THE COLLECTION > From natural sources to production challenges

> INTRODUCTION
1 > The atom
2 > Radioactivity
3 > Radiation and man
4 > Energy
5 > Nuclear energy: fusion and fission
6 > How a nuclear reactor works
7 > The nuclear fuel cycle
FROM RESEARCH
8 > Microelectronics
9 > The laser: a concentrate of light TO INDUSTRY
10 > Medical imaging
11 > Nuclear astrophysics
12 > Hydrogen

4 > Energy
WHAT IS ENERGY?
THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT
FORMS OF ENERGY

© Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives, 2005

Communication Division
Bâtiment Siège - 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex
www.cea.fr

ISSN 1637-5408.

From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy
2 > CONTENTS >
> INTRODUCTION 3
Energy can be
observed in
movement,
chemical reactions,
radiation, heat
release, electrical

© PhotoDisc - MNHN
systems and atomic
fission.

“Energy is essential for mankind.

Energy

WHAT IS ENERGY? 4
Different levels of energy 5 It represents a major political,
Energy can change 5
economic, scientific and environmental
challenge.”
Energy can never
be destroyed 6
Energy can be measured 6
Power 7

THE DIFFERENT FORMS

introduction
OF ENERGY 8
Kinetic energy 9
Gravitational energy 9

H
© PhotoDisc

Elastic energy 9 uman beings have always needed energy

Work 9 to feed themselves and move about.
Thermal energy 10 The wind is one of many sources of energy. Energy can be found in various forms. Today’s
Electrical energy 10 technologies are capable of tapping all pos- a major political, economic, scientific and envi-
Radiation energy 10 sible resources (e.g. fossil fuels, water, wind, ronmental challenge. Of the many properties
Chemical energy 10 sun) to produce large quantities of energy. Now, found in material objects, energy is not only
at the start of the 21st century, energy remains one of the most important but also one of the
Nuclear energy 11
most abstract, since it is not actually tangible.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE DIFFERENT FORMS
OF ENERGY 12
Diluted and concentrated
energy 13
Degradation 15
Storage 16
Transporting energy 17
Reserves 17
Hazards 18

Designed and produced by Spécifique - Cover photo by © PhotoDisc - Illustrations by YUVANOE - Printed by Imprimerie de Montligeon - 04/2005

From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy
4 > WHAT IS ENERGY? 5
AN ABSTRACT CONCEPT, ENERGY COMES
FROM THE GREEK WORD “ENERGIA”, MEANING
“STRENGTH IN ACTION”.

What is energy? DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ENERGY

The existence of energy can appear under
different guises, depending on the situation.
The faster a car is traveling, the more energy
it has; but it carries less energy than a truck
traveling at the same speed. When a spring
is compressed, it has more energy than when
it is released. A battery has more energy
before it is used than when it has been dis-
charged. The energy in a saucepan of water
increases when it is heated.
Thus energy appears in very different forms.
For each of them, comparisons show how the
amount of energy in a physical system depends
on the state of that system. In the above
examples, this state is characterized by the

© PhotoDisc
speed and mass of the vehicle, the shape of
the spring, or the charge of the battery. As we
will see, different types of energy can, at least In a bulb, electrical energy is converted into light and
in part, take many other forms. These energy thermal energy.
transformations are used in everyday life, but
they all generate losses.

ENERGY CAN CHANGE
Energy can be transmitted from one system to
another: it is transferred as heat from a radiator
to the air in a room. It can also change to take
on a different form. In a mechanical toy, the
spring unwinds causing movement. The energy
associated with the movement of your bicycle
is converted into heat in the brake blocks and
wheel rims when you brake. The energy stored
in a flashlight battery is transformed into
© PhotoDisc
This in turn is converted into light and ther-
mal energy in the bulb. In a thermal power sta-
tion, the energy stored in the fuel (chemical
energy in coal and oil or nuclear energy in ura-
nium) is transformed (by combustion or
nuclear reaction) into heat; part of this heat is
then recovered in turbines as mechanical
energy; finally, this mechanical energy is con-
verted into electrical energy in the alternators.
We perceive energy through these transfor-

electrical energy when you close the circuit. mations and transfers.

