Received: 1 February 2021 Revised: 2 July 2021 Accepted: 3 July 2021

DOI: 10.1002/eat.23581

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The Double Consciousness Body Image Scale: A body image

assessment centering the experiences of Black women

Salomé A. Wilfred MA | Jennifer D. Lundgren PhD

Department of Psychology, University of

Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City,
Missouri, USA
Correspondence
Salomé A. Wilfred, Department of Psychology,
5030 Cherry Street, Kansas City, MO 64110,
USA.
Email: saw5bb@umsystem.edu
Action Editor: Ruth Weissman
Abstract
Objective: Body image among Black women is poorly understood; emerging research
suggests that Black women experience pressures to adhere to a body type not cur-
rently captured in commonly used body image measures. This study assessed the
psychometric properties and validity of the Double Consciousness Body Image Scale
(DCBIS), a new culturally relevant body image assessment for Black women.
Method: Black women living in the United States (n = 198; 73.4% identified as Afri-
can American; the remainder identified as African, Afro-Latina, Caribbean, Caribbean
American, Black descent, or multiple racial identities) completed online surveys
assessing behaviors used to modify physical features, pressures to adhere to certain
physical features, and eating disorder symptomatology.
Results: Exploratory factor analysis identified a unitary factor structure focused on
pressures to adhere to physical characteristics, as well as behavior manifestation of
those pressures. The DCBIS demonstrated good internal consistency (α = .96). The
DCBIS demonstrated convergent validity with measures of body image and
disordered eating behaviors and attitudes.
Discussion: The DCBIS is a culturally relevant assessment of body image centering
the experiences of Black women living in the context of U.S. culture. Future research
is needed to confirm the factor structure of the DCBIS and evaluate its psychometric
properties among a broader representation of Black women, globally.

KEYWORDS
African American, assessment, Black women, body dissatisfaction, body image, culturally
inclusive, double consciousness, eating disorders

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N body dissatisfaction and its overvaluation. Similarly, the trans-

Body image is a well-studied construct; research over the past quarter
century has advanced knowledge about the development of body
image and its functional relationship to disordered eating behaviors.
Influential theories, such as the Tripartite Influence Model (Thompson,
Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999) that supports the role of
peers, parents, and the media in the development of body dissatisfac-
tion and the Self-Discrepancy Model (Higgins, 1987) that posits that
comparison of one's actual to one's ideal self can create emotional dis-
tress, have informed our understanding of the mechanisms causing
diagnostic model of eating disorders (Fairburn, Cooper, &
Shafran, 2003) posits that the overevaluation of weight and shape is
functionally related to dietary restriction, binge eating, and compensa-
tory behaviors. Although body image literature has advanced signifi-
cantly over the last decades, it has been built almost exclusively on
the experiences of White individuals (Capodilupo & Forsyth, 2014).
The validity of many body image assessments for Black women,
and the consequent impact of their use in the development of
etiological theories of disordered eating, is limited by the over-
representation of White racial identity among academic researchers

