Trigonometric Substitution

- Goal of This Lecture Note: Here the goal is to transform integrals, involving square-root of sum/dierence of
squares of a positive real number and a variable term, say
p p p
(I) a2 − x2 (II) a2 + x2 (III) x2 − a2 ,

into square-roots of product of two squares.

- How To Do This Transformation?: It turns out then such integrals may be easier to evaluate using substitutions
involving either Sine, Tangent, or Secant functions.

- How To Apply These Substitutions?:

√
+ Sine-Substitution: If the integral involves a2 − x2 (for simplicity, assume a > 0 and x is the variable of
integration), the following steps may help to evaluate the integral easier:
(I) Dene a new variable of integration, say θ, as x := a sin θ (for −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2.) Notice that the restriction
on θ-values helps to rewrite θ back in terms of x as sin−1 (x/a).
(II) Apply this substitution to every term containing x, particularly
p p
a2 − x2 = a2 − a2 sin2 θ dx = a cos θ dθ
√
2 2
= a cos θ = a cos θ.

+ Notice that, in this case, we have −a ≤ x ≤ 0 ≡ − π/2 ≤ θ ≤ 0 and 0 ≤ x ≤ a ≡ 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2.

√
+ Tangent-Substitution: If the integral involves a2 + x2 (for simplicity, assume a > 0 and x is the variable of
integration), the following steps may help to evaluate the integral easier:
(I) Dene a new variable of integration, say θ, as x := a tan θ (for −π/2 < θ < π/2.) Notice that the restriction
on θ-values helps to rewrite θ back in terms of x as tan−1 (x/a).
(II) Apply this substitution to every term containing x, particularly
p p
a2 + x2 = a2 + a2 tan2 θ dx = a sec2 θ dθ
√
= a2 sec2 θ = a sec θ.

+ Notice that, in this case, we have x ≤ 0 ≡ − π/2 < θ ≤ 0 and x ≥ 0 ≡ 0 ≤ θ < π/2.
√
+ Secant-Substitution: If the integral involves x2 − a2 (for simplicity, assume a > 0 and x is the variable of
integration), the following steps may help to evaluate the integral easier:
(I) Dene a new variable of integration, say θ, as x := a sec θ (for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π but θ 6= π/2.) Notice that the
restriction on θ-values helps to rewrite θ back in terms of x as sec−1 (x/a).
(II) Apply this substitution to every term containing x, particularly
p p
x2 − a2 = a2 sec2 θ − a2 dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ

p a tan θ for 0 ≤ θ < π/2
= a2 tan2 θ = a| tan θ| =
−a tan θ for π/2 < θ ≤ π

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 MTH 233
Instructor: Mehdi Nikpour Trigonometric Substitution Spring 2020

+ Notice that, in this case, we have x ≤ −a ≡ π/2 < θ ≤ π and x ≥ a ≡ 0 ≤ θ < π/2.
+ With the Secant substitution, when evaluating a denite integral, you should check the limits of integration
to see which of these two cases applies. For indenite integrals, a piecewise formula is often needed, unless
a restriction on the variable is given in the problem.

+ Just As a Reminder: In some special cases, these types of integrals may be evaluated using inverse hyperbolic
function: For a > 0, we have
Z Z
dx x dx x
√ = cosh−1 + C, for x > a √ = sinh−1 , for all x
x2 − a2 a x2 + a2 a
√ ! √ !
x + x2 − a2 x + x2 + a2
= ln + C. = ln + C.
a a
 
|x|
Z Z
dx 1 x dx 1
√ = − sech−1 + C, for 0 < x < a √ = − csch −1
, for x 6= 0
x a2 − x2 a a 2
x x +a 2 a a
√ ! √ !
1 a + a2 − x2 1 a + x2 + a2
= − ln + C. = − ln + C.
a x a |x|

and

tanh−1
 1 x


Z + C, for |x| < a
dx  a a
=
a2 − x2 1
coth−1 xa + C, for |x| > a


a
  
1 a+x
ln a−x + C, for |x| < a


 2a
=   .
 1 x+a
ln + C, for |x| > a


2a x−a

Example 1 .

