, carbon
steel, nickel chrome and other heat treated alloy steels.
2. COMBUSTION OF SI ENGINE
• In a conventional SI engine, fuel and air are mixed
together in the intake system, inducted through the
intake valve into the cylinder where mixing with
residual gas takes place, and then compressed during
the compression stroke.
• Under normal operating conditions, combustion is
initiated towards the end of compression stroke at the
spark plug by an electric discharge.
• Following inflammation, a turbulent flame develops,
propagates through the premixed air-fuel mixture
(and burned gas mixture from the previous cycle)
until it reaches combustion chamber walls, then it
extinguishes.
Cylinder Pressure
Stages of combustion in SI engine:
On the basis of Recardo experiment, there are three stages of combustion in SI engine as given below:
1.Preparation phase 2. Flame propagation phase 3. After burning
1. Preparation Phase
The preparation phase is also called a period of ignition lag.
This is the first stage in the combustion stages in SI engines.
According to the experiment, there is some time interval between the first spark given to the mixture (at
point A) and the first flame appears out of the mixture.
This time interval is known as ignition lag and it is represented on the above map as period AB. Due to
this combustion, there is a clear rise in cylinder pressure.
• This ignition lag represents the preflame reaction. According to the chain reaction theory of
combustion, in preflame reactions chain carriers are produced.
• During the AB period, the angle changed by the crank between points A and B is known as the
ignition delay angle.
• This first phase or preparation phase in stages of combustion in SI engines depends upon the different
factors such as the temperature of fuel, pressure, molecular structure of fuel, density and air-fuel ratio
in the combustion chamber.
2. Flame Propagation Phase
• When the first flame appears after the spark at point B, this flame travels surrounding and burns the
fuel in different layers.
• This fuel burning rate and flame speed are noticeably low and there is a small but steady pressure rise
in the combustion chamber.
• This burning of air and fuel in the combustion chamber continues further and it causes a continuous
rise in pressure and temperature.
2. Flame Propagation Phase
• It releases heat energy in the combustion chamber which is transferred from burned to unburned
charge. The speed of flame propagation is becoming very high in the range of 15 to 35 m/s.
• Differentiating between the first and second phase i.e. Preparation phase and flame propagation phase
is quite a difficult task.
• But you can distinguish between these two phases by observing ( P – θ ) diagram given above. The
second phase i.e. flame propagation phase starts when the pressure in the combustion chamber starts
rising at point B and the phase ends when the highest pressure is achieved in the cylinder at point C on
( P – θ ) diagram.
• Curve BC on the diagram represents the rate of pressure rise.
• The rate of heat transfer to the cylinder walls is very low at the beginning of the flame propagation
phase. This stage is one the most important stage in the stages of combustion in SI engine.
3. After Burning
• We attained point C in the second stage of the combustion. But, it does not represent the completion of
the combustion of the mixture.
• Because of the continuous burning of the remaining fuels in the cylinder and reassociation of
dissociated gases in the combustion chamber.
• During the expansion stroke, the combustion of air and fuel mixture continues after point C.
• This phase is called after burning. After burning represents the third stage of combustion in SI engine
up to point D on ( P – θ ) diagram.
• During after burning phase, flame velocity reduces to a certain level. This was the last phase of the
stages of combustion in SI engine.
P – θ diagram
2. COMBUSTION OF CI ENGINE
2. COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINE
• Combustion is a process of the rapid chemical reaction between fuel and the air.
• This process results in the generation of heat and light.
• In IC Engine, there are different stages of combustion for different engines.
• In CI or compression ignition engine, in the compression stroke, only air is compressed at very high
pressure and temperature. The compression ratio used is in the range of 12 to 120.
• The temperature of the air becomes higher than the temperature of the fuel which is diesel in the CI
engine.
• Then diesel fuel is injected in the combustion chamber under very high pressure about 120 to 210 bar.
• The temperature of this fuel is around 20° to 35° before TDC (Top Dead Center).
Stages of Combustion in CI engine:
There are four different stages of combustion in CI engine where proper combustion of air and fuel takes
place as follows:
1. Ignition Delay Period

2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
4. After Burning
2.1 Ignition Delay Period
• At this first stage of combustion in the CI engine, the fuel from the injection system sprayed in the
combustion chamber in the form of a jet.
• Due to atomization and vaporization, this fuel disintegrates at the core which is surrounded by a spray
of air and fuel particles.
• In this vaporization process, the fuel gets heat from the compressed and hot surrounding air.
• It causes some pressure drop in the cylinder. You can see this pressure drop (curve AB) in the above
figure.
• After completion of the vaporization process, the preflame reaction of the mixture in the combustion
chamber starts.
• During the preflame reaction, pressure into the cylinder starts increasing with the release of energy at a
slow rate.
• This preflame reaction starts slowly and then speeds up until the ignition of the fuel takes place. You can
see this process at point C on the diagram.
2.2 Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
• This is the second stage of combustion in the CI engine.
• After the above-mentioned delay period is over, the air and fuel mixture will auto-ignite as they have
achieved their self-ignition temperature.
• The mixture of air and fuel in CI engines is heterogeneous unlike homogeneous in the SI engines.
• Due to this heterogeneous mixture, flames appear at more than one location where the concentration of
the mixture is high.
• When the flame formed the mixture in the other low concentration starts burning by the propagation of
flames or due to auto-ignition, because of the process of heat transfer.
• The accumulated fuel during the delay is now started burning at an extremely rapid rate. It causes a
rise in in-cylinder pressure and temperature. So, the higher the delay period, the higher would be the
rate of pressure rise.
• During this stage, you can’t control the amount of fuel burning, that’s why this period is called
a period of uncontrolled combustion. This period is represented by the curve CD in the above figure.
2.3 Period of Controlled Combustion
• When the accumulated fuel during the delay period completely burned in the period uncontrolled
combustion, the temperature and pressure of the mixture in the cylinder are so high that new injected fuel
from the nozzle will burn rapidly due to the presence of sufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber.
• That’s the reason we can control the rise of pressure into the cylinder by controlling the fuel injection rate.
Therefore, this period of combustion is called a period of controlled combustion.
2.4 After Burning
• This is the last stage out of the four stages of combustion in CI engine.
• Naturally, the combustion process is completed at the point when the maximum pressure is obtained in
the combustion chamber at point E as shown in the figure.
• Practically, the burning of the fuel in the combustion chamber remains to continue during the expansion
stroke. The main reason behind it is the reassociation of dissociated gases and unburnt fuel.
• Therefore, this last phase of combustion is called After Burning.
• These are the four different stages of combustion in CI engine.
IGNITION LAG OR DELAY
• Ignition lag or ignition delay in SI engines is the time interval between the passage of spark and the
ignition of the fuel-air mixture.
• The ignition delay in a diesel engine is defined as the time interval between the start of injection and the
start of combustion.
• This delay period consists of
1. (a) physical delay, wherein atomization, vaporization and mixing of air fuel occur and
2. (b) of chemical delay attributed to pre-combustion reactions.
• Ignition lag in terms of crank angle is 10ᵒ to 20ᵒ and in terms of seconds, 0.0015 second or so.
• Duration depends on the following factors: Fuel: Chemical nature of fuel High self-ignition temperature
of fuel longer the ignition lag.
• The longer ignition delay can be caused by a number of factors including: lower intake air temperature,
lower boost pressure due to turbocharger lag, lower combustion chamber wall temperature and more
advanced dynamic injection timing.
SELF IGNITION TEMPERATURE
The ignition temperature of a substance is the least temperature at which the substance starts combustion.
Substance Auto ignition Temp