From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy
6 > WHAT IS ENERGY?
“Energy can never be destroyed: none
of it can be lost and none created. This is
the primary principle of thermodynamics.”
ENERGY CAN NEVER BE
DESTROYED
The most remarkable characteristic of energy
is that it can never be destroyed. When it is
transferred from one system to another, or
when it changes nature, no energy is created
or destroyed. If an object loses energy, the
same amount of energy must have been
gained by another object linked to the first.
Similarly, when energy changes form, the
amount remains exactly the same.
Therefore, terms such as “energy produc-
tion” or “energy loss” used by journalists,
economists and politicians are in fact inac-
curate, because energy can be neither cre-
ated nor lost. In a thermal power station,
energy is not “produced”; rather, chemical
or nuclear energy is transformed into elec-
trical or thermal energy. The overall amount
of this conversion is described as the effi-
ciency. The efficiency of a power station is
33%, which means that for every 33 units of
electrical energy sent over the electricity grid,
100 units of nuclear energy were consumed
and 67 units of heat produced.
This heat, which is released into the environ-
© M. Morceau/Médiathèque EDF
ment, for example as steam from cooling
towers, is generally lost. However, some power
stations recover some of it to heat homes or
greenhouses.
We will see later that, although energy can never
be destroyed, its different forms are not actu-
ally equivalent, because not all the transfor-
mations we can imagine are possible.
From natural sources to production challenges
ENERGY CAN BE MEASURED
As energy cannot be destroyed, its different
forms can be measured using a single unit.
The kinetic energy associated with the move-
ment of an object of mass m and velocity v is
equal to E = 1/2 mv2. When this mass is
expressed in kilograms and the velocity in
meters per second, this formula gives energy
in joules (J), a legal unit in the International
System of Units (SI).
When a power station – here the EDF power station at Penly
(Seine-Maritime) – “produces” electricity, it is really
transforming nuclear energy into electrical energy.
4 > Energy
Before heat was recognized as a form of energy,
the study of thermal exchanges had led to the
introduction of a unit of heat, the calorie,
defined as the quantity of heat needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of water by one
degree Celsius. Experience has shown that
transforming mechanical energy into heat, and
the reverse, always gives the same ratio, i.e.
1 calorie to 4.18 joules. These two forms of
energy (mechanical energy and heat) are there-
fore equivalent. For this reason, the calorie
was abandoned and heat and all other forms
of energy are now measured in joules.
POWER
Energy exchange is characterized not only by
the amount of energy transferred or trans-
formed, but also by the duration of the process.
The concept of power is thus defined as the
amount of energy exchanged per unit time. The
unit of power, the watt, is therefore the joule
per second. Therefore, in one hour (3,600 sec-
onds), 3,600 x 1,500 J = 5,400,000 J of elec-
trical energy is transformed into thermal energy.
This example shows that the joule is really too
small a unit of energy for everyday use. In
practice we often use the kilowatt-hour (kWh),
the amount of energy used by a device rated
at 1,000 W in one hour. One kWh is thus
equivalent to 3,600 x 1,000 J = 3,600,000 J.
In one hour, the electric heater used in the
example above, consumes 1.5 kWh and
obviously radiates 1.5 kWh of thermal energy
in the same period.
From natural sources to production challenges
> WHAT IS ENERGY? 7
“An American
consumes on average
about twice the
amount of electricity
a French person
consumes, who in turn
consumes fourteen
times more electricity
than an African.”
The average annual consumption of electricity
per capita in France is more than 7,000 kWh,
in the US it is twice that at 14,000 kWh and
in Africa it barely exceeds 500 kWh. Nuclear
power plants account for three quarters of the
electricity produced in France; the remaining
quarter is split between hydroelectric and
thermal (coal and oil). But this electricity
represents less than half our total energy
consumption. The rest comes from the direct
use of oil (gasoline and fuel oil), gas and coal.
One third of our consumption is used for
heating, and one quarter for transport.
4 > Energy
8 > THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
ENERGY CAN BE OBSERVED IN MOVEMENT,
CHEMICAL REACTIONS, RADIATION, HEAT RELEASE,
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND ATOMIC FISSION.
The different KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the
forms of energy movement of an object. We know that energy
is proportional to the mass m and the square
of the velocity v of an object (provided that the
velocity is well below the speed of light, i.e.
300,000 km/s).
GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY
Two massive bodies attract each other. This
phenomenon, known as gravitational force, is
weak for small objects but becomes very strong
for stars and planets. The Sun and the Earth,
and the Earth and Moon, attract each other;
gravity is the gravitational force exerted by the
Earth on objects in its vicinity. Gravitational
energy corresponds to this force and is greater
© PhotoDisc
© PhotoDisc
Dams offer the advantage of being both sources and
reservoirs of energy.
From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy From natural sources to production challenges
9
when bodies are farther away from each other
than when they are close together. Gravita-
tional energy is called potential energy because
it is only perceptible when converted into
another form of energy. The potential energy of
an elevator car is greater on the sixth floor than
on the ground floor because on the sixth floor
it is farther away from the center of the Earth,
which attracts it. If you cut the cable and
released the safety brakes, the car would fall,
accelerating all the time, and its potential
energy would change into more visible kinetic
energy. Similarly the energy of a 1 kg mass of
water on the surface of a lake behind a dam is
greater than its energy when it is at the foot of
the dam. For a difference in altitude of 100 m,
