CHAPTER 1

NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

LESSON 1: PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE IN THE WORLD

PATTERNS IN NATURE Mathematics, physics and chemistry can explain

- are visible regular
forms found in the natural
world
- can sometimes be
modeled mathematically
patterns in nature at different levels. Patterns in
living things express the underlying biological
processes. Studies of pattern formation make use
of computer models to simulate a wide range of
patterns.

TYPES OF PATTERN IN NATURE

SYMMETRY
Bilateral or Mirror Symmetry is symmetry with
- when different sides of respect to reflection.
something are alike
- reflections may be mirror
images with only two sides, Rotational / Radial Symmetry is also found at
different scales among non-living things
Six-fold Symmetry: each
flake’s structure forming a
Fivefold Symmetry is found in the echinoderms The
record of the varying
reason for the fivefold (penta-radiate) symmetry of the
conditions during its
echinoderms is puzzling.
crystallization,

Note: Crystals in general have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits; they can be cubic or
octahedral, but true crystals cannot have fivefold symmetry (unlike quasicrystals).

FRACTALS
- infinitely self-similar
- iterated mathematical
constructs having fractal
dimension
- infinite iteration is not
possible in nature so all
‘fractal’ patterns are only
approximate.
SPIRALS
- a curve which emanates from a point,
- moving farther away as it revolves around the point.
TESSELLATIONS
- patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat
surface
- there are 17 wallpaper groups of tilings
- common in art and design, exactly repeating tilings
are less easy to find in living things.

MATH
 BUBBLES / FOAMS STRIPES
- a soap bubble forms a sphere, a - have an evolutionary explanation:
surface with minimal area — the they have functions which increase the
smallest possible surface area for the chances that the offspring of the patterned
volume enclosed animal will survive to reproduce.
CRACKS
- linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress
- pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not.

LESSON 2: FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

SEQUENCE
Example:
- ordered list of
Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify
numbers, called terms that
the next three terms.
may have repeated values 1,10,100,1000,...
- arrangement of these By looking at the set of number, you will observe
terms is set by a definite rule. that the sequence is power by 10.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
- the series of numbers:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...
The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it.
- found in a spiral,

FRULE IN FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

term number 6 is called x6 (which equals 8).

Example: the 8th term is the 7th term plus the 6th term:
x8 = x7 + x6

MATH
 CHAPTER 2
Mathematical Language and Symbol
LESSON 1: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE EXPRESSION VS. SENTENCE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS
• Precise (able to make very fine distinctions)
• Concise (able to say things briefly)
• Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease).

VOCABULARY VERSUS SENTENCES

ENGLISH: Nouns Versus Sentences
Carol loves mathematics.
‘Carol’ and ‘mathematics’ are nouns; ‘loves’ is a verb.
MATHEMATICS: Expressions Versus Sentences
EXPRESSION
- the mathematical analogue of an English noun
- correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a
mathematical object of interest.
- An expression does not state a complete thought; it does not make sense to
ask if an expression is true or false.
- most common expression types are numbers, sets, and functions.

SENTENCE
- analogue of an English sentence
- correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought.
- Sentences have verbs.
In mathematical sentence, the verb is ‘=’
- A sentence can be (always) true, (always) false, or sometimes true/sometimes
false.
CONVENTIONS IN LANGUAGES
- language has conventions
- In English, it is conventional to capitalize proper names
- Mathematics also has its conventions, which help readers distinguish between different
types of mathematical expressions.
Two common conventions in Mathematical Language
When introducing a new variable into a discussion, the convention is to place the new variable
to the left of the equal sign and the expression that defines it to the right.
It is considered good mathematical writing to avoid starting a sentence with a variable. That is
one reason that mathematical writing frequently uses words and phrases such as Then, Thus,
So, Therefore, It follows that, Hence, etc.

MATH
 LESSON 2: FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS IN MAATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
(SET, FUNCTIONS, RELATION, AND BINARY OPERATION)

SET SET NOTATION

- a collection of distinct well-
defined objects called elements
- denoted by upper case letter
- If a is an element of set A,
then we use the notation a ∈
A. Suppose b does not belong
to set A, then we use the
notation b ∉ A.
- imply list each element (or "member") separated by a
comma, and then put some curly brackets around the whole
thing
- curly brackets { } are sometimes called "set brackets" or
"braces".
There can also be sets of numbers that have no common
property, they are just defined that way.

RELATION
FUNCTION
- a set of order pairs
- a relation for which each value from the set the first
domain - set of all first
components of the
components
ordered pairs is associated with exactly one value from the
of the ordered pairs
set of second
range - set of all the second
components of the ordered pair.
components
BINARY OPERATION
- simply a rule for combining two values to create a new value
- The most widely known binary operations are those learned in elementary school: addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division on various sets of numbers.
- A binary operation on a set is a calculation involving two elements of the set to produce
another element of the set.

LESSON 3: ELEMENTARY LOGIC

PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
- mathematical system for reasoning about
propositions and how they relate to one
another.
- Every statement in propositional logic
consists of propositional variables
combined via logical connectives.
- Each variable represents some
proposition, such as “You liked it” or
“You should have put a ring on it.”
- Connectives encode how propositions are
related, such as “If you liked it, then you
should have put a ring on it.”
PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLES
- variable that represents propositions
- usually represented as lower-case letters, such
as p q r s etc , , , , .
- Each variable can take one of two values: true
or false.
- Propositional variables in logic play the same
role as numerical variables in arithmetic.
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
- defined by truth tables (but have English
language counterparts).
-we have logical connectives such as not, and, or,
conditional, and biconditional

MATH
QUANTIFIERS
- words that denote the number of objects or cases referred to in a given statement
- comes from the Latin word “quantos”.
- English quantifiers include “all”, “none”, “some”, and “not all”.
- The quantifiers “all”, “every”, and “each” illustrate that each and every object or case satisfies the
given condition.
- The quantifiers “some”, “several”, “one of” and “part of” illustrate that not all but at least one
object or case satisfies the given condition.

MATH
QUANTIFIERS
- words that denote the number of objects or cases referred to in a given statement
- comes from the Latin word “quantos”.
- English quantifiers include “all”, “none”, “some”, and “not all”.
- The quantifiers “all”, “every”, and “each” illustrate that each and every object or case satisfies the
given condition.
- The quantifiers “some”, “several”, “one of” and “part of” illustrate that not all but at least one
object or case satisfies the given condition.

MATH