Z 3/2 Z π/6
dx 3 cos θ dθ
= 3 x := 3 sin θ, for − π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
0 (9 − x2 )3/2 0 (3 cos θ)
Z π/6 iπ/6 √
1 2 1h 3
= sec θ dθ = tan θ = .
9 0 9 0 27

Example 2 .

−1/2
√ −π/6
1 − x2
Z Z
cos θ
dx = 2 · cos θ dθ x := sin θ, for − π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
−1 x2 −π/2 sin θ
Z −π/6
− cos2 θ h i−π/6
= 2 dθ = − cot θ − θ
−π/2 | sin
{z θ } −π/2
=csc2 θ−1
√ π
= 3− .
3

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Example 3 .

Z Z Z
−3/2 −3/2
(36 − 9x2 )−3/2 dx = 9(4 − x2 ) 9 · 4 cos2 θ
 
dx = · 2 cos θ dθ x := 2 sin θ, for − π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
Z
2 cos θ
= dθ
216 cos3 θ
Z
1
= sec2 θ dθ
108
1
= tan θ + C. (3.1)
108

Now, express tan θ in terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle and to label one of its acute angle
with θ. Since sin θ = x/2, label the (size) of the hypotenuse of the right triangle with 2 and the (size) of the opposite side of
the angle θ with x:

From which, the expression in (3.1), in terms of x, is

1 x
√ + C.
108 4 − x2

Example 4 .

2 sec2 θ dθ
Z Z Z
dx dx
√ = p = x := 2 tan θ, for − π/2 < θ < π/2
16 + 4x2 4(4 + x2 ) 4 sec θ
Z
1
= sec θ dθ
2
1
= ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C.
2

Now, express ln | sec θ + tan θ| in terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle and to label one of its
acute angle with θ. Since tan θ = x/2, label the (size) of the opposite side of the angle θ with x and the (size) of its adjacent
side with 2:

Therefore,
√
4 + x2
Z
dx 1 x
√ = ln | + | + C.
16 + 4x2 2 2 2

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Example 5 .

9 sec2 θ dθ 9 sec2 θ dθ
Z Z Z
dx
= = x := 9 tan θ, for − π/2 < θ < π/2
(81 + x2 )2 (81 + 81 tan2 θ)2 812 sec4 θ
Z
1 2
= 3 cos
| {z θ} dθ
9
=(1+cos 2x)/2
 
1 1 1
= θ + sin(2θ) + C = (θ + sin θ · cos θ) + C.
1458 2 1458

Now, express θ + sin θ · cos θ in terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle and to label one of its acute
angle with θ. Since tan θ = x/9, label the (size) of the opposite side of the angle θ with x and the (size) of its adjacent side
with 9:

Therefore, Z  
dx 1 −1
x 9x
2 2
= tan + + C.
(81 + x ) 1458 9 81 + x2

Example 6 .

x2 4 tan2 θ
Z Z
√ dx = p · 2 sec2 θ dθ x := 2 tan θ, for − π/2 < θ < π/2
4 + x2 4 + 4 tan2 θ
| {z }
=2 sec θ
Z Z
= 4 tan2 θ · sec θ dθ = 4 sin2 θ · cos−3 θ dθ.

From which, rst we evaluate

=sec3 θ−sec θ
z }| {
Z =1−cos2 θ Z Z
z }| {
sin2 θ θ · cos−3 θ dθ = sec3 θ dθ − sec θ dθ
 
sec θ · tan θ 1
= + ln | sec θ + tan θ| − ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C Apply Reduction Formula for secn θ
2 2
sec θ · tan θ 1
= − ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C.
2 2
Now, express sec θ in terms of x, we use the gure in Example 4. Therefore,
√ √
x2 x 4 + x2 x + 4 + x2
Z
√ dx = − 2 ln | | + C.
4 + x2 2 2

Example 7 .

y4 tan4 θ
Z Z Z
dy = · sec2 θ dθ = tan4 θ dθ y := tan θ, for − π/2 < θ < π/2
1 + y2 1 + tan2 θ
tan3 θ
= − tan θ + θ + C. Apply Reduction Formula for tann θ
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Therefore,

y4 y3
Z
dy = − y + tan−1 y + C.
1 + y2 3

Example 8 .