Diesel or Jet A-1 210 °C
Gasoline (Petrol) 247–280 °C
Ethanol 365 °C
3a. DETONATION OR KNOCKING IN SI ENGINE
• In spark ignition engines (SI engines), at the end part of the gas, if flame speed and delay period are low
in the combustion chamber, produce detonation in SI engine.
• Detonation is identified as any spontaneous combustion occurring after the burning process.
• This uncontrolled process can start from anywhere within the chamber and is usually caused by high
cylinder temperatures and or pressure.
• Knock is due to rapid combustion of the end-gas ahead of the flame front. This cause high produces the
sharp metallic noise called knock.
Reason- 1- The fuel in your car has too low of an octane rating.
2- Carbon deposition on cylinder walls.
DETONATION OR KNOCKING IN SI ENGINE
3b. DETONATION OR KNOCKING IN CI ENGINE
• In the case of the CI engine, it was the first part of the gas which causes the Knocking in CI engine and
rough running of the engine.
• In CI engines, when fuel is injected in the combustion chamber and combustion occurs by the way of the
auto ignition system. When the period of injection of fuel is long, an excess amount of fuel starts to inject
in the combustion chamber. Then there is a large amount of fuel accumulate in the combustion chamber
due to longer injection of fuel or delay period.
• When there is uncontrolled combustion, the amount of fuel accumulated in the combustion chamber
suddenly explodes.
• It increases the rate of pressure rise in the combustion chamber and ultimately high pressure. This high
rate of pressure rise in the internal combustion engine is equivalent to a sudden increase in load on the
engine.
• Also high and increasing pressure of gases in the chamber affects the whole engine structure during the
pressure equalization process. Due to this, you will hear a thudding sound from the engine, the same sound
is called Knock or Knocking in CI engine.
• From the above explanation, we can conclude that the knocking in CI engines occurs if the delay period of
injection is longer than the usual condition.
DETONATION AND KNOCKING IN SI & CI ENGINES
HOW TO AVOID DETONATION AND KNOCKING IN SI & CI ENGINES
SN PARAMETERS SI ENGINE CI ENGINE
1 SELF IGNITION TEMP. HIGH LOW
2 IGNITION DELAY HIGH LOW
3 ENGINE SPEED HIGH LOW
4 ENGINE SIZE LESS HIGH
5 COMPRESSION RATIO LESS HIGH
6 INLET TEMP. LESS HIGH
7 INLET PRESSURE LESS HIGH
8 WALL TEMP. LESS HIGH
Causes of Detonation
1. Over-Advanced Ignition Timing
If Ignition Timing is too far advanced, the spark plug fires too soon. This causes the flame to end early. The
remaining fuel can detonate.
2. Lean Air/Fuel Mixture
A rich Air/Fuel Mixture runs cooler than a lean mixture. A lean mixture can get too hot and detonate.
3. Too Much Compression
Compression causes heat. If the air/fuel mixture is compressed too much, it can detonate.
4. Engine Overheating
Low coolant or a bad water pump can cause the engine to overheat. Too much heat can cause the air/fuel in
the chamber to detonate.
5. Low Octane Fuel
Octane Rating is a measure of "knock resistance". Switching to higher grade fuel can help a knocking
engine.
Effects of Detonation
• When detonation occurs, the fuel charge ignites quickly in an uncontrolled explosion, causing a
pounding or hammering force on the piston rather than a steady push.
• Moderate to severe detonation could be noticed as engine roughness, vibration or loss of power and
eventually engine damage.
(1) Noise – As intensity of detonation increases, the sound intensity increases & it is harmful.
(2) Mechanical damage – shock waves are so violent that it may cause mechanical damage like breaking
of piston. It increases the rate of wear erosion of piston.
(3) Pre-ignition – Due to local overheating of spark plug & this pre-ignition increases detonation.
(4) Power output & efficiency decreases - Power output & thermal efficiency decreases due to abnormal
combustion.
(5) Increase in heat transfer – Temperature of cylinder in detonating engine is higher than in non –
detonating engine, hence increases the heat transfer.
(6) Carbon deposits- Detonation results in increased carbon deposits.
Effect of Knocking
MCQs
1. In SI engine, ignition lag is reduced if the 4. What are the effects of knocking?
initial temperature and pressure are ______ a) increase in heat transfer
a) decreased b) decrease in power output and efficiency
b) increased c) preignition
c) constant d) all of the mentioned
d) none of the mentioned
5. The process of autoignition has nothing to
do towards engine knock.
2. What are the effects of knocking?
a) True
a) noise and roughness
b) False
b) mechanical damage
c) carbon deposits
d) all of the mentioned
6. Increase of pressure increases the self
3. Auto ignition refers to the initiation of ignition temperature and the induction period.
combustion without the necessity of a flame. a) True
a) True b) False
b) False
DYNAMOMETERS
A dynamometer or dyno can be defined as a device that

is used to measure torque and the rotational speed of a
machine.
This measured data can determine the brake power,
speed and other parameters of the rotating machine or
an engine.
A dyno, apart from measuring torque and power, can
also be used as a test-bed for different types of engine-
related activities such as calibration of engine
management controllers, deep investigation of
combustion behavior and tribology.
How It Works
• Dynamometers use a variety of devices to perform testing and take measurements. For example, many
dynamometers use small instruments made only of a transducer, strain gauge and display screen. These
devices turn torque force into an electrical signal that they can amplify, convert and display as a
measurement.
• Other dynos use motor testers, which work by using voltage and current probes bound to motor input wires
to connect the system to internal voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters.
• Motor testers may be used to determine direction, torque, voltage, power, current, cut-out speed and
efficiency.
• Still others use a non-contact speed sensor that can measure motor drive shaft speed and thereby ascertain its
number of rotations per minute.
TYPES OF DYNAMOMETERS
1) Absorption dynamometer
• Prony brake dynamometer

• Rope brake dynamometer
2) Transmission dynamometer
• Belt transmission dynamometer
• Epicyclic dynamometer
• Torsion dynamometer
Prony Brake Dynamometer
• It works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction.