Int J Eat Disord. 2021;54:1771–1781. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/eat © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. 1771
1772
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2020), lack of culturally
inclusive content in assessment instruments (Bond & Cash, 1992;
Kelch-Oliver & Ancis, 2011), and the use of the White experience as
the default norm to which other populations are compared
(Capodilupo, 2015; Capodilupo & Forsyth, 2014). These challenges
with the current literature are reviewed below and provide context
for the development of a new measure, the Double Consciousness
Body Image Scale (DCBIS) that is the focus of this report.
Researchers are susceptible to conceptualizing constructs and
designing studies through their subjective cultural experiences,
and implicitly or explicitly can impact study outcomes in unintended
ways (see Roberts, Bareket-Shavit, Dollins, Goldie, & Mortenson, 2020
for a 50-year review of racial inequality in psychological research). For
example, research has demonstrated that recruitment methodology
can impact disparities in racial and ethnic representation of partici-
pants in healthcare research (Kannan et al., 2019). Conscious and
unconscious factors, based in part on personal life experiences, can
also impact the way in which researchers interpret data and make
assumptions about participant identities (Clauss-Ehlers, Chiriboga,
Hunter, Roysircar, & Tummala-Narra, 2019). Historically, many body
image and eating disorder researchers, particularly in the United
States and Western Europe, have identified as White, thereby biasing
the development of body image assessments toward White perspec-
tives, and interpreting results through this cultural lens. Cultural differ-
ences between researchers and the participant groups they are
studying can also lead to challenges related to rapport or trust. For
example, Sherman (2002) noted that participants who are of a differ-
ent ethnicity than the researcher may be wary of the researcher's
intentions, and this can lead to participants changing their responses
to avoid reinforcing stereotypes.
Consistent with the primarily White ethnic and racial representa-
tion of researchers (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020),
current theories of body image have been advanced based primarily
on the experiences of White European/U.S. female research partici-
pants (Capodilupo, 2015; Capodilupo & Forsyth, 2014; Poran, 2006).
For example, the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-
Q), was normed with 88% college aged White women (Fairburn &
Beglin, 1994) and the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ) was normed
with 553 White women from the community (Cooper, Taylor,
Cooper, & Fairburn, 1987). More recent body image assessment
development research has sought more inclusive samples (Schaefer,
Harriger, Heinberg, Soderberg, & Kevin Thompson, 2017), but even in
well-designed studies aimed to increase representation, Black individ-
uals are under-represented. Subsequently, there has been a simplifica-
tion of the dilemma that Black women experience regarding their
negotiation of messages about two different beauty standards: one
White, one Black. Black women report experiencing distress between
fulfilling two body ideals that are often contradictory (Hesse-Biber,
Livingstone, Ramirez, Barko, & Johnson, 2010). W.E.B. Du Bois (1903)
termed the dilemma that Black individuals experience when negotiat-
ing White culture and Black culture double consciousness, and the
application of this construct to physical appearance and beauty stan-
dards in the United States have been recognized for over the past
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN
century (Kendi, 2016). Similarly, the term Lily-White was first intro-
duced in the late 1800s in the United States and has been used to
describe a post-Civil War movement to exclude Black individuals from
political engagement (Casdoprh, 1996). The Lily Complex is a con-
struct coined by Jones and Shorter-Gooden (2003) to describe the
experience of Black women who internalize the dominant culture's
(i.e., White) body image ideals. Both the notion of Lily Complex and
the experience of double consciousness highlight the complexity of
accurately evaluating body image and its risk for eating disorder
development among Black women. Neither of these constructs are
evaluated in current body image measures.
Validated assessment measures are expected to include items
reflecting the construct of interest (Clark & Watson, 1995); in the con-
text of body image research, assessment instruments should evaluate
the aspects of body image that are salient to the population being
studied. In Black culture within the United States this can include the
idealization of longer and straighter hair, lighter skin, bigger buttocks,
bigger breasts (Capodilupo, 2015), and generally an hourglass figure
(Overstreet, Quinn, & Agocha, 2010). This body type is often referred
to as “slim thick,” and it is represented and idealized through icons
such as Nikki Minaj and Beyoncé.
A small and primarily qualitative body of research supports the
“slim thick” body type as a preference among Black women. Kelch-
Oliver and Ancis (2011) found that Black women favor more shapely
and curvaceous body ideals, and a recent validation of the Curvy Ideal
Silhouette Scale demonstrated that the discrepancy between the cur-
rent and ideal degree of curvaceousness was less for Black partici-
pants than for White participants, and indicated that the body shape
ideal of Black participants was curvier than White participants
(Hunter, Kluck, Ramon, Ruff, & Dario, 2020).
In one of the few quantitative studies to evaluate culturally rele-
vant body image features among Black women, Capodilupo (2015)
asked Black American women to list features that they (a) actually
possess, (b) wish they possessed, and (c) traits they believe are ideal-
ized by their culture. The five most frequently listed traits for their
own ideal were: long/longer hair, toned/muscular physique, flat/toned
stomach, clear/smooth skin, and big/bigger buttocks. The five most
frequently listed cultural ideals were: long/longer hair, light/lighter
skin, big/bigger buttocks, big/bigger breast, and straight hair
(Capodilupo, 2015). Importantly, these findings illustrate that the body
image ideals of Black American women are not limited to
body weight/shape preferences, but to other physical characteristics
such as hair and skin. Failing to assess these physical characteristics
has likely led to the inconsistencies in body image and eating disorder
research noted in the literature (Capodilupo & Forsyth, 2014), such
that, body image assessments focused on body weight/shape con-
cerns are not capturing the full extent of body image concerns experi-
enced by Black women. Therefore, wholistic measures of body image
are needed not only to advance research on the relationship between
body image and disordered eating behaviors, but on other health
behaviors and conditions (e.g., skin lightening procedures; body dys-
morphia) as well. Non-inclusive measures combined with the lack of
representation and documented discrepancy in body image ideals
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN
suggests the explicit or implicit assumption that the “White experi-
ence” is the norm to which all other experiences should be compared.
Comparative studies (i.e., those that sample individuals of multiple
racial and ethnic identities and compare outcomes to White partici-