its difference in potential energy is 981 J. It is
this energy that is exploited in a hydroelectric
power station, where the falling water turns the
turbines that drive the alternators.
ELASTIC ENERGY
This is another type of potential energy, in this
case associated with the deformation of elas-
tic objects, e.g. the tension in a spring or the
compression of a gas.
WORK
This term refers to the transfer of energy that
occurs when a force is applied to an object and
the point of application of the force moves.
When a weight is lifted or when water is raised
from the bottom of a dam to the top, work is
done, enabling the object in question to acquire
4 > Energy
10 > THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
“Energy can change form.
For example, oil combustion converts
it into heat.”
greater potential energy. The work done on a
pump compressing a gas increases the elastic
energy of that gas and heats it.
The forms of energy described so far are
mechanical energies.
THERMAL ENERGY
On an atomic scale, heat appears as the disor-
dered, fairly rapid movement of molecules. As
we perceive it, it is the form of energy involved
in temperature variations or when materials
change state (e. g. when ice melts or water
evaporates). It can be transferred between two
objects without changing into another form of
energy (thermal conduction). It can also be con-
verted into mechanical energy, in a turbine, a
steam engine or a jet engine, although this con-
version can only be partial, as shown later.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Charged particles exert electrical forces on
each other. Just as gravitational potential
energy is associated with gravitational forces
or gravity, electrical potential energy is asso-
ciated with the electrical forces between
charges. When these move around a circuit,
fairly rapid transfers of energy take place,
measured by electric power. Electrical energy
can be transformed into heat in a resistor (e.g.
a heater), or into work in a motor.
RADIATION ENERGY
Radiation carries energy, even across a vacuum.
The Sun transmits about 1 kW per square meter
of power as visible light and infrared radiation.
From natural sources to production challenges
A radiator conveys its heat to us not only
through the surrounding air, but also directly
as infrared radiation. In the filament of an elec-
tric bulb, the electrical energy is transformed
into heat, and this heat is given off principally
as radiation energy, both visible light and
infrared. A microwave oven transfers heat to
food starting with electrical energy, which is
converted into “microwave” radiation, similar
to that of a radar. Conversely part of the light
energy from the Sun can be converted into elec-
trical energy using photovoltaic cells. Radio
waves also carry energy, at a weak level but with
sufficient strength to carry sound, images or
information.
CHEMICAL ENERGY
Chemical energy is associated with the bonds
of atoms inside molecules. It is greater when
these atoms are separated than when they are
bound as molecules, and the greater the bind-
ing energy, the greater the difference in mass.
Chemical reactions change the chemical
energy of bodies and therefore often transform
this energy into other forms of energy, usually
heat. A gas fire produces a certain amount of
thermal energy, equal to the difference between
the chemical energy of the gas and oxygen
consumed, and that of the combustion prod-
ucts (steam and carbon dioxide). In a coal- or
oil-fired power station, only a fraction of the
heat from combustion is converted into elec-
trical energy. In an accumulator or electric bat-
tery, part of the chemical energy released by
the reaction is directly recovered as electricity.
4 > Energy
> THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY 11
Here, by way of example, are the
energy transformations produced Transformation of energy
in a car:
• The chemical energy of gasoline
and air is transformed into heat by
combustion. This is transmitted, by
the production of hot gases, first to
the cylinders and then to the pistons.
At this stage, it is transformed into
mechanical energy and starts to move Gasoline
HEAT FROM
the car, which acquires a certain
amount of kinetic energy. COMBUSTION Engine Movement Friction
• The friction of the air against the
bodywork and the wheels against the
CHEMICAL MECHANICAL KINETIC HEAT
ground transforms all this energy into
ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY
heat (on a flat road at a constant
speed). Alternator
• Some of the energy from the engine
is converted into electrical energy,
which drives an alternator. The
current produced is used to make the
spark plugs spark to light the fuel,
and to recharge the battery, thereby
CHEMICAL LIGHT
increasing its chemical energy. It is Battery Spark Headlight
ENERGY ENERGY
also used to light the headlights to plug
emit light energy. Thus, at a given
speed, we consume slightly more
gasoline by night than by day.
Although they seem different, thermal, elec- nuclei provide nuclear energy. As they trans-
trical, radiation and chemical energy actually form the structure of atomic nuclei, nuclear
all have the same source: on a microscopic reactions release heat. This is the mechanism
scale, they are all connected to the electrical at work within the Sun’s core, which produces
forces between charged particles. the heat radiated by the Sun through the
fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei.
NUCLEAR ENERGY In our nuclear power plants, another nuclear
Nuclear energy is located in atomic nuclei. reaction is used, namely the fission of uranium
These nuclei, which are 100,000 times nuclei, which splits each nucleus into two
smaller than the atoms, are made up of more, different nuclei approximately twice as small.
very tightly bound, fundamental particles, Some of the heat produced (33%, as seen on
called protons and neutrons. Just as the bonds page 6) is converted into electricity.
between atoms to form molecules are a source
of chemical energy, those created by nuclear
forces between protons and neutrons to form
From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy
12 > CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY 13
POWER, “LOSS” AS HEAT, CAPACITY FOR
RENEWAL… THESE ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS THAT
DETERMINE HOW WE USE DIFFERENT ENERGIES.