• In this method of measuring horsepower is to attempt to stop the engine by means of a brake on the
flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake will support, as it tries to rotate with
the flywheel.
• In Prony Brake Dynamometer , when the Brake is to be put in operation , the long end of the lever is
loaded with suitable weights W and the nuts are tightened until the engine shaft runs at a constant speed
and the lever is in Horizontal Position.
• Under these conditions , the moment due to the weight W must balance the moment of the Frictional
Resistance between the Blocks and Pulleys .
Prony Brake Dynamometer
A simple type, known as the Prony brake is shown
in Fig. It consists of two blocks of wood, each of
which embraces rather less than one half of the
pulley rim. The two blocks can be drawn together
by means of bolts, cushioned by springs, so as to
increase the pressure on the pulley. One block
carries an arm to the end of which pull can be
applied by means of a dead weight or spring
balance. The friction torque on the pulley may be
increased until it balances the torque due to the
available power.
When the brake is clamped to the fly wheel, the frictional force F = (F/2 + F/2) at the brake shoes tends to
turn the brake with the flywheel. However, the knife edge on the beam rests on scales and prevents motion of
the brake. The force P, which is weighed by the scales, consists of the reaction produced by friction and a
portion of the weight of the brake, called the tare—unless there is a counterweight to balance the brake about
the centre line of the flywheel. To find the tare, support the brake on the edge at B and weigh the tare on the
scales. Thus the net force on the scales produced by the frictional moment is (P-tare).
Rope Brake Dynamometer
• It consists of a number of turns of rope wound around the rotating drum attached to the output shaft.
• One side of rope is connected to a spring balance and the other to a loading device.
• The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and the therefore require cooling.
• Rope brake is cheap and easily constructed.
• It is not very accurate because of changes in the friction coefficient of the rope with temperature
• The upper end of the ropes is attached to a spring balance while the lower end is kept in position by
applying a dead weight. In order to prevent the slipping of the ropes over the flywheel, wooden blocks are
placed at intervals around the circumference of the flywheel.
• During operation of the brake, the prime mover is made to run at constant speed.
The Rope-brake Dynamometer:
Figure shows a rope brake dynamometer. In this brake
two or more ropes rest on the rim of a pulley. They are
spaced evenly across the width of the rim by means of
wooden blocks positioned at different points round the
rim. The total pull on the slack ends of the ropes is
registered on a spring balance, while the pull on the tight
end is provided by dead weights. Friction torque on the
pulley may be increased by increasing the dead load by
addition of weights.
When the speed of the engine is constant, the friction
Torque counterbalances the torque due to available power
of the engine.
Mechanical Efficiency:
We have seen above that the brake power
BP is less than the indicated power IP
because of the power lost in friction
between the various parts of the engine. The
power lost in friction is called Friction
Power (FP).
The ratio of the power available at the
engine crankshaft to the power developed in
the cylinder is known as the Mechanical
efficiency of the engine.
Thus we see that the aim of the designer is to reduce the friction power of the engine as far as possible.
TRANSMISSION DYNAMOMETERS
• In these dynamometers, the energy is used for doing work.
• The power developed by the prime mover is transmitted through the dynamometers to some other
machine where the power is suitably measured.
This type of dynamometer can be classified as follows:
1. Belt Transmission Dynamometer
2. Epicyclic Train Dynamometer
3. Torsion Dynamometer
Belt Transmission Dynamometer
• A belt transmission dynamometer consists of driving pulley, rigidly fixed to the shaft of the prime mover.
There is another driven pulley mounted on another shaft, to which the power from pulley is transmitted.
• The pulleys are connected by means of a continuous belt passing round the two loose pulleys, which are
mounted on the lever. The lever carries a dead weight at the one end, and a balancing weight is attached
at the other end.
Epicyclic Train Dynamometer :
• Epicyclic train dynamometer which measures power while it is being transmitted from driving to the
driven shaft.
• It consist of simple epicyclic gear train.
• The pinion is free to rotate on a pin fixed to the lever arm.
• The lever is pivoted about common axis of the driving and driven shaft.
• When the dynamometer is in operation, two tangential forces acts at the end of pinion.
Epicyclical train dynamometer:
• In an epicyclical train dynamometer, between the prime mover and driven, an epicycle gear train is
placed to measure the power transmitted.
• A spur gear is a key to the engine shaft which rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.
• Moreover, an angular gear is keyed to the engine shaft and rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.
• In this type of dynamometer, pulleys are linked to the belt passing through two pulleys that are placed
on a lever.
• This lever carries dead weight at one end and balancing weight at another end.
Torsion Dynamometer
• When power is transmitted along a shaft, the driving end twists through a small angle relative to the
driven end.
• Torque transmitted is directly proportional to the angle of twist.
• Therefore, a torsion dynamometer works on the principle of angle of twist.
• A torsion dynamometer is used to measure large power developed by a turbine or marine engines.
• A large number of torsion dynamometers are used to measure the angle of twist.
Torsion dynamometer:
• When the power is transmitted through the shaft, there is a twist near the driving end by a small angle
relative to the other end.
• In such a case, a torsion dynamometer is used that measures the power and angle of twist in the shaft.
Type # 3. Eddy Current Dynamometer:
One of the oldest forms of dynamometers is the eddy-current dynamometer. The simplest form consists of a
disc which, driven by the engine under test, turns in magnetic field. The strength of the field is controlled by
varying the current through a series of coils located on both sides of the disc. The revolving disc acts as a
conductor cutting the magnetic field. Currents are induced in the disc and, since no external circuit exists, the
induced currents heat the disc. For larger power absorptions, the heating of the disc becomes excessive and
difficult to control.
• In this device the eddy currents are induced in the stator for ease of cooling. A stator or a housing a is supported on
trunnion bearings b so that any tendency of the stator to rotate is read on the fixed scale c. Inside the stator is rotor d,
keyed to the shaft e and provided with the f not shown passing close to the smooth face of the stator. When the rotor is
turned, the flux enters the rotor principally through the ends of the teeth.
• As these teeth move, the lines of magnetic flux are caused to sweep through the iron of the stator: the flux induces eddy
currents in the stator and tends to rotate the stator in the same direction as the shaft. Coil g when energized with direct
current, magnetizes the stator and rotor, with flux lines encircling the coil. The temperature rise of the stator is controlled
by the flow of water in channels h. The generator i supplies supplementary excitation for the field coils. If this unit is
used, it can cause a steep change in excitation as the engine speed increases, thereby tending to hold the speed constant.
Type # 6. Hydraulic Dynamometer:
The hydraulic dynamometer works on the principle of dissipating the power in the fluid friction rather
than in dry friction. In principle its construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel. It consists of an
inner rotating member or impeller coupled to the output shaft of the engine. This impeller rotates in a
casing filled with some hydraulic fluid. The outer casing, due to the centrifugal force developed, tends
to revolve with the impeller, but is resisted by a torque arm supporting the balance weight.
The frictional forces between the impeller and the fluid are
measured by the spring balance fitted on the casing. The heat
developed due to the dissipation of power is carries away by a
continuous supply of the working fluid, usually water. The outer
can be controlled by regulating the sluice gates which can be
moved in an out to partially or wholly abstract the flow of water
between impeller and the casing.
4. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF I.C ENGINES
The important performance parameters of I.C. engines are as follows:
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.

(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
(i) Specific Weight.
Indicated Power (IP) = Brake Power (BP) - Friction Power (FP)
INDICATE POWER
DEVELOPED INSIDE THE
ENGINE: IP
POWER AVAILABLE AT THE END OF
CRANK SHAFT: BP
FRICTION POWER: FP
Indicated Power
where
Power obtained at the cylinder.
Obtained from the indicator diagram ➢ Pi is the indicated mean effective pressure, in N/m
➢ L is the stroke length, in m
➢ A is the area of cross section of the piston, m2,
➢ N’ is the engine speed in rev/min,
➢ [=N’=N/2 for 4_S engine and N’=N for 2-S engine]
➢ n is the number of cylinders and
For 4-stroke engine-one cycle will be completed in two revolutions N’=N/2

For 2-stroke engine-one cycle will be completed in one revolutions N’=N
Mean Effective Pressure
The mean effective pressure is a quantity related to the operation of an reciprocating engine and is a valuable
measure of an engine's capacity to do work that is independent of engine displacement
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure or imep (pi) - it may be defined as the average pressure over a cycle in
the combustion chamber of the engine.
Pi = (Net work of cycle)/Swept Volume in N/m2 = P mep = Pm = Pi

also
Let, W = work per cycle in joule
P = power output in watt so
W = pmep Vd
pmep = mean effective pressure in pascal
Vd = displacement volume in cubic metre
nc = number of revolutions per cycle (for a 4-stroke engine nc = 2)
N = number of revolutions per second
T = torque in newton-metre Since P = TN2π
Mean Effective Pressure
is also obtained by engine indicator diagram as
Pm= Pmep = (s×a)/l = N/m2
Where:
a = actual Indicator diagram cm2
l = base width of the indicator diagram, cm
s = spring value or spring constant used for in indicator diagram,( N/m2 )/cm
Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) - Mean effective pressure calculated from brake torque
Brake Power MEASUREMENT OF B.P
1. Mechanical Dynamometer
I. Prony Brake
II. Rope Brake
BP = 2..N.T / 60 Watts
T = Torque = (W-S) De/2

W = Load on the Brake Drum in N
S = Spring Balance Reading in N
De = Effective Brake Drum Diameter = Drum Diameter(Db) + (2×Thickness of Rope)
BP can also be written as BP = (W-S) (Db +d).N / 60 in Watts
Π (Db+d) is circumference of the brake drum
2. Hydraulic Dynamometer
B.P=WN/K Watts
W =Weight measured on the dynamometer, N