pants) not only minimize the cultural and ethnic differences between
Black and White women, but also fail to recognize varied experiences
within the Black population. As an example of the latter, Gilbert,
Crump, Madhere, and Schutz (2009) evaluated 146 Black female stu-
dents at a historically Black college. Participants were asked to iden-
tify their ethnicity (e.g., African American, African, and Afro-
Caribbean) to examine the relationship between internalization of the
thin ideal and eating disorder pathology within a diverse Black popula-
tion. Researchers found that internalization of the thin ideal and drive
for thinness, assessed with the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards
Appearance Questionnaire-Revised (Cusomano & Thompson, 1997),
were moderated by ethnicity and only significant for African American
women (Gilbert et al., 2009). These findings demonstrate the impor-
tance of examining ethnic differences to improve our understanding
of body image concerns within the Black community.
These barriers in the literature have resulted in a limited under-
standing about body image, the development of body image concerns
and overvaluation of weight and shape, and the functional role of
body image in the development of disordered eating behaviors in
underrepresented individuals, specifically among Black women living
in the context of U.S./Western society. This study, therefore, aimed
to advance the literature on body image and its association with disor-
dered eating behaviors. We evaluated the psychometric properties
and factor structure of a new measure, the DCBIS, that was created
to assess body image pressures, beliefs, and behaviors among Black
women in a culturally relevant way—one that recognizes the multiple
tensions, as a result of double consciousness, that Black women in the
United States face in relation to their bodies. Because this is the first
psychometric evaluation of the DCBIS, no specific hypotheses about
the factor structure were established a priori. However, given the
unique and shared aspects of body image ideals among Black and
White women, as well as the creation of the items around the dimen-
sions of pressures, beliefs, and behaviors, it was anticipated that a
multi-factor structure could be possible. A secondary aim of this study
was to explore the convergent validity among the DCBIS and mea-
sures of body image and disordered eating behaviors and attitudes.
2 | METHOD
2.1 | Scale development
An initial pool of 81 items was developed based on qualitative and
emerging research on body image among Black women published
over the past decade (e.g., Capodilupo, 2015; Kelch-Oliver & Ancis,
2011; Overstreet et al., 2010). The items reflected pressures (society,
peers, and family), behaviors, and beliefs associated with physical
attributes that are considered attractive to oneself and to society. The
DCBIS questions were modeled, in part, after the Sociocultural
1773
Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (Schaefer et al., 2015),
in recognition that body image concerns are influenced by perceived
pressures from family (Poran, 2006), peers (Capodilupo, 2015) and
society (Capodilupo & Kim, 2014; Kelch-Oliver & Ancis, 2011). Ques-
tions were designed to assess both the “slim thick” body shape
(i.e., smaller waist and larger buttocks and thighs), as well as the inter-
nalization of characteristics historically associated with White culture
(e.g., long straight hair, lighter skin, smaller nose). The initial items
were presented to a focus group of seven Black women (undergradu-
ate and graduate students) invited through campus organizations to
provide feedback on the measure. Participants were asked to describe
the factors that influence their body image, parts of their body they
wanted to change, and the people to whom they often compare
themselves (e.g., peers, models, family, within and outside their own
culture). The focus group confirmed the body image ideals that were
reported in previous research (i.e., a thin waist, large buttocks, long
hair, light skin, and small nose), and provided feedback on specific
items, question wording, and the item anchors.
Based on feedback from the focus group, the item pool was
reduced to 51 questions (see Data S1) reflecting body modification
behaviors, pressures to adhere to specific body characteristics, and
beliefs (societal and self) about the attractiveness of body characteris-
tics experienced over the past 4 weeks. All items were anchored on a
5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 5, with higher scores indi-
cating a greater degree of pressures, beliefs, or experience with the
content of the question.
2.2 | Psychometric evaluation and validation
2.2.1 | Participants and procedures
Between August 2019 and April 2020, Black women were recruited
from the community and from the student body of the University of
Missouri-Kansas City, a medium-sized public urban research univer-
sity in the mid-western region of the U.S. Community participants
were recruited through advertisement on social media platforms
(i.e., Facebook and Instagram) and through snowball sampling. Univer-
sity students were recruited through the Psychology Department
undergraduate research pool and through flyers distributed to campus
groups (e.g., Sister Circle, The African American Student Union) and
campus chapters of National Pan-Hellenic (NPHC) sororities, open to
undergraduate and graduate students. All participants provided
informed consent for participation and completed assessments elec-
tronically using Qualtrics. During the initial 48-hour release of the sur-
vey, numerous computer robots submitted data. Robots were based,
initially, on the exponential increase in responses, survey completion
in less than 15 min, and incoherent and irrelevant answers to open
response questions. Data analysis was temporarily stopped, and a
majority of participants were deleted because they were believed to
be robots. Before releasing the survey again, a Captcha was added
to help distinguish human responses from robot responses. Simple
mathematical problems (3 + 3) were also added for additional
1774
security. Community participants were provided a $5 gift card as com-
pensation for participation. University students were offered course
credit or a $5 gift card as compensation for participation.
2.3 | Measures
In addition to the DCBIS, participants provided demographic informa-
tion including age, race/ethnicity, education level, sexual orientation,
and self-reported height and weight. Participants also completed a
battery of assessments evaluating body image constructs and disor-
dered eating behaviors and attitudes. These are described below.
2.3.1 | Sociocultural Attitudes Towards
Appearances Questionnaire-4
The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearances Questionnaire
(SATAQ-4; Schaefer et al., 2015) is a 22-item self-report question-
naire assessing internalization of historically White and Western
appearance ideals and appearance related pressures. Subscales of the
SATAQ-4 include internalization of thin/low body fat, internalization
of muscular/athletic, pressures from family, pressures from peers, and
pressures from media. The scale has demonstrated correlation with
measures of eating pathology and body dissatisfaction in both
U.S. and international samples (Schaefer et al., 2015). The factor struc-
ture has been confirmed in non-White U.S. samples (Schaefer