Characteristics of Although energy is a single physical variable,

its various forms have very different charac-

the different forms teristics. In practice, the choice of energy used

depends on the intended purpose. For a par-
ticular purpose, for example electrical energy
production, it is essential to weigh up the pros

of energy and cons of each potential solution; there are

many selection criteria.

DILUTED AND CONCENTRATED

ENERGY
Just as a $50 bill is worth the same as
fifty $1 bills, some forms of energy are con-
centrated in a much smaller volume than oth-
ers. In this respect, there are three categories
corresponding to the three types of force seen
earlier.

© PhotoDisc
Gravitational energy
The amount of gravitational energy available
is only significant if huge masses are involved.
It was demonstrated earlier that 1 kg of
water falling from a height of 100 m only
represents 981 J of energy (see page 9)
and 1 kWh is equivalent to 3,600,000 J
(see page 7). To release only 1 kWh,
3,600,000 J/981 J/kg, or 3.67 metric tons
of water, must be dropped 100 m. Hydro-
electric power stations are therefore not very
efficient in this respect. The mechanical ener-
gies at work in our everyday life are also on
a very small scale. The kinetic energy of a
© CEA/Coulon
The middle category, between the diluted and
concentrated energies, includes thermal,
electrical, radiation and chemical energy.
Example: oil or gas combustion.
Thermal, electrical, radiation
and chemical energy
The middle category features thermal, elec-
trical, radiation and chemical energy, which
for everyday use can be measured in kWh per
kg of matter. It takes 0.1 kWh to melt 1 kg of
ice, or 0.7 kWh to evaporate 1 kg of water
at 100°C. Domestic appliances consume

car weighing 1 metric ton traveling at between 0.1 and 5 kW of electrical power. The
100 km/h is only 0.1 kWh. combustion of 1 kg of oil or gas provides