K=Dynamometer constant (60*1000/2*pi*R) and
N=RPM of the engine.
3. Electric Dynamometer
• Eddy current Type Dynamometer
• Swinging Field Dynamometer
Friction Power
Friction power includes the frictional losses and the pumping losses. During suction and exhaust
strokes the piston must move against a gaseous pressure and power required to do this is called the
“pumping losses”.
The friction loss is made up of the energy loss due to friction between the piston and cylinder walls,
piston rings and cylinder walls, and between the crank shaft and camshaft and their bearings, as
well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as
water pump, ignition unit etc.
Following methods are used in the laboratory to measure friction
Willan’s Line Method:-
This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. In this method a graph of fuel
consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power (horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated on the
negative axis of brake power (see Fig).
The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction power of the engine at that speed.
As shown in the figure, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel consumption and brake
power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and this permits extrapolation.
Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal axis will be the work representing the
combined losses due to friction, pumping and as a whole is termed as the frictional loss of the engine.
Further when the engine does not develop power, i.e. brake power = 0, it consumes a certain amount of
fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been spent in overcoming the friction.
This method of measuring friction power will hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable
mainly for compression ignition engines.
The main draw back of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data between 5 and
40 % load towards the zero line of the fuel input.
The directional margin of error is rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear.
From the Measurement of Indicated Power and Brake Power:-
֍This is an ideal method by which friction power is obtained by computing the difference between
the indicated power and brake power.
֍The indicated power is obtained from an indicator diagram and brake power is obtained by a brake
dynamometer.
֍This method requires elaborate equipment to obtain accurate indicator diagrams at high speeds.
MORSE TEST
This method can be used only for multi – cylinder IC engines
The test consists of making, in turn, each cylinder of the engine inoperative and noting the reduction
in brake power developed.
In a petrol engine (gasoline engine), each cylinder is rendered inoperative by “shorting” the spark
plug of the cylinder to be made inoperative. In a Diesel engine, a particular cylinder is made
inoperative by cutting off the supply of fuel
It is assumed that pumping and friction are the same when the cylinder is inoperative as well as
during firing.
In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the brake power is measured.
Next, one cylinder is cut off by short circuiting the spark plug if it is a petrol engine or by cutting of
the fuel supply if it is a diesel engine. Since one of the cylinders is cut of from producing power, the
speed of the engine will change.
The engine speed is brought to its original value by reducing the load on the engine. This will
ensure that the frictional power is the same.
Total indicated power when all the cylinders are working

n
= ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + …………...+ ipn = ∑ ip j
j=1
n
We can write ∑ IPj = (BP)t + (FP)t ………………………………………..(1)
j= 1
Where IPj is the indicated power produced by j th cylinder, n is the number of cylinders,
(BP)t is the total brake power when all the cylinders are producing power and (FP)t is the total
frictional power for the entire engine.
If the first cylinder is cut – off, then it will not produce any power, but it will have frictional losses.
Then
n
we can write ∑ IPj = (BP)1 - (FP)t………………………………………..(2)
j=2
where (BP)1 = total brake power when cylinder 1 is cut - off and (FP)t = Total frictional power.
Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) we have the indicated power of the cut off cylinder. Thus
(IP)1 = (BP)t – (BP)1 ………………………………………..(3).
Similarly we can find the indicated power of all the cylinders, viz., ip2, ip3, …..ipk.
Then the total indicated power is calculated as
k
(IP)total = ∑ IPj ……………………………………….(4)
j=1
The frictional power of the engine is therefore given by
(FP)t = (IP)total – (BP)t
MORSE TEST
Morse Test is applicable to multi-cylinder engines. The engine is run at desired speed and output is
noted. Then one of the cylinders is cut out by short circuiting spark plug. Under this condition other
cylinders “motor” this cut cylinder. The output is measured by keeping speed constant to original
value. The difference in output is measure of the indicated power of cut-out cylinder. Thus for each
cylinder indicated power is obtained to find out total indicated power
Let, BP = Brake Power when all cylinders are in working condition.

BP1 = Brake Power when first cylinder cut-off.
BP2 = Brake Power when second cylinder cut-off.
BP3 = Brake Power when third cylinder cut-off.
IP = Indicated Power of Engine
IP1 = Indicated Power of first cylinder
IP2 = Indicated Power of second cylinder
IP3 = Indicated Power of third cylinder
FP1, FP2, FP3 = Friction power of each cylinder
When, All cylinders in working condition, IP = (IP1 + IP2 + IP3) ……………..(i)
BP = (IP1 + IP2 + IP3) – ( FP1+ FP2 + FP3 ) …………………………………….(ii)
First Cylinder Cut-off, BP1 = (IP2 + IP3) – ( FP1+ FP2 + FP3 ) …………….. (iii)
Where, ( FP1+ FP2 + FP3 ) in above both eqs.(ii)&(iii) remains almost constant at constant
speed. Subtracting Eq.(iii) from Eq.(ii), We get, Indicated Power of first cylinder,
IP1 = (BP - BP1) …………………………………………………………………….(iv)
Similarly, Indicated Power of second cylinder IP2 = (BP - BP2) .………………..(v)
Indicated Power of third cylinder IP3 = (BP - BP3) ..…………………………….(vi)
Putting the values of IP1, IP2, IP3¬ in eq.(i),we get,

IP = (BP - BP1) + (BP - BP2) + (BP - BP3) ………………………………….….…(vii)
Frictional Power, FP = ( IP – BP ) ………………………………………………(viii)
EFFICIENCIES
1.Indicated Thermal Efficiency (i) given by mf is the mass of fuel taken into the engine in kg/s
i = IP/(mf × CV) CV is the calorific value of the fuel in J/kg OR
mf in lit/sec and CV in kJ/lit
2.Brake Thermal Efficiency (b) given by mf in kg/sec and CV in kJ/kg or
b = BP/(mf × CV) mf in lit/sec and CV in kJ/lit
3.Indicated Relative Efficiency (i,r) given by  i,r = i/ASE

ASE is the efficiency of the corresponding air standard cycle
4.Brake Relative Efficiency (b,r) given by b,r = b/ASE
5.Mechanical Efficiency (m) given by m = BP/IP = Pb/Pi = b/i = b,r/I,r
Volumetric Efficiency
Indicates air capacity of a 4 stroke engine.
ήvol = Actual Air Admitted at intake condition / Theoretical Volume Available(Vs)
•Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree to which the engine fills
its swept volume.
•It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to
the mass of the air corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and
temperature.
•Alternatively, it can be defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke measured
at intake conditions to the swept volume of the piston.
m m-- is the mass flow rate of fresh mixture.

v = =
2m N-- is the engine speed in rev/unit time.
N
Vs  i  iVs N Vs --is the piston displacement (swept volume).
2 ρi---- is the inlet density.
Also Vs = ApL = s = 2LN
s
L is the piston stroke and s is the linear piston speed (m/s). N=
2L
2m 4m
v = =
s
Ap L a  a Ap s
2L
Specific Fuel Consumption

This is the fuel consumed per unit power.
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption bsfc = mf /BP kg/J
if BP is in W and mf is in kg/s.
bsfc is usually quoted in kg/kWh. This is possible if BP is in kW and mf is in kg/h.
Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption isfc = mf/IP kg/J

if IP is in W and mf is in kg/s, isfc is also usually quoted in kg/kWh.
This is possible if IP is in kW and mf is in kg/h.
Mechanical Efficiency in terms of the sfc values is given by m = isfc/bsfc
HEAT BALANCE SHEET
• The performance of an engine is generally given by a heat balance sheet.

• A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilized in various ways in the system.
• It provides necessary information concerning the performance of the engine.
• To draw a heat balance sheet for the I.C. engine, it is run at constant load and constant speed.
• The heat balance sheet is generally done on a second basis or a minute basis or an hourly basis.
• The quantity of fuel used in a given time and its calorific value, the amount, inlet, and outlet
temperature and mass of cooling water & exhaust gases are recorded.
• The engine should be equipped with a suitable loading arrangement to measure the brake power of the
engine.
• The Indicator diagram is drawn with the help of an indicator.
Use of Heat Balance Sheet :
1. To know an account of heat supplied and heat distributed in various ways in the system.
2. To analyses the performance of the engine.
Heat Balance Sheet Calculation :

• The heat balance is generally done on a second basis or a minute basis or an hourly basis.
• The heat supplied to the engine is only in the form of fuel-heat and that is given by
• Qs = mf × CV
• Where mf is the mass of fuel supplied per minute or per sec. and CV is the lower calorific value of the
fuel IN kJ/kg.
The various ways in which heat is used up in the system is given by
(a) Heat equivalent of BP
QBP = BP×60 kW = kJ/sec. or kJ/min
(b) Heat carried away by cooling water