Z √ Z p Z p
9x2 − 25 9[x2 − (25/9)] 9[(25/9) sec2 θ − (25/9)] 5 5 π
dx = dx = · · sec θ · tan θ dθ x := sec θ, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, θ 6=
x3 x 3 (5/3)3 sec3 θ 3 3 2
| tan θ| · tan θ
Z
9
= dθ
5 sec2 θ
R tan2 θ

9
dθ for 0 ≤ θ < π/2




 5 sec 2θ

 | {z }

 q
= sin2 θ = 1−cos(2θ)
2

 q

 z }| {
R tan2 θ



− 95 dθ for π/2 < θ ≤ π


 9  sec2 θ 
 10 θ − 21 sin(2θ) + C for 0 ≤ θ < π/2
=
9
θ − 21 sin(2θ) + C for π/2 < θ ≤ π
 
− 10

 9
 10 [θ − sin θ · cos θ] + C for 0 ≤ θ < π/2
=
9
− 10 [θ − sin θ · cos θ] + C for π/2 < θ ≤ π


Now, to express sin θ and cos θ in terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle and to label one of
its acute angle with θ. Since sec θ = 3x/5, label the (size) of the adjacent side of the angle θ with 5 and the (size) of the
hypotenuse of the right triangle with 3x:

Therefore,

 h √ i
5 9x2 −25
9
sec−1 3x 5


Z √ 
 10 5 − 9x 2 +C for x ≥ 3
9x2 − 25 
dx =
x3  h √
5 9x2 −25
i
 − 9 sec−1 3x
for x ≤ − 53


− +C

10 5 9x2

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Example 9 .

(1/3) sec θ · tan θ dθ

Z Z Z
dx dx 1 π
√ = p = p x := sec θ, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, θ 6=
x2 9x2 − 1 2 2
x 9[x − (1/9)] (1/9) sec2 θ 9[(1/9) sec2 θ − (1/9)] 3 2
Z
tan θ
=3 dθ
sec θ · | tan θ|
 R 1

 3 dθ for 0 < θ < π/2



 |sec
{z θ}

 q
= cos θ


 q
 z }| {
 −3 R 1 dθ for π/2 < θ < π



 sec θ
 3 sin θ + C for 0 < θ < π/2
=
−3 sin θ + C for π/2 < θ < π


Now, to express sin θ in terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle and to label one of its acute angle
with θ. Since sec θ = 3x, label the (size) of the adjacent side of the angle θ with 1 and the (size) of the hypotenuse of the
right triangle with 3x:

Therefore,  √
9x −1 2
Z  +C for x > 1/3
dx x
√ = √
.
x2 9x2 − 1  − 9x2 −1 + C
x for x < −1/3

Example 10 .

x3 43 sec3 θ
Z Z
π
dx = · 4 · sec θ · tan θ dθ x := 4 sec θ, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, θ 6=
(x2 − 16)3/2 (16 sec2 θ − 16)3/2 2
sec4 θ · tan θ sec4 θ
Z Z
=4 dθ = 4 dθ
| tan θ|3 tan θ| tan θ|

R sec4 θ
4 dθ for 0 < θ < π/2


 2



 |tan
{z θ}

 q
= 4 csc2 (2θ)


 q
 z }| {
 4
 −4 sec θ dθ for π/2 < θ < π

 R

 tan2 θ
 −8 cot(2θ) + C for 0 < θ < π/2
=
8 cot(2θ) + C for π/2 < θ < π


Now, to express cot(2θ) = (cos2 θ − sin2 θ)/(2 sin θ · cos θ) in terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle
and to label one of its acute angle with θ. Since sec θ = x/4, label the (size) of the adjacent side of the angle θ with 4 and
the (size) of the hypotenuse of the right triangle with x:

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Therefore,
2

√x −32 +C for x > 4
3

x2 −16
Z
x 
dx = .
(x − 16)3/2
2 2
√32−x


x2 −16
+C for x < −4

+ Completing the square can be useful in simplifying integrals involving the expression ax2 + bx + c. The following two
examples illustrate the method.