et al., 2015). In the current sample, internal consistency ranged
between 0.75 and 0.93.
2.3.2 | Objectified Body Consciousness Scale
The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS; McKinley &
Hyde, 1996), a 24-item self-report questionnaire grounded in objecti-
fication theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), is comprised of three
subscales: body surveillance (degree to which one thinks about their
body), body shame (degree to which one perceives their worth based
on cultural ideals), and appearance control (degree to which one
believes they can control their appearance). In the current sample,
internal consistency for the body surveillance subscale was 0.41, the
body shame subscale was 0.69, and the appearance control subscale
was 0.67. The internal consistency for the total score was 0.70.
Previous research has demonstrated low alphas (e.g., 0.60–0.70;
McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Moradi & Varnes, 2017); for this reason, all
three subscales were retained in the analyses.
2.3.3 | Body Shape Questionnaire
The BSQ (Cooper et al., 1987) is a unidimensional, 34-item measure
of attitudes and behaviors associated with dissatisfaction regarding
one's body. In the current sample, internal consistency was 0.97.
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN
2.3.4 | Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire
The EDE-Q (Fairburn, 2008) is a 32-item self-report questionnaire
that assesses feelings, attitudes, and behaviors related to body image
and eating disorders. The EDE-Q traditional scoring consists of four
subscales: Restraint, Shape Concern, Weight Concern, and Eating
Concern, and a Global score. The EDE-Q's internal consistency ranged
from 0.84 to 0.95 in the current sample. To better capture the differ-
ence between body dissatisfaction and overvaluation, an alternative
scoring was also used with a subset of the EDE-Q questions (Grilo,
Reas, Hopwood, & Crosby, 2015). This yielded two additional subscale
scores that were used in the analyses: Shape/Weight Overvaluation
and Body Dissatisfaction. Internal consistency in the current sample
was 0.92 and 0.87, respectively.
2.3.5 | Gormally Binge Eating Scale
The Gormally Binge Eating Scale (GBES; Gormally, Black, Daston, &
Rardin, 1982) is 16-item self-report questionnaire assessing the
behavioral (eight items) and cognitive aspects (eight items) of binge
eating. In the current sample, internal consistency was 0.93.
2.4 | Statistical analyses
The factor structure of the DCBIS was examined using a principal axis
factor analysis with orthogonal (varimax) rotation. Factors were ini-
tially identified by those with an eigenvalue greater than one
(Furr, 2017) and by visual analysis of the scree plot. Items were
retained if they loaded at 0.40 or higher (Floyd & Widaman, 1995)
and if they did not cross-load. Cross loading was defined as having a
small gap between the primary and secondary loading (i.e., less than
0.20 apart; partially modeled after the Schaefer et al., 2015 approach).
Internal consistency was evaluated with Cronbach alpha. The Pearson
product moment correlation was used to evaluate the relationship
among the DCBIS, measures of body image, and disordered eating
behaviors. All statistical analyses were run in SPSS (version 26).
3 | RE SU LT S
In total, 198 participants responded and were deemed valid based on
correspondence with the participant through the awarding of com-
pensation and/or Captcha robot identification. The majority were rec-
ruited from the community (65.8%) and the remaining participants
were recruited from the student population (34.2%).
Participants ranged in age from 18 to 73 years (M = 31.1, SD = 13.1).
Participant body mass index (BMI; kg/m2) ranged from 17.56 to 58.26
(M = 28.8 kg/m2, SD = 7.9). A majority of the sample identified as
African American (73.4%), 17 identified as African (8.5%), 7 identified
as Afro-Latina (3.5%), 3 as Caribbean (1.5%), 3 as Caribbean-American
(1.5%), 6 as other Black descent (3.0%), and 17 as multiple racial
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN
identities (8.5%). A majority of the sample identified as heterosexual
(84.8%). The income ranged from under $15,000 to $100,000 and
over. As expected, the community and college samples differed significantly
on age (community = 35.3 ± 13.6 years; college = 22.9 ± 6.6 years);
t = 8.65, p < .001) and average income (community = $35,000–$49,000;
college = < $15,000; χ2(6,N = 191) = 62.73, p < .001).
3.1 | Exploratory factor analysis
A principal axis factor analysis was conducted with orthogonal rota-
tion (varimax). The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin test verified the sampling
adequacy for the analysis, KMO = 0.896. In the first iteration, 10 fac-
tors had eigenvalues over one, explaining 71% of the variance. Exami-
nation of the scree plot indicated a sharp drop between factors one
and two and a leveling off at factor five. Eleven items with a loading
of less than 0.40 or that cross-loaded were removed and the analysis
was then re-run. In this second iteration, eight factors were identified
with eigenvalues over Kaiser criterion of one, and in combination
explained 72% of the variance. Examination of the scree plot
suggested a four-factor structure, with the majority of the items load-
ing on factors one and two. Four items were removed due to low or
cross loading. Two items tapping personal beliefs remained on factor
two, but these were also removed because the resulting factor would
have had only two questions. The factor analysis was then re-run for
a third time. The third iteration identified six factors with eigenvalues
greater than one explaining 72% of the variance. Examination of the
scree plot identified one clear factor with a leveling off at factor two
F I G U R E 1 Final iteration scree plot. This figure shows the scree plot for the third and final iteration of the principle axis factoring using an
orthogonal (varimax) rotation
1775
(Figure 1). All items in this final iteration focused on pressures or
behaviors; none of the personal or societal beliefs questions remained.
This final iteration was retained because all remaining items loaded on
the first factor, without cross loading, and it was clearly interpretable;
Table 1 shows the factor loading and item-total correlation for the
retained single factor scale. Cronbach's alpha for the final scale was
0.96. Table 2 shows the final DCBIS with instructions for participants
and scoring.
Table 3 presents the mean and standard deviation for the DCBIS
for the total sample and by subgroup (community vs. college
populations). Mean scores demonstrated a statistically significant dif-
ference between subsamples on the scale, with the college sample
scoring higher (t = 2.50, p = .01).
3.2 | Validity analyses
The mean and standard deviation for all measures, by subsample, for
the validity analyses can be found in Table 3. The college and commu-
nity samples differed statistically significantly on the SATAQ-4 Thin/
Low Body Fat and Family Pressures subscales, the BSQ, the OBSC
Body Shame subscale, all EDE-Q subscales except Restraint, and the
GBES. In all cases where the subgroups differed statistically signifi-
cantly, the college subsample scored higher.
As demonstrated in Table 4, the DCBIS correlated statistically
significantly with all measures of body image and disordered eat-
ing behaviors and attitudes. Convergence (i.e., correlation >.50)
was established with all the SATAQ-4 subscales, the BSQ, body
1776 WILFRED AND LUNDGREN