Qw= Cpw × mw (Two – Twi) kJ/min.
Where,
• mw is the mass of cooling water in kg/min or kg/sec circulated through the cooling jacket
• (Two – Twi) is the rise in temperature of the water passing through the cooling jacket of the engine
• Cpw is the specific heat of water in kJ/kg-K.
(c) Heat carried away by exhaust gases
Qg= mg Cpg (Tge – Ta) (kJ/min.) or (kJ/sec)
Where,
• mg is the mass of exhaust gases in kg/min. or kg/sec and it is calculated by using one of the methods
already explained.
• Tg= Temperature of burnt gases coming out of the engine.
• Ta = Ambient Temperature.
• Cpg = Sp. The heat of exhaust gases in (kJ/kg-K)
(d) Unaccounted Heat Loss

• A part of the heat is lost by convection and radiation as well as due to the leakage of gases.
• Part of the power developed inside the engine is also used to run the accessories as a lubricating
pump, camshaft and water circulating pump.
• These cannot be measured precisely and so this is known as unaccounted ‘losses’.
Heat Balance Sheet
• The results of the above calculations are tabulated in a table and this table is known as “Heat Balance
Sheet”.
• It is generally practice to represent the heat distribution as percentage of heat supplied.
• This is also tabulated in the same heat balance sheet.
• This unaccounted heat energy is calculated by the difference between heat supplied Qs and the sum of
expenditures (a) + (b) (c).
Numerical Examples
An I.C. engine uses 6 kg fuel having calorific value 44000 kJ/kg. in one hour. The brake power developed is
18kW. The temperature of 11.5 kg of cooling water found to rise through 25 0C per minute. The temperature
of 4.2 kg of exhaust gas with specific heat 1 kJ/kg K was found to rise though 220 0C. Draw heat balance
sheet for the engine.
Given data :
Mass of Fuel mf = 6 kg/hr = 6/60 = 0.1 kg/min.
BP = 18 kW, CV = 44000 kJ/kg
Mass of cooling water m w = 11.5 kg/min Cpw = 4.187 kJ/kg K
Temp rise of cooling water Δtw= 25 0C
Mass of exhaust gas m eg = 4.2 kg/hr =4.2/60 kg/min = 0.07 kg/min
Temp rise of gas Δtg= 220 0C Cpg = 1 kJ/kg K
i) Heat equivalent in Fuel (QS ) = Mf × C V = 0.1 × 44000 = 4400 kJ/min
ii) Heat converted in B P (QBP ) = B P × 60 = 18 × 60 = 1080 kJ/min
iii) Heat carried by cooling water (Qw) = Mw × Cpw × Δtw

Qw = 11.5 × 4.187 × 25 = 1203.76 kJ/min
iv) Heat in Exhaust Gas (Qg )= mg × Cpg × Δtg

Qg = 0.7 × 1 × 220 = 154 kJ/min
v) Heat lost as Unaccounted (Qa) = Qf- (Qb+Qw+Qg)

Qun = 4400 – (1080+1203.76+154) = 1962.24 kJ/min
Heat Balance Sheet
Parameter Value % Parameter Value %

kJ/mi kJ/min
n
Heat equivalent in 4400 100 Heat converted in BP Q BP 1080 24.54
Fuel Qf
Hear carried away by cooling water Qw 1203 27.34
Heat in exhaust gas Qg 154 3.5
Heat lost as unaccounted Qun 1962.24 44.8
Qf 4400 100 Total 4400 100
1) In a four stroke diesel engine running 1500 rpm has crank angle of 5 deg Ignition delay period , 9
deg uncontrolled combustion and 6 deg controlled combustion and 4 deg after burning. What is the
time equivalent in sec for different phases of combustion
Ans : Four Stroke engine
Piston moving from BDC to TDC is equivalent to crank angle of 1800 TDC
Speed of the engine = 1500 rpm
= 1500 /60 = 25 rps
BDC
25 revolutions in 1 sec
1 revolution = 1/25 sec = 0.04 sec
360 deg = 0.04 sec
00
Ignition delay period = 5 deg = 5/360 × 0.04
= 5.55 X 10 -4 sec = 0.56 mSec
270 0 90 0
Uncontrolled combustion period = 9 deg = 9/360 ×
0.04 180 0
= 1 × 10 -3 sec = 1 mSec
Controlled combustion period = 6 deg = 6/360 × 0.04 = 6.67 X 10 -4 sec = 0.67 mSec
After burning period =4 deg = 4/360 × 0.04 = 4.44 X 10 -4 sec = 0.444 mSec
2) A four cylinder four stroke gasoline engine has a 65 mm diameter and 95 mm stroke. In a test, it
developed a torque of 64 Nm when running at 3000 rpm. If the clearance volume in each cylinder is
63 cm3, the brake efficiency ratio based on air standard efficiency is 0.5 and calorific value of
gasoline is 42 MJ kg, determine the fuel consumption in kg/hr and the bmep.
Ans : Number of cylinders n = 4 Four stroke – N’ = N/2
Bore diameter = 65 mm = 0.065 m Torque developed = 64 N-m

Stroke = 95 mm = 0.095 m Speed of the engine = 3000 rpm
2N 2 X  X 3000
Angular speed ω = = = 314.16 rad / sec
60 60
Clearance volume, V2 = 63 cm3 = 63 × 10-6 m3
Brake efficiency ratio based on air standard efficiency = 0.5
b
b,r = ∴ Break Thermal Efficiency ηb = ηb.r × ηASE
 ASE
 
Swept volume (V1-V2) = d 2L = X 0.0652 X 0.095 = 0.000315 m 3
4 4
= 315 cm3
V1 = 315 + 63 = 378.24 cm3
Compression ratio (rk) = V1/V2 = 378.24 / 63 = 6.0038
1 1
Air standard efficiency η ASE = 1− = 1− = 0.51176
rk −1 6 0.4
Brake thermal efficiency , b = 0.5 × 0.51176 = 0.256
BP
b = 1
m f X CV
Brake Power = Toque × Angular speed
Brake Power = ω × T = 314.16 × 64 = 20106 J
From equation 1
0.256 = 20106 / (mf × 42 × 106)

mf = 0.0018699 kg/sec = 6.732 kg/hr
Fuel Consumption = 6.732 kg/hr
Brake work output per cylinder = BMEP × Swept volume × Speed (rps) × Factor for number of strokes
20106 = BMEP × 0.000315 × 3000 × ½

4 60
BMEP = 637807 N/m2 = 6.37 bars
3) A four cylinder two stroke cycle petrol engine develops 30 kW at 2500 rpm. The mean effective
pressure of each is 800 kN m2 and mechanical efficiency is 80%. Calculate the diameter and stroke of
each cylinder if the stroke to bore ratio is 1.5. Also calculate the brake specific fuel consumption of
the engine, if brake thermal efficiency is 28%. The heating value of petrol is 44 MJ / kg
Ans : Number of cylinders n = 4

Two stroke engine N’ = N
Power developed BP = 30 kW (Brake Power) To find; Diameter D
Speed of the engine N = 2500 rpm Stroke length L
Power developed by each cylinder = 30/4 = 7.5 kW
Mean effective pressure, MEP or Pm = 800 kN/m2
Mechanical efficiency ηm = 0.8
Indicated Power IP = Brake Power / Mechanical efficiency = 30 / 0.8 = 37.5 kW

Indicated Power per cylinder = 37.5 / 4 = 9.375 kW
Indicated Power = MEP × Swept Volume × Speed (rps) 1
Stroke to Bore ratio = L / D = 1.5
 
Swept Volume Vs = D L=
2
1.5 D 3
4 4
From equation 1
9.375 = 800 × π/4 × 1.5 × D3 × 2500 /60
D = 0.062 m = 6.2 cm
Stroke = 1.5 D = 9.305 cm
Brake thermal efficiency = 28 % = 0.28 = Brake Power / (mf × CV of fuel)
CV of fuel = 44 MJ/kg
Fuel consumption 1
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption( BSFC ) = =
Brake Power bthCV fuel
1X 3600 To convert into per hour
BSFC =
0.28 X 44 X 1000
To convert into kJ
BSFC = 0.292 kg/kW-hr
5) A 2 stroke diesel engine has following details : bore = 10cm, stroke = 15cm, piston speed = 300
m/min, Torque developed = 58 Nm, mechanical efficiency = 80%, indicated thermal efficiency = 40%,
calorific value of fuel = 44 MJ/ kg. Determine (a) indicated power, (b) indicated mean effective pressure,
and (c) fuel consumption per kWh on brake power output.
Ans : Two stroke engine N’ = N Length traveled by piston for each crank rotation = 2L
Stroke of the engine = L = 15 cm Length traveled in speed N = 2LN
2LN = 300 Torque developed = 58 N-m