Completing the Square

If an integral involves ax2 + bx + c, complete the square via
 
2 2 b c
ax + bx + c = a x + x +
a a
 
 2  2
 b b b c
= a x2 + x + − +
 
a 2a 2a a


| {z }
perfect square
" 2  2 #
b b c
=a x+ − +
2a 2a a
2
b2

b
=a x+ − + c.
2a 4a

and then use a trigonometric substitution or some other method to evaluate the integral.

Example 11 Completing the Square

.

x2 + 2x + 4 x2 + 2x + 4
Z Z
√ dx = p dx
x2 − 4x (x − 2)2 − 4
Z

tan θ
=4 sec3 θ + 3 sec2 θ + 3 sec θ dθ x − 2 := 2 sec θ, for
| tan θ|

 4 sec3 θ dθ + 12 sec2 θ dθ + 12 sec θ dθ
R R R
for 0 < θ < π/2
π
= 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, θ 6=
2
−4 sec3 θ dθ + 12 sec2 θ dθ + 12 sec θ dθ for − π/2 < θ < π
 R R R

 2 sec θ · tan θ + 12 tan θ + 14 ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C for 0 < θ < π/2
=
−2 sec θ · tan θ − 12 tan θ − 14 ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C for − π/2 < θ < π


Now, to express tan θ in terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle and to label one of its acute angle
with θ. Since sec θ = (x − 2)/2, label the (size) of the adjacent side of the angle θ with 2 and the (size) of the hypotenuse of
the right triangle with x − 2:

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Therefore,
 √  x−2+√(x−2)2 −4 
 
(x−2) (x−2)2 −4 p
+6 (x − 2)2 − 4 + 14 ln  +C for x > 4


 2 2
x2 + 2x + 4
Z 
 
√ dx = .
x2 − 4x  √  √ 
 (x−2) (x−2)2 −4 p  2
2 − 4 − 14 ln  x−2+ (x−2) −4  + C

 − − 6 (x − 2) for x < −4


2  2 

Example 12 Completing the Square

.

x2 − 8x + 16 (x − 4)2
Z Z
dx = dx
(9 + 8x − x2 )3/2 (25 − (x − 4)2 )3/2
Z
2 −1
=5 | {z θ} · cos θ dθ
sin x − 4 := 5 sin θ, for − π/2θ < π/2
=1−cos2 θ
Z Z
= 5 sec θ dθ − 5 cos θ dθ

= 5 ln | sec θ + tan θ| − 5 sin θ + C

Now, to express sec θ and tan θin terms of x, one simple way is to draw a (reference) right triangle and to label one of its
acute angle with θ. Since sin θ = (x − 4)/5, label the (size) of the opposite side of the angle θ with x − 4 and the (size) of the
hypotenuse of the right triangle with 5:

Therefore,  
x2 + 2x + 4
Z  x+1 
√ dx = 5 ln  p  − (x − 4) + C.
 
x2 − 4x  25 − (x − 4)2 

Example 13 Completing the Square

.

√ √ √ √
Z ( 2+3)/(2 2) Z ( 2+3)/(2 2)
dx dx
= √ √
2
1/2 8x2 − 8x + 11 1/2 2 2x − 2 + 9
√
Z π/4
(3/2 2) sec2 θ dθ √ √
= 2 2x − 2 := 3 tan θ, for − π/2 < θ < π/2
0 9 tan2 θ + 9
Z π/4
1 π
= √ 1 dθ = √ .
6 2 0 24 2

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Example 14 Completing the Square

.
√ √ √ √
Z ( 2+3)/(2 2) Z ( 2+3)/(2 2)
dx dx
= √ √
2
1/2 8x2 − 8x + 11 1/2 2 2x − 2 + 9
√
Z π/4
(3/2 2) sec2 θ dθ √ √
= 2 2x − 2 := 3 tan θ, for − π/2 < θ < π/2
0 9 tan2 θ + 9
Z π/4
1 π
= √ 1 dθ = √ .
6 2 0 24 2

Example 15 . The upper half of the ellipse centered at the origin with axes of length 2a and 2b is described by
bp 2
y= a − x2
a

Find the area of the ellipse in terms of a and b.