TABLE 1 Factor loadings and item-total correlations

Item Factor loading Item-total correlation

I have considered plastic surgery to reconstruct my nose. 0.42 .43**
I have avoided going out because I did not have extensions or weave in. 0.51 .53**
I have spent several hours making sure my natural hair curls have a certain 0.53 .57**
hair curl pattern before going to social events.
I have exercised to make my butt bigger. 0.51 .53**
I have had or have seriously considered surgery to make my butt bigger. 0.51 .52**
I have had or have seriously considered surgery to lose fat in my stomach. 0.44 .47**
I feel pressure from society to have light skin. 0.65 .65**
I feel pressure from society to have a small waist. 0.70 .72**
I feel pressure from society to have a flat stomach. 0.69 .71**
I feel pressure from society to have a big butt. 0.68 .70**
I feel pressure from society to have a small nose. 0.74 .74**
I feel pressure from society to have straight hair. 0.65 .66**
I feel pressure from society to have a certain hair curl pattern. 0.71 .73**
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have light skin. 0.70 .68**
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a small waist. 0.79 .79**
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a flat stomach. 0.75 .75**
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a big butt. 0.71 .72**
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a small nose. 0.69 .67**
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have straight hair. 0.72 .72**
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a certain hair curl pattern. 0.77 .76**
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have light skin. 0.73 .72**
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a small waist. 0.72 .74**
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a flat stomach. 0.73 .75**
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a big butt. 0.69 .72**
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a small nose. 0.70 .69**
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have straight hair. 0.69 .69**
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a certain hair curl pattern. 0.74 .75**
I feel pressure from my family to have light skin. 0.72 .71**
I feel pressure from my family to have a small waist. 0.66 .67**
I feel pressure from my family to have a flat stomach. 0.66 .66**
I feel pressure from my family to have a big butt. 0.68 .67**
I feel pressure from my family to have a small nose. 0.68 .66**
I feel pressure from my family to have straight hair. 0.66 .65**
I feel pressure from my family to have a certain hair curl pattern. 0.68 .69**