N = 300 / (2 × 0.15) = 1000 rpm Brake Power BP = Torque × Angular speed
Angular speed = 2 × π × N / 60 = 2 × 3.1416 × 1000 / 60 = 104.72 rad/sec
Brake Power BP= 58 × 104.72 = 6073.74 J/sec = 6.073 kW

Mechanical Efficiency = Brake Power / Indicated Power
Indicated Power = 6.073 / 0.8 = 7.592 kW
Indicated Power = IMEP × Swept Volume × N
Swept Volume = π / 4 × 0.12 × 0.15 = 0.001178 m3
IMEP = [IP / (Vs × N/60)] = 7592 / (0.001178 × 1000/60) = 386666.7 N/m2 = 386.67 kN/m2
Mechanical Efficiency = Brake thermal efficiency / Indicated thermal efficiency

Break thermal efficiency = 0.8 × 0.4 = 0.32
Brake Power BP = Brake thermal efficiency × mf × CV of fuel

mf = 6.073 /(0.32 × 44 × 1000) = 0.00431 kg/sec = 1.553 kg/hr
Brake specific fuel consumption bsfc = 1.553 / 6.073 = 0.2557 kg/kWhr
6) Following observations are made for a 20 minute trial of a 2-stroke diesel engine:
Net brake load = 680N, mep = 3 bar, N = 360 rpm, Fuel consumption = 1.56 kg, Cooling water = 160
kg, Water inlet temperature = 32°C, Water outlet temperature = 57 0C, Air used/kg fuel = 30 kg, Room
temperature = 27°C, Exhaust gas temperature= 310°C, cylinder dimensions = 210-mm bore × 290-mm
stroke, Brake diameter = 1m, Calorific value of fuel = 44 MJ/kg, Steam formed per kg fuel in the
exhaust = 1.3 kg, specific heat of steam in the exhaust = 2.093 kJ/kg k. Specific heat of dry exhaust
gases =1.01 kJ/kg k.
Calculate the indicated power and the brake power, and make an energy balance of the engine
Ans : Brake Load = 680 N, Speed = 360 rpm
Mean Effective Pressure (Indicated) = 3 bar = 300 kN/m2

Indicated Power = IMEP × swept volume × Speed (rps)
Swept volume = π /4 × 0.212 × 0.29 = 0.010044 m3
Indicated power = 300 × 0.01044 × 360/60 = 18.08 kW
Brake power = Brake Load × Distance traveled by the piston in producing power
Torque × Angular speed /2 = 680 × 37.7/2 = 12817 J/sec = 12.817 kW
Energy Balance Calculations
Heat supplied in 20 min trial period = Mass of fuel consumed × Calorific Value of fuel
= 1.56 × 44 = 68.64 MJ
Heat carried by cooling water = Water consumption × Specific heat of water × (water temperature rise)
= 160 × 4.187 × (57 – 32)
= 16748 kJ = 16.748 MJ
Engine Exhaust consists of gases + steam Exhaust gase

fuel
Energy consumed while forming steam :
Steam formed in exhaust = 1.3 kg /kg of fuel Cooling water

= 1.3 × 1.56 = 2.028 kg
Heat pickup per kg of water from room temperature to 100 0C = Cp DT = 4.187 X (100 – 27) = 305.65 kJ/kg
Mass of water is same as mass of steam formed.
Heat pickup by water to become saturated liquid = 2.028 * 305.65 = 619.86 kJ
Latent heat of evaporation = 2257.6 kJ/kg at 1 bar pressure
Latent heat pickup = 2.028 X 2257.6 = 4578.4 kJ
Exhaust gas temperature = 300 0C
Specific heat of steam = 2.093 kJ/kgK
Heat pickup by steam while reaching 300 0C = 2.028 X 2.093 X (300 – 100) = 848.92 kJ
Total heat pickup while forming steam = 619.86 + 4578.4 + 848.92 = 6047.2 kJ
Energy of exhaust gases :
Air used per kg of fuel = 30 kg
Fuel used = 1.56 kg
Total exhaust gases = 30X1.56 + 1.56 = 48.36 kg
Specific heat of exhaust gases = 1.01 kJ/kg
Energy carried out by dry exhaust gases = 48.36 X 1.01 X (300 – 27) = 13334.3 kJ
Total energy carried by exhaust gases = 6047.2 + 13334.3 = 19381.5 kJ
Indicated Power = 21.696 MJ
Energy carried by cooling water = 16.75 MJ
Indicated Power produced = 18.08 kW = 18.08 kJ/sec
Energy carried by exhaust gases = 19.381 MJ
Indicated power in 20 min = 18.08 X 20 X 60 = 21696 kJ
Total Energy = 57.827 MJ
Energy released by fuel = 68.64 MJ
Unaccounted heat losses = 10.8 MJ
7) The following data was recorded during testing of a TWO STROKE gas engine:
Diameter of the piston d = 150 mm
Stroke length L= 180 mm
N’ = N
Clearance volume Vc = 0.89 liter n=1
RPM of the engine N = 300
Indicated mean effective pressure pm= 6.1 bars = 610 kJ
Gas consumption m. = 6.1 m3/h
Calorific value of the gas (fuel) CV = 17000 kJ/m3
Determine the followings:

1. Air Standard Efficiency
2. Indicated power (IP)developed by the engine
3. Indicated thermal efficiency of the engine
SOLUTION
Swept volume Vs = πd2L/4 = π(0.150)2 x 180/4 = 0.00318 m3

Clearance volume Vc= 0.00089 m3
Total volume VT = Swept volume + clearance volume = 0.00318 + 0.00089 = 0.00407 m3
Compression ratio r = Total volume/Clearance volume = 0.00407/0.00089 = 4.573
1) Air standard Efficiency η = 1 –1/(r)γ—1 = 1—1/(4.573)4—1 = 0.456 = 45.6 %
2) Indicated power IP = PmLANn/60 where P is in kJ

= 610 x 0.180 x [π(0.150)2/4] 300/60 = 9700 W
3) Indicated Thermal Efficiency
ηIP = Indicated power in (kJ/s)/Heat supplied in (kJ/s)
= (9700/1000)/(6.1 x 17000/3600) = 0.3367 = 33.67 %
8) Following data is available for a FOUR STROKE petrol engine
Air fuel ratio 15.5 : 1 Volumetric Efficiency: 80 %

Calorific value of fuel 16000 kJ/kg Stroke/bore ratio: 1.25
Air Standard Efficiency: 53 Suction pressure: 1 bar
Mechanical Efficiency: 80 % Suction Temperature: 270C
Indicated Thermal Efficiency: 37 % RPM: 2000
Brake Power: 72 kW
Calculate the followings:

•Brake specific fuel consumption
•Bore and stroke
SOLUTION
Find compression ratio from air standard efficiency
η = 1 –1/(r)γ—1
0.53 = 1 –1/(r)1.4—1
r = 6.6
IP = BP/Mech efficiency = 72/0.80 = 90 kW
ηIT =IP/(Sp.Fuel Consp x Cal value)
0.37 = 90/sfc x 16000
sfc is specific fuel consumption, sfc = 0.0152 kg/s
Brake sfc = sfcIP/BP = 0.0152/72=0.00021 kg/s /kW
Brake sfc = 0.7601 kg/kWh
Bore and stroke of the engine