Solution
=a cos θ
Z a Z π/2 z }| {
bp 2 4b p
2
Area = 4 a − x2 dx = a2 2
− a sin θ ·a · cos θ dθ x := a sin θ & − π/2 < θ < π/2
0 a a 0
Z π/2
2
= 4ab cos
| {z θ} dθ
0
=(1+cos(2θ))/2
h 1 iπ/2
= 2ab θ + sin(2θ) = πab.
2 0

Example 16 . Find the area of the shaded region of the circle of radius a when the chord is h units (0 < h < a) from the
center of the circle:

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Solution

√ √
Z a2 −h2 p  Z sin−1 ( a2 −h2 /a)
Area = 2 a2 − x2 − h dx = 2 (a cos θ − h) (a cos θ) dθ x := a sin θ & − π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
0 0
√ √
Z sin−1 ( a2 −h2 /a) Z sin−1 ( a2 −h2 /a)
2 2
= 2a cos θ dθ − 2ah cos θ dθ
0 0
√ √
h isin−1 ( a2 −h2 /a) h isin−1 ( a2 −h2 /a)
= a2 θ + sin θ cos θ − 2ah sin θ
0 0
√ !
a2 − h2 p
= a2 sin−1 − h a2 − h2 .
a

Example 17. A lune is a crescent-shaped region bounded by the arcs of two circles. Let C1 be a circle of radius 4 centered
at the origin. Let C2 be a circle of radius 3 centered at the point (2, 0). Find the area of the lune (shaded in the gure) that
lies inside C1 and outside C2 .

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Solution
"Z !
−1 p Z 11/4 p p 
Area = 2 16 − x2 dx + 16 − x2 − 9 − (x − 2)2 dx
−4 −1
!
Z 11/4 p Z 11/4 p
=2 16 − x2 dx − 9 − (x − 2)2 dx x := 4 sin θ, for first integral,
−4 −1

and x − 2 := 3 sin τ, for second integral

−1 −1
!
Z sin (11/16) Z sin (1/4)
= 2 16 cos2 θ dθ − 9 cos2 τ dτ
−π/2 −π/2
( "   √ # "   √ #)
−1 11 33 15 π 9 −1 1 15 π
= 2 8 sin + + − sin + +
16 162 2 2 4 16 2
≈ 26.66 unit of area.

Example 18 A torus (doughnut)

.
Find the volume of the solid torus formed when the circle of radius 4 centered at (0, 6) is revolved about the x-axis.

Z 4 Z 4 p
yu2 − yl2


Volume = 2π dx = 48π 16 − x2 dx
0 0
Z π/2
= 768π cos2 θ dθ x := 4 sin θ & − π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
0
| {z }
=π/4

= 192π = (2π6)(π42 ).
2

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Example 19 . Bob and Bruce bake bagels (shaped like tori)

They both make bagels that have an inner radius of 0.5 in and an outer radius of 2.5 in. Bob plans to increase the volume of
his bagels by decreasing the inner radius by 20% (leaving the outer radius unchanged). Bruce plans to increase the volume
of his bagels by increasing the outer radius by 20% (leaving the inner radius unchanged). Whose new bagels will have the
greater volume? Does this result depend on the size of the original bagels? Explain.

Based on the above gure, the volume of a torus with inner radius ri and outer radius ro is
s 2
(ro −ri )/2 (ro −ri )/2
ro − ri
Z Z
yu2 − yl 2


Volume = 2π dx = 4π(ro + ri ) − x2 dx
0 0 2
π/2  
ro − ri
Z
2 2
= π(ro + ri )(ro − ri ) cos θ dθ x := sin θ & − π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
2
|0 {z }
=π/4
2
π
= (ro + ri )(ro − ri )2 · .
4

Hence, the initial volume of a torus with ri = 0.5 in. and ro = 2.5 in. is 3π 2 square-inches. Now,

• if the inner radius decreases by 20% (i.e. inner radius changes from 0.5 in. to 0.4 in.), while the outer radius is kept
unchanged, the new volume of the torus would be (π 2 /4)(2.9)(2.1)2 square-inches. Therefore, the volume is increased by
6.575%.