Note: ** Correlation is significant at the p < .01 level (two tailed).

shame as measured with the OBCS, all EDE-Q scales with the
exception of dietary restraint, and binge eating as measured with
the GBES.
4 | DISCUSSION
Body image research has focused largely on the experiences of White
women, and consequently, theories of body dissatisfaction and its neg-
ative sequelae have been either misapplied or misunderstood in
reference to Black women (Capodilupo, 2015; Capodilupo &
Forsyth, 2014; Poran, 2006). In recognition that Black women in the
United States experience pressures to adhere to two different cultural
ideals (termed double consciousness) assessments are needed to cap-
ture the complex experience of body image in this population. The pur-
pose of this investigation, therefore, was to assess the factor structure
and validity of a newly developed body image measure, the DCBIS,
centered around the experiences of Black women. The final DCBIS
consisted of 34-items assessing pressures to adhere to certain physical
characteristics, as well as behaviors to achieve certain physical
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN 1777

TABLE 2 Final DCBIS with instructions.

This survey assesses how you have felt about your body and the pressures you have experienced in relation to your body over the past 4 weeks.
Please read each question and select the appropriate response from “never” over the past 4 weeks to “always” over the past 4 weeks. Please answer
all questions.

Over the past 4 weeks Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always

I have considered plastic surgery to reconstruct my nose. 1 2 3 4 5
I have avoided going out because I did not have extensions or 1 2 3 4 5
weave in.
I have spent several hours making sure my natural hair curls have 1 2 3 4 5
a certain hair curl pattern before going to social events.
I have exercised to make my butt bigger 1 2 3 4 5
I have had of have seriously considered surgery to make my butt 1 2 3 4 5
bigger.
I have had or have seriously considered surgery to lose fat in my 1 2 3 4 5
stomach.
I feel pressure from society to have light skin. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from society to have a small waist. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from society to have to have a flat stomach. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from society to have a big butt. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from society to have a small nose. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from society to have straight hair. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from society to have a certain hair curl pattern. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have light skin. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a small waist. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my same sex to have a flat stomach. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a big butt. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a small nose. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have straight hair. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my same sex peers to have a certain hair curl 1 2 3 4 5
pattern.
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have light skin. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a small waist. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a flat stomach. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a big butt. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have sex to have a small 1 2 3 4 5
nose.
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have straight hair. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from the opposite sex to have a certain hair curl 1 2 3 4 5
pattern.
I feel pressure from my family to have light skin. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my family to have a small waist. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my family to have a flat stomach. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my family to have a big butt. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my family to have a small nose. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my family to have straight hair. 1 2 3 4 5
I feel pressure from my family to have a certain hair curl pattern. 1 2 3 4 5

Note: The DCBIS is scored by summing all items.

characteristics. These items fell on a unitary factor conceptually orga- pressures Black women experience reflect the phenomena of the “slim
nized around the experience of pressures not only related to weight thick” body type and the Lily Complex. More specifically, participants
and shape, but to hair, skin tone, and nose shape. The identified expressed pressures to adhere to the slim thick body type,
1778 WILFRED AND LUNDGREN

TABLE 3 Mean scores by subsample for the DCBIS and all measures included in validity analyses

Total Community College Statistical significance test between

sample N = 198 sample N = 131 sample N = 67 subsamples

Measure M SD M SD M SD t p
DCBIS 68.68 26.15 65.22 24.12 75.53 28.75 2.50 .01
SATAQ-4 thin internalization 8.50 3.55 8.05 3.28 9.36 3.90 2.51 .01
SATAQ-4 muscular 10.53 3.12 10.32 3.15 10.91 3.05 1.25 .21
SATAQ-4 family pressure 10.32 4.74 9.78 4.52 11.34 5.00 2.21 .03
SATAQ-4 peer pressure 9.83 4.63 9.55 4.53 10.32 4.79 1.09 .27
SATAQ-4 media pressure 14.36 5.25 14.01 5.41 15.00 4.91 1.25 .21
Body Shape Questionnaire 86.29 37.27 80.38 31.90 95.75 43.13 2.5 .02
OBCS total 94.04 14.62 92.45 14.94 96.59 13.83 1.82 .07
OBCS surveillance 32.15 6.05 32.12 6.24 32.21 5.78 .091 .93
OBCS body shame 30.23 8.30 28.87 8.12 32.36 8.17 2.77 .01
OBCS appearance control 31.50 6.85 31.47 7.06 31.53 6.53 .05 .96
EDE-Q global 2.86 1.29 2.70 1.18 3.14 1.41 2.23 .04
EDE-Q Restraint 2.61 1.51 2.47 1.45 2.85 1.59 1.65 .10
EDE-Q eating concerns 2.12 1.34 1.95 1.17 2.39 1.56 2.17 .05
EDE-Q shape concerns 3.35 1.48 3.17 1.38 3.64 1.61 2.09 .05
EDE-Q weight concerns 3.36 1.56 3.17 1.47 3.67 1.64 2.15 .04
EDE-Q weight/shape overvaluation 3.44 1.96 3.07 1.85 4.08 1.98 3.49 .001
EDE-Q dissatisfaction 3.59 1.49 3.40 1.41 3.92 1.58 2.30 .02
GBES 28.27 9.23 26.52 7.86 30.94 10.49 2.89 .02