Mass of air fuel mixture/kg of fuel = 15.5 +1 = 16.5
Mass of fuel supplied to the engine = 0.0152 x 16.5 = 0.2508
Volume of air fuel mixture = mRT/p=0.2508x 287×300/(1×105)
V = 0.2159 m3/s
Swept volume = volume of mixture supplied/vol efficiency
Vs = 0.2159/0.80= 0.2699
Vs=( πd2L/4) n x (rpm/2) /60
Where n is the number of cylinders
= (πd2 x 1.25 d/4)n rpm/120
d= 0.152 m= 152 mm
L = 190 mm
9) The following particulars refer to a 2 Stroke oil engine bore = 20 cm, stroke = 30 cm, speed = 350
rpm, IMEP. = 275 kN/m2, Net Brake Load = 610 N, Diameter of brake drum = 1 m, Oil consumption =
4.25 kg/h, Calorific value of fuel = 44 MJ/kg. Determine (a) IP, (b) BP, (c) Mech. efficiency (d)
Indicated thermal efficiency, and (e) Brake thermal efficiency.
Ans : 2 stroke – N’ = N Net break load W = 610 N
Engine bore, D = 0.2 m Break drun dia d = 1m
Piston area A = π /4 × 0.22 = 0.03146 m2 Oil consumption mf = 4.25 kg/h
Stroke , L = 0.03 m CV of fuel = 44 MJ/kg
Speed of the engine, N = 350 rpm
To find: IP, BP, ηm, ηi, ηb
Angular speed ω = 2 π N /60

= 2 × 3.1416 × 350 / 60
= 36.65 rad/sec
IMEP Pm = 275 kN/m2
Indicated Power = IMEP × Are of the piston × Stroke × Speed (rps)
= 275 × 0.03146 × 0.3 × 350/60 = 15.12 kW
Brake Power = Brake Load × Brake drum Radius × Angular speed

= 610 × 0.5 × 35.65 = 11178 J/sec = 11.178 kW

= 11.178 / 15.12 × 100 = 73.94 %
Heat energy released by the fuel = mass of the fuel consumed × Calorific value
Qs = mf × CV = 4.25 × 44 × 106 / 3600 = 51.944 kW
Indicated thermal efficiency = Indicated power / Energy released by the fuel

ηi = IP / (mf × CV) =15.12 / 51.944 × 100 = 29.1 %
Brake thermal efficiency = Brake power / Energy released by the fuel

ηb = BP / (mf × CV) = 11.178 / 51.944 × 100 = 21.52 %
10) 4 stroke 6 cylinder gas engine with a stroke volume of 1.75 litres develops 26.25 kW at 506 rpm.
The MEP is 600 kN/m2. Find the average number of times each cylinder misfired in one minute
Ans : Four stroke engine N’ = N/2
Number of cylinders = 6
Stroke volume, V1 – V2 = 1.75 ltrs = 1.75 × 10-3 m3
Power developed, P = 26.25 kW (Indicated Power)
Indicated power per cylinder = 26.25 / 6 = 4.375 kW
Indicated Power per cylinder per cycle = IMEP × Stroke Volume × Number of power strokes
= Pm LAN’n/60
= 600 × 1.75 × 10 -3 × 506 × 1/60 × 1 /2 = 4.43 kW
Number of firings per min = 506 /2 = 253 Actual power produced = 4.375 kw
For 253 firings power produced shall be 4.43 kW Number of misfirings = (1 - 4.375 / 4.43) × 253 = 3
11) An engine is used on a job requiring 110 kW brake power. The mechanical efficiency of the
engine is 80% and the engine used 50 kg/ h of fuel under the conditions of operation. A design
improvement is made which reduces the engine friction by 5 kW. Assuming that the indicated
thermal efficiency remains the same, how many kg of fuel per hour will be saved
Ans : Brake Power BP = 110 kW Indicated power = Brake Power / mechanical efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency ηm = 80% = 110 / 0.8 = 137.5 kW
Fuel consumption mf = 50 kg/hr Friction Power = 137.5 – 110 = 27.5 kW
Impact of Design Improvement : New Friction power = 27.5 - 5 = 22.5 kW

Friction power reduced by 5 kW New Indicated Power = 110 + 22.5 = 132.5 kW
50 kg/hr fuel required to produced indicated power of 137.5 kW

Fuel required to produce 132.5 kW = 132.5 /137.5 × 50 = 48.18 kg/hr
Amount of fuel savings = 50 – 48.18 = 1.82 kg/hr
12) During a trail of a four cylinder four stroke petrol engine coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer at constant
speed, the following readings were obtained
• B.P. with all cylinders operating = 14.7 kW

• B.P. with cylinder no. 1 cut out = 10.14 kW
• B.P. with cylinder no. 2 cut out =10.3 kW
• Fuel consumption mf= 5.5 kg / h
• Calorific value of fuel CV= 42 MJ / kg
• Diameter of cylinder D = 8 cm
• Stroke of piston L = 10 cm
• Clearance volume Vc= 0.1 litre
• Calculate (a) Mechanical efficiency and (b) Relative efficiency on indicated power basis.
Ans : From Morse Test
Indicated Power of Cylinder 1 = Brake Power with all cylinders ON - Brake Power with 1st cylinder cut off
= 14.7 - 10.14 = 4.56 kW
Indicated Power of Cylinder 2 = Brake Power with all cylinders ON - Brake Power with 2nd cylinder cut off
= 14.7 - 10.3 = 4.4 kW
Indicated Power of Cylinder 3 = Brake Power with all cylinders ON - Brake Power with 3rd cylinder cut off
= 14.7 - 10.36 = 4.34 kW
Indicated Power of Cylinder 4 = Brake Power with all cylinders ON - Brake Power with 4th cylinder cut off
= 14.7 - 10.21 = 4.49 kW
Total Indicated Power = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 = 4.56 + 4.4 + 4.34 + 4.49 = 17.79 kW
Mechanical Efficiency = Brake Power / Indicated Power = [14.7 / 17.79] 100 = 82.63 %
Clearance Volume, V2 = 0.1 ltre = 0.1 × 10-3 m3
Bore diameter, D = 8cm = 0 .08 m
Stroke Length, L = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Stroke Volume Vs =  /4 × D2 × L = 0.000503 m3
Volume before start of compression, V1 = V2 + Stroke volume
= 0.1 × 10-3 + 0.503 × 10-3 = 0.603 × 10-3
Compression ratio r = V1/V2 = 0.603 / 0.1 = 6.0265
1 1
Air standard efficiency = 1 − = 1− = 0.5125
rk −1 6 0.4
Energy released by fuel = mass of fuel × Calorific value = [5.5 / 3600] × 42 × 1000 = 64.167 kW
Indicated thermal efficiency = Indicated power / energy from fuel

= [17.79 / 64.167]100 = 27.72 %
Relative Efficiency on Indicated power basis = Indicated thermal efficiency / Air standard cycle efficiency
= 0.2772 / 0.5125 = 0.541
13) A four cylinder four stroke petrol engine of 82 mm bore, 130 mm stroke develops 28.35 kW
brake power while running at 1500 rpm and using a 20% rich mixture. If the volume of the air into
the cylinder when measured at 15.5 0C and 760 mm of mercury is 70% of the swept volume, the
theoretical air fuel ratio is 14.8, the heating value of petrol is 44 MJ / kg and the mechanical
efficiency of the engine is 90%. Find (a) indicated thermal efficiency, and (b) brake mean effective
pressure
Ans : Speed of the engine N = 1500 rpm

Bore diameter D = 82 mm = 0.082 m
Stroke L = 130 mm = 0.13 m
Brake Power developed BP = 28.35 kW
Mechanical efficiency ηm = 90%
Indicated power IP= Brake Power / mechanical efficiency = 28.35 / 0.9 = 31.5 kW
Air conditions are 15.5 0C and 760 mm Hg
Pressure = 1.01325 bar
Density of air = P/RT = 1.01325 × 100 / (0.287 × 288.5) = 1.2237 kg/m3
Brake Power = BMEP × Swept Volume × Number of Power stroked × Number of cylinders
Swept volume = /4 D2 L = /4 × 0.0822 × 0.13 = 0.000687 m3

⸫ BMEP = 28.35 / (0.000687 × 1500 /60 × 1/ 2 × 4 ) = 825.32 kN/m2
Volumetric efficiency ηv= 0.7
Air intake into the cylinder = Volumetric efficiency × Swept volume
= 0.7 × 0.000687 = 0.000481 m3
Mass of the air intake = Density × volume
= 1.2237 × 0.000481 = 5.8861 × 10-4 kg / stroke
Number of air intakes per sec = N / (2 × 60) × number of cylinders
= [1500 /120] × 4 = 50
Mass of air intake per sec ma = 50 × 5.8861 × 10-4 = 0.02943 kg/sec
Theoretical air fuel ratio (A/F) = 14.8
Actual A/F = 20 % rich mixture = 14.8 /1.2 = 12.33
Mass of the fuel mf = 0.02943 / 12.33 = 2.38706 × 10-3 kg/sec
Energy released by the fuel = fuel consumption × calorific value

= 2.38706 × 10-3 × 44 × 106 = 105 kW
Indicated thermal efficiency = Indicated Power / Energy released by fuel
= 31.5 / 105 = 0.3 = 30%
14)A six cylinder four stroke S.I. engine develops 40 kW. During a Morse test conducted on the engine at
2000 rpm, the power output with each cylinder made inoperative turn by turn was 32.2, 32.0, 32.5, 32.4,
32.1 and 32.3 kW respectively. Estimate the mechanical efficiency, bmep, air standard efficiency when
the bore = 100 mm, stroke = 125 mm, clearance volume = 1.23 × 10−4m3, the brake thermal efficiency
when fuel consumption is 9 kg / h and the heating value is 40 MJ/ kg, and the relative efficiency
Ans : Number of cylinders n = 6

Swept volume Vs = /4 × D2 L
Four stroke SI engine N’ = N/2
= /4 × 0.12 × 0.125 = 0.000982 m3
Power developed BP = 40 kW
Speed of the engine N = 2000 rpm
Bore diameter D = 0.1 m
Stroke L = 0.125 m
From the Morse Test
Indicated Power of Cylinder 1 = Brake Power with all cylinders ON - Brake Power with 1st cylinder cut off
= 40 - 32.2 = 7.8 kW
Indicated Power of Cylinder 2 = Brake Power with all cylinders ON - Brake Power with 2nd cylinder cut off
= 40 - 32.0 = 8.0 kW
Indicated Power of Cylinder 3 = Brake Power with all cylinders ON - Brake Power with 3rd cylinder cut off
= 40 - 32.5 = 7.5 kW
= 40 - 32.4 = 7.6 kW
= 40 - 32.1 = 7.9 kW
= 40 - 32.3 = 7.7 kW
Total Indicated Power = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 + IP5 + IP6
= 7.8 + 8 + 7.5 + 7.6 + 7.9 + 7.7 = 46.5 kW
= 40 / 46.5 = 0.86 = 86 %
Brake Power = BMEP × Swept Volume × Number of Power strokes × Number of cylinders
40 = BMEP × 0.000982 × 2000/60 × 1/ 2 × 6
Break Mean Effective Pressure = 407.4 kN/m2
Clearance volume , V2 = = 1.23 × 10−4m3
Stroke volume, V1- V2 = 0.000982 m3
Volume at the beginning of compression, V1 = 1.23 × 10−4 + 0.000982 = 11.05 × 10-4 m3
Compression ration, rk = V1 /V2 = 11.05 / 1.23 = 8.983
1 1
Air standard efficiency = 1 − = 1− = 0.5844
rk −1 8.9830.4
Brake Thermal Efficiency = Brake Power / (mass of fuel consumed × Calorific Value of fuel)
= 40 / (9 /3600 × 40 × 1000) = 0.4 = 40.0%
Relative Efficiency = Brake Thermal Efficiency / Air standard efficiency

= 0.4 / 0.5844 = 0.6844 = 68.4 %
If the temperature of intake air in internal The maximum temperature in the I.C.
combustion engine increases, then its efficiency will engine cylinder is of the order of
(A) Remain same (A) 500-1000°C
(B) Decrease. (B) 1000-1500°C
(C) Increase (C) 1500-2000°C
(D) None of these (D) 2000-2500°C.
The mean effective pressure obtained from engine The knocking in spark ignition engines can be
indicator indicates the reduced by
(A) Maximum pressure developed (A) Retarding the spark
(B) Minimum pressure (B) Increasing the engine speed
(C) Instantaneous pressure at any instant (C) Both (A) and (B).
(D) Average pressure. (D) None of these
Compression ratio of I.C. Engines is

(A) The ratio of volumes of air in cylinder before The probability of knocking in diesel engines
compression stroke and after compression stroke. is increased by
(B) Volume displaced by piston per stroke and (A) High self ignition temperature
clearance volume in cylinder (B) Low volatility
(C) Ratio of pressure after compression and before (C) Higher viscosity
compression (D) All of these.
(D) Swept volume/cylinder volume

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An Autonomous Institution

Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS - MVJ19ME42

Prepared by : Dr. Vivekanand Huddar

• In 1862, Lenoir invented the world's first automobile.

Internal Combustion (IC) Engine

Gasoline Engines Automotive, Marine, Aircraft

Gas Engines Industrial Power

Diesel Engines Automotive, Railways, Power, Marine

Gas Turbines Power, Aircraft, Industrial, Marine

IC Engines are classified into,

(5) Cooling System:

The standard terms used in I.C Engines

7. Swept volume (Vs): It is the volume of space generated

Cylinder block of cycle Car

2. Flame Propagation Phase

1. Ignition Delay Period

Substance Auto ignition Temp

1 SELF IGNITION TEMP. HIGH LOW

2 IGNITION DELAY HIGH LOW

3 ENGINE SPEED HIGH LOW

4 ENGINE SIZE LESS HIGH

5 COMPRESSION RATIO LESS HIGH

6 INLET TEMP. LESS HIGH

7 INLET PRESSURE LESS HIGH

8 WALL TEMP. LESS HIGH

A dynamometer or dyno can be defined as a device that

• Prony brake dynamometer

• It works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction.

(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.

For 4-stroke engine-one cycle will be completed in two revolutions N’=N/2

Pi = (Net work of cycle)/Swept Volume in N/m2 = P mep = Pm = Pi

Pm= Pmep = (s×a)/l = N/m2

T = Torque = (W-S) De/2

Π (Db+d) is circumference of the brake drum

W =Weight measured on the dynamometer, N

Following methods are used in the laboratory to measure friction

This method can be used only for multi – cylinder IC engines

Total indicated power when all the cylinders are working

The frictional power of the engine is therefore given by

(FP)t = (IP)total – (BP)t

Let, BP = Brake Power when all cylinders are in working condition.

FP1, FP2, FP3 = Friction power of each cylinder

BP = (IP1 + IP2 + IP3) – ( FP1+ FP2 + FP3 ) …………………………………….(ii)

IP1 = (BP - BP1) …………………………………………………………………….(iv)

Similarly, Indicated Power of second cylinder IP2 = (BP - BP2) .………………..(v)

Indicated Power of third cylinder IP3 = (BP - BP3) ..…………………………….(vi)

Putting the values of IP1, IP2, IP3¬ in eq.(i),we get,

Frictional Power, FP = ( IP – BP ) ………………………………………………(viii)

3.Indicated Relative Efficiency (i,r) given by  i,r = i/ASE

4.Brake Relative Efficiency (b,r) given by b,r = b/ASE

5.Mechanical Efficiency (m) given by m = BP/IP = Pb/Pi = b/i = b,r/I,r

ήvol = Actual Air Admitted at intake condition / Theoretical Volume Available(Vs)

m m-- is the mass flow rate of fresh mixture.

Specific Fuel Consumption

Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption isfc = mf/IP kg/J

• The performance of an engine is generally given by a heat balance sheet.

Heat Balance Sheet Calculation :

(b) Heat carried away by cooling water

(d) Unaccounted Heat Loss

ii) Heat converted in B P (QBP ) = B P × 60 = 18 × 60 = 1080 kJ/min

iii) Heat carried by cooling water (Qw) = Mw × Cpw × Δtw

iv) Heat in Exhaust Gas (Qg )= mg × Cpg × Δtg