From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy
14 > CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
approximately 12 kWh. We human beings
make biochemical energy from the food we eat
and the air we breathe. We use this energy to
maintain our body temperature at 37°C and
engage in activity; the corresponding power
we use is 100 W at rest and 500 W during
physical activity.
The difference between these first two cate-
gories can be illustrated as follows: if the
mechanical energy of an egg dropped from the
top of the Eiffel tower were entirely transformed
into heat and used to heat the egg, its tem-
perature would only increase by 0.7°C.
Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is a far more concentrated form
of energy. One kilogram of natural uranium
provides 100,000 kWh of heat in today’s
nuclear power plants, while burning 1 kg of
Most French nuclear power plants coal supplies only
are equipped with pressurized water 8 kWh. That is why
reactors (PWRs).
we handle only
fairly small masses of nuclear fuel in elec-
tricity production. A nuclear power plant with
a power rating of 1,000 MW (109 W) uses
27 metric tons of enriched uranium per year,
a quarter of its loading, while a thermal power
station with the same power rating burns
1,500,000 metric tons of oil per year. In fact,
we can only extract by industrial means a very
small proportion of the nuclear energy stored
in matter. Nuclear reactions in the Sun trans-
© PhotoDisc
form hydrogen into helium. In this way, 1 kg
of hydrogen generates 180 million kWh.
From natural sources to production challenges
> CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
Fuel assembly.
CALCULATING TOTAL ENERGY
In the Sun, 1 kg of hydrogen produces
180 million kWh. These high energy levels are
upheld by Einstein's famous equation E = mc2, which
states that the total energy of a body is proportional
to its mass, a new equivalence; but the conversion
factor is enormous because the speed of light, c, is
300,000 km/s. This means that a mass of only 1 mg
is equivalent to 25,000 kWh. In a nuclear power
© Framatome
plant, the transformation of 1 kg of natural uranium
into other elements reduces the nuclear energy
of the fuel by 100,000 kWh, and therefore its mass
by 4 mg.
Nuclear energy is one of the most
concentrated forms of energy.
DEGRADATION
Experiments have shown that a physical sys-
tem naturally tends to become spontaneously
more and more disordered. Among the differ-
ent forms of energy, heat corresponds to the
chaotic movement of molecules. The other
forms of energy, sometimes described as the
“noble” or “available” forms, are ordered at
the microscopic level and thus tend to change
into heat. This phenomenon is known as dis-
sipation, and we say that heat is a degraded
form of energy.
It is easy to produce heat from an equivalent
amount of a noble energy, for example in elec-
tric or combustion boilers and ovens, or in solar
collectors for water heaters. However, the
reverse transformations are impossible. A given
amount of heat cannot be totally converted
into mechanical, electrical or chemical energy
using a closed-cycle apparatus, returning
4 > Energy From natural sources to production challenges
15
periodically to its initial state. This impossi-
bility is one of the fundamental laws of physics,
confirmed by countless experiments: nature
allows us to convert only a fraction of the heat
available into another form of energy, and this
fraction can never exceed a certain maximum
value. This limits the efficiency of steam tur-
bines in power stations, car and airplane
engines, and all other machines generating
mechanical energy from the thermal energy of
a hot gas.
Heat often appears as a “loss”, when other
forms of energy are handled (except of course,
for domestic or industrial heating). In order
to exploit nuclear energy or chemical energy
in a power station or a car, we use a nuclear
or chemical reaction to generate heat, only
some of which can then be converted back
into electrical or mechanical energy. The best
situation is the direct conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy, and vice versa.
But even in these cases, it is difficult in
practice to prevent part of these noble energies
from turning into heat. If the shaft of an
electric motor is driving the shaft of an
alternator, the motor is converting electrical
“Nature only lets us
convert a fraction of
heat into other forms
of energy.”
4 > Energy
16 > CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
Study of thermal exchanges by simulation.
© CEA/Greth
The battery: a method of storing electrical
energy as chemical energy.
YUVANOE
From natural sources to production challenges
energy into mechanical energy, and the
alternator is converting this back into electrical
energy. But overall, less energy is recovered
than was initially supplied; the difference is
accounted for by a release of heat through the
joule heating in the coils, or through friction
in the bearings, and this is impossible to
eliminate totally.
The equivalence between energies can be
compared to the equivalence between
convertible currencies, with 1 dollar worth
0.98 euro for example. Dissipation as heat
plays the same role as bank commission
charges, which prevent us from recovering
the amount we started with if we change
dollars into euros and back. The same overall
value or energy still exists, but not in our
pockets.
STORAGE
It is difficult to store energy in any sizeable
quantity except in certain forms. Storing and
recovering it involve conversions, and there-
fore dissipation. Electrical energy can be
stored in accumulators as chemical energy.
But discharging an accumulator provides less