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• if the outer radius increases by 20% (i.e. outer radius changes from 2.5 in. to 3 in.), while the inner radius is kept
unchanged, the new volume of the torus would be (π 2 /4)(3.5)(2.5)2 square-inches. Therefore, the volume is increased by
about 82.29%.

Therefore, Bruce's bagel is much bigger than the Bob's one.

Notice that this result does not depend on the original sizes of the bagel; indeed,

• if the inner radius ri of a torus decreases by p%, while its outer radius is kept unchanged, the new volume of the torus
would be
0 π2 h p ih p i2
Vi = (ro + ri ) − (ro − ri ) + ,
4 100 100
• if the outer radius ro of a torus increases by p%, while its inner radius is kept unchanged, the new volume of the torus
would be
0 π2 h p ih p i2
Vo = (ro + ri ) + (ro − ri ) + .
4 100 100
0 0
From these two observations, one may easily Vo > Vi .
Example 20 Electric eld due to a line of charge
.
A total charge of Q is distributed uniformly on a line segment of length 2L along the y -axis:

The x-component of the electric eld at a point (a, 0) is given by

Z L
kQa dy
Ex (a) = 3/2
,
2L −L (a2 + y2 )

where k is a physical constant and a > 0.

(a) Conrm that

kQ
Ex (a) = √ .
a a2 + L2

(b) Letting ρ = Q
2L be the charge density on the line segment, show that if L → +∞, then Ex (a) = a .
2kρ

Solution
f(a)

L tan−1 (L/a)
a sec2 θ dθ
Z Z
kQa dy kQa
Ex (a) = = y := a tan θ & − π/2 < θ < π/2
2L −L
2 2
(a + y ) 3/2 2L − tan−1 (L/a) a3 sec3 θ
Z tan−1 (L/a) −1
itan (L/a)
kQ kQ h
= cos θ dθ = sin θ
2aL − tan−1 (L/a) 2aL − tan−1 (L/a)
  
kQ L kQ L
= sin tan−1 = ·√
aL a aL L2 + a2
kQ
= √ .
a L2 + a2

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Instructor: Mehdi Nikpour Trigonometric Substitution Spring 2020

√
f(b) If ρ := Q/(2L), then Ex (a) = (2kρL)/(a a2 + L2 ). therefore,

2kρL
lim Ex (a) = lim √
L→∞ L→∞ a a2 + L2
2kρL 2kρ
= lim q
= lim q

L→∞ a 2 L→∞ a 2
aL L +1 a L +1
2kρ
= .
a

Example 21 Magnetic eld due to current in a straight wire

.
A long, straight wire of length 2L on the y -axis carries a current I . According to the Biot-Savart Law, the magnitude of the
magnetic eld due to the current at a point (a, 0) is given by
Z L
µ0 I sin θ
B(a) = dy,
4π −L r2

where µ0 is a physical constant, a > 0, and θ, r, and y are related as shown in the gure:

(a) Show that the magnitude of the magnetic eld at (a, 0) is

µ IL
B(a) = √0 .
2πa a2 + L2

(b) What is the magnitude of the magnetic eld at (a, 0) due to an innitely long wire (L → +∞)?

Solution
(a) Based on the given gure, we have

a a
r2 = a2 + y 2 and sin θ = =p .
r a + y2
2

L L tan−1 (L/a)
a2 sec2 θ dθ
Z Z Z
µ0 I sin θ µ0 I a dy µ0 I
B(a) = dy = = y := a tan θ & − π/2 < θ < π/2
r2 a3 sec3 θ
p
4π −L 4π −L
2 2 2
(a + y ) a + y 2 4π − tan−1 (L/a)
Z tan−1 (L/a)
µ0 I
= cos θ dθ
4aπ − tan−1 (L/a)
  
µ0 I −1 L µ0 I L
= sin tan = ·√ .
2aπ a 2aπ a + L2
2

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 MTH 233
Instructor: Mehdi Nikpour Trigonometric Substitution Spring 2020

(b)
µ IL
lim B(a) = lim √0
L→∞ 2πa a2 + L2
L→∞
µ IL µ I
= lim q0 = lim q 0

L→∞ a 2
L→∞ a2
2πaL L2 + 1 2πa L2 + 1
µ0 I
= .
2πa

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