Abbreviations: EDE-Q, Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire; GBES, Gormally Binge Eating Scale; OBCS, Objectified Body Consciousness Scale;
SATAQ-4, Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnare-4.

demonstrated by endorsing items that reflected pressures to have a flat
stomach and small waist while also endorsing pressures to have a big
butt (slim thick body type). Further, participants expressed pressures to
have a lighter skin tone, certain hair curl patterns, and smaller nose.
These physical features have, historically, been associated with
European White features and deemed physically more attractive
(Hooks, 1981; Kendi, 2016). Jones and Shorter-Gooden (2003)
described these pressures as the Lily Complex. Attempting to navigate
these two ideals (i.e., Lily Complex and slim thick) suggest the experi-
ence of double consciousness which is an important construct in body
assessment specific to Black women living in the United States.
The DCBIS demonstrated convergence with nearly all of the body
image and disordered eating behaviors assessments. Some of the
strongest correlations, ranging from .51 to .81, were not surprisingly
with the SATAQ-4. The SATAQ-4 measures internalization of thin/
low body fat and muscularity in addition to pressures from one's fam-
ily, the media, and peers to adhere to a certain body type, and the
DCBIS was modeled in part on this measure and its conceptual under-
pinnings. Importantly, although most items on the final DCBIS reflect
pressures to look a certain way, moderate correlation was found
between the DCBIS and validated measures of body dissatisfaction
and shape/weight overvaluation. This was evident in the correlation
between the DCBIS and the BSQ, as well as the EDE-Q shape/weight
overvaluation subscale and the body dissatisfaction subscale.
Consistent with the body image assessment correlations, the
DCBIS correlated strongly and moderately with the EDE-Q Global
score, Eating Concerns subscale, and binge-eating behavior as mea-
sured by the GBES. Notably, the EDE-Q Eating Concerns subscale
assesses some behavioral overlap with binge-eating behaviors
(e.g., eating in secret, guilt about eating, fear of losing control) that are
also captured on the GBES. Although the EDE-Q Dietary Restraint
subscale did not show evidence of convergence, it too showed a mod-
erate correlation with the DCBIS (r = .45, p < .001). These findings
suggest that greater pressures to adhere to an hourglass figure, as well
as skin tone, hair, and nose features reflective of White body image
ideals are associated with increased eating pathology, and binge eat-
ing in particular. These findings support previous work by Lydecker
and Grilo (2016) which demonstrated that Black women experiencing
concerns with weight, shape, and eating concerns report more fre-
quent binge eating. Based on the hypothesis that higher scores on the
DCBIS are related to higher levels of double consciousness, this posi-
tive relationship indicates that greater pressure to navigate two cul-
tural ideals is related to higher levels of disordered eating behavior.
Future research is needed to understand better the causal and
maintaining factors associated with binge-eating behavior among
Black women, and how pressures and behaviors associated with com-
peting cultural norms about body image could inform theoretical
models of etiology, treatment, and prevention. One hypothesis is that
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN 1779

T A B L E 4 DCBIS correlations with body image and disordered were many similarities among the subsamples, there were expected
eating behavior and attitudes assessments differences in age and socioeconomic status that could influence the
DCBIS total way in which the two populations responded to the DCBIS. Future

SATAQ thin/low body fat .71** studies with larger sample sizes independent of this development
sample are needed to confirm and expand these findings. Additionally,
SATAQ muscular internalization .69**
a majority of the sample identified as African American. Therefore,
SATAQ family pressure .55**
the findings of this study may not apply or reflect the experiences of
SATAQ peer pressure .55**
Black women who are African, Caribbean, or Afro-Latina, a noted limi-
SATAQ media pressure .52**
tation in the literature in general.
Body Shape Questionnaire .68**
Despite these limitations, this study has several strengths. The
OBCS total .48**
DCBIS is a novel body image measure developed for Black women
OBCS surveillance .02 and will support future quantitative research in basic body image
OBCS body shame .63** research, eating disorder research, as well as other health behavior
OBCS appearance control .28** research (e.g., body dysmorphia, sexual risk taking, etc.). It's continued
EDE-Q global .63** development and refinement in future studies will help the field
EDE-Q restraint .46** become more inclusive of the experiences of Black women in the
EDE-Q eating concerns .63** assessment, prevention, and interventions designed for this popula-

EDE-Q shape concerns .56**
EDE-Q weight concerns .55**
EDE-Q weight/shape overvaluation .53**
EDE-Q dissatisfaction .55**
GBES .57**
Note: **Correlation is significant at the p < .01 level; *Correlation is
significant at the p < .05 level.
Abbreviations: EDE-Q, Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire; GBES,
Gormally Binge Eating Scale; OBCS, Objectified Body Consciousness
Scale; SATAQ, Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire.
the pressures Black women face to adhere simultaneously to Black
body image ideals and White body image ideals, in addition to the
multitude of other ways in which Black women are burdened by mar-
ginalization and misogynoir in U.S. society, can lead to negative affect
and emotional distress, factors previously identified in theoretical
models of binge eating (e.g., Gianini, White, & Masheb, 2013; Polivy &
Herman, 2002). It is also possible that dietary restriction, a known pre-
cipitant of binge-eating behaviors (Herman & Polivy, 1990) and a
behavior associated with a desire for a flat stomach, could be a causal
and/or maintaining factor associated with binge-eating behaviors
among Black women. More specifically, this oscillation between
restricting and binge-eating behaviors may be better explained by
double consciousness opposed to thin-ideal internalization. The psy-
chological effects of double consciousness may be driving restrictive
behaviors as well as binge-eating behaviors in Black women. Equally
plausible is that the interaction between stress and dietary restraint
leads to binge-eating behaviors in this population (Woods, Racine, &
Klump, 2010), and future research is necessary to explore this further.
4.1 | Limitations and future directions
Despite the important findings in this study, there are notable limita-
tions. First, the sample size was small, limiting our ability to conduct
community and college subsample analyses separately. Although there
tion. Further, the age range of this sample was broader than is often
used in body image studies focused on college-aged women, thereby
providing data on the experiences of body image and eating attitude/
behaviors of Black women of older age groups. Similarly, although the
merging of the two samples to maximize statistical power is a limita-
tion, the use of two samples (community and college) is strength of
the study, allowing for preliminary findings to extend to a broader
group of Black women. Although the sample was overrepresented by
women who identified as African American, the assessment of ethnic-
ity within the overall sample is study strength. Finally, this study
makes a significant contribution to the literature on disordered eating
behaviors and attitudes of Black women, particularly in relation to
binge-eating behaviors.
Future studies are necessary to provide additional validation of
this assessment, particularly in relation to its relationship with body
dissatisfaction, other disordered eating behaviors (e.g., purging), anxi-
ety, and mood among Black women. This is especially important for
Black women due to the prevalence of generational trauma and sys-
tematic oppression (Jones & Shorter-Gooden, 2003). Similarly, future
work should also evaluate the relationship between body image and
other health variables, such as sexual health and victimization of Black
women. Future research is also needed to determine if a short-form
version could capture similar information but be less burdensome to
participants and if use of this measure in different racial or ethnic
groups (e.g., large assessment study with multiple racial groups) is
appropriate. Additionally, it will be important to assess this measure in
a larger sample of Black women who identify as LGBTQIA+. Finally,
future work is necessary to expand the assessment of the behavioral
manifestations of body image pressures. It is plausible that future
evaluation of this measure will result in a different factor structure or
in the development of entirely new measures focused on different
facets of body image (e.g., dissatisfaction). Notably, some of the origi-
nal behavioral manifestation questions, such as use of a waist trainer,
were not retained in the final version of the scale but could be helpful
to clinicians in recognizing the extreme exercise and compensatory
practices that women use to achieve unrealistic body image ideals.
1780
4.2 | Conclusion
In summary, the DCBIS is a novel culturally inclusive measure of body
image pressures and behaviors for Black women framed in the experi-
ence of double consciousness. The DCBIS demonstrates good conver-
gent validity with other body image measures, and it is correlated
with disordered eating behaviors and attitudes, particularly binge-
eating behaviors. Its development and validation is an important first
step in expanding Black representation and inclusion in the body
image and eating disorder literature.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the University of Missouri-Kansas
City Inclusive Excellence Grant program.
CONF LICT OF IN TE RE ST
We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
ORCID
Salomé A. Wilfred https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2875-2151
RE FE R ENC E S
Bond, S., & Cash, T. F. (1992). Black beauty: Skin color and body images
among African-American college women. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 22(11), 874–888. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.
1992.tb00930.x
Capodilupo, C. M. (2015). One size does not fit all: Using variables other
than the thin ideal to understand Black women's body image. Cultural
Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 268–278. https://doi.
org/10.1037/a0037649
Capodilupo, C. M., & Forsyth, J. M. (2014). Consistently inconsistent: A
review of the literature on eating disorders and body image among
women of color. In M. L. Miville & A. D. Ferguson (Eds.), Handbook of
race-ethnicity and gender in psychology (pp. 343–359). New York, NY:
Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-
4614-8860-6_16.
Capodilupo, C. M., & Kim, S. (2014). Gender and race matter: The impor-
tance of considering intersections in Black women's body image. Jour-
nal of Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/
a0034597
Casdoprh, P. (1996). Lily-White movement. In M. Pitre (Ed.). Handbook of
African American Texas (1996 Ed.). Austin, TX: Texas State Historical
Association. Retrieved from https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/
entries/lily-white-movement
Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in
objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309–319.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.309
Clauss-Ehlers, C. S., Chiriboga, D. A., Hunter, S. J., Roysircar, G., &
Tummala-Narra, P. (2019). APA Multicultural Guidelines executive
summary: Ecological approach to context, identity, and inter-
sectionality. American Psychologist, 74(2), 232–244. https://doi.org/
10.1037/amp0000382
Cooper, P. J., Taylor, M. J., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C. G. (1987). The devel-
opment and validation of the Body Shape Questionnaire. International
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN
Journal of Eating Disorders, 6(4), 485–494. https://doi.org/10.1002/
1098-108X(198707)6:4<485::AID-EAT2260060405>3.0.CO;2-O
Cusomano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape
ideals in magazines: Exposure, awareness, and internalization. Sex
Roles: A Journal of Research, 37(9–10), 701–721. https://doi.org/10.
1007/BF02936336
Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk: Essays and sketches.
Chicago, IL: A. C. McClurg.
Fairburn, C. G., & Beglin, S. J. (1994). Assessment of eating disorders:
Interview or self-report questionnaire? International Journal of Eating
Disorders, 16(40), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X
(199412)16:4<363::AID-EAT2260160405>3.0.CO;2-%23
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behaviour ther-
apy for eating disorders: A “transdiagnostic” theory and treatment.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(5), 509–528. https://doi.org/10.
1016/S0005-7967(02)00088-8
Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive behavior therapy and eating disorders., New
York: Guilford Press.
Floyd, F. J., & Widaman, K. F. (1995). Factor analysis in the development
and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological
Assessment, 7(3), 286–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.
3.286
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward
understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks.
Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. https://doi.org/10.
1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
Furr, R. M. (2017). Psychometrics: An introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Gianini, L. M., White, M. A., & Masheb, R. M. (2013). Eating pathology,
emotion regulation, and emotional overeating in obese adults with
binge eating disorder. Eating Behaviors, 14(3), 309–313. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.05.008
Gilbert, S. C., Crump, S., Madhere, S., & Schutz, W. (2009). Internalization
of the thin ideal as a predictor of body dissatisfaction and disordered
eating in African, African-American, and Afro-Caribbean female college
students. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 23(3), 196–211.
https://doi.org/10.1080/87568220902794093
Gormally, J., Black, S., Daston, S., & Rardin, D. (1982). The assessment of
binge eating severity among obese persons. Addictive Behaviors, 7(1),
47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(82)90024-7
Grilo, C. M., Reas, D. L., Hopwood, C. J., & Crosby, R. D. (2015). Factor
structure and construct validity of the eating disorder examination-
questionnaire in college students: Further support for a modified brief
version. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 48(3), 284–289.
https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22358
Herman, C. P., & Polivy, J. (1990). From dietary restraint to binge eating:
Attaching causes to effects. Appetite, 14, 123–125. https://doi.org/10.
1016/0195-6663(90)90009-w
Hesse-Biber, S., Livingstone, S., Ramirez, D., Barko, E. B., & Johnson, A. L.
(2010). Racial identity and body image among Black female college
students attending predominately White colleges. Sex Roles: A Journal
of Research, 63(9–10), 697–711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-
010-9862-7
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect.
Psychological Review, 94(3), 319–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-
295X.94.3.319
Hooks, B. (1981). Ain't I a woman: Black women and feminism. Cambridge,
MA: Routledge.
Hunter, E. A., Kluck, A. S., Ramon, A. E., Ruff, E., & Dario, J. (2020). The
curvy ideal silhouette scale: Measuring cultural difference in the body
shape ideals of young U.S women. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 84,
238–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01161-x
Jones, C., & Shorter-Gooden, K. (2003). Shifting: The double lives of Black
woman. New York: Harper Collins.
WILFRED AND LUNDGREN
Kannan, V., Wilkinson, K. E., Varghese, M., Lynch-Medick, S., Willett, D. L.,
Bosler, T. A., … Toto, R. D. (2019). Count me in: Using a patient portal
to minimize implicit bias in clinical research recruitment. Journal of the
American Medical Informatics Association: JAMIA, 26(8–9), 703–713.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocz038
Kelch-Oliver, K., & Ancis, J. R. (2011). Black women's body image: An anal-
ysis of culture-specific influences. Women & Therapy, 34(4), 345–358.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2011.592065
Kendi, I. X. (2016). Stamped from the beginning: The definitive history of rac-
ist ideas in America. New York: Bold Type Books.
Lydecker, J. A., & Grilo, C. M. (2016). Different yet similar: Examining race
and ethnicity in treatment-seeking adults with binge eating disorder.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 84(1), 88–94. https://doi.
org/10.1037/ccp0000048
McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The objectified body consciousness
scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20
(2), 181–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x
Moradi, B., & Varnes, J. R. (2017). Structure of the objectified body con-
sciousness scale: Reevaluated 20 years later. Sex Roles: A Journal of
Research, 77(5–6), 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-
0731-x
National Center for Education Statistics. (2020). Digest of Education Statis-
tics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d19/tables/
dt19_315.20.asp
Overstreet, N. M., Quinn, D. M., & Agocha, V. B. (2010). Beyond thinness:
The influence of a curvaceous body ideal on body dissatisfaction in
Black and White women. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 63(1–2), 91–
103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9792-4
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2002). Causes of eating disorders. Annual
Review of Psychology, 53(1), 187–213. https://doi.org/10.1146/
annurev.psych.53.100901.135103
Poran, M. A. (2006). The politics of protection: Body image, social pres-
sures, and the misrepresentation of young Black women. Sex Roles: A
Journal of Research, 55(11–12), 739–755. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11199-006-9129-5
Roberts, S. O., Bareket-Shavit, C., Dollins, F. A., Goldie, P. D., &
Mortenson, E. (2020). Racial inequality in psychological research:
1781
Trends of the past and recommendations for the future. Perspectives
on Psychological Science, 15(6), 1295–1309. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1745691620927709
Schaefer, L. M., Burke, N. L., Thompson, J. K., Dedrick, R. F.,
Heinberg, L. J., Calogero, R. M., … Swami, V. (2015). Development and
validation of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Ques-
tionnaire-4 (SATAQ-4). Psychological Assessment, 27(1), 54–67.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037917
Schaefer, L. M., Harriger, J. A., Heinberg, L. J., Soderberg, T., & Kevin
Thompson, J. (2017). Development and validation of the sociocultural
attitudes towards appearance questionnaire-4-revised (SATAQ-4R).
The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 50(2), 104–117. https://
doi.org/10.1002/eat.22590
Sherman, R. (2002). The subjective experience of race and gender in quali-
tative research. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(8), 1247–1253.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764202045008008
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999).
Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image distur-
bance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Woods, A. M., Racine, S. E., & Klump, K. L. (2010). Examining the relation-
ship between dietary restraint and binge eating: Differential effects of
major and minor stressors. Eating Behaviors, 11(4), 276–280. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2010.08.001
SUPPORTING INF ORMATION
Additional supporting information may be found online in the
Supporting Information section at the end of this article.
How to cite this article: Wilfred, S. A., & Lundgren, J. D.
(2021). The Double Consciousness Body Image Scale: A body
image assessment centering the experiences of Black women.
International Journal of Eating Disorders, 54(10), 1771–1781.
https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23581
Copyright of International Journal of Eating Disorders is the property of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv
without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for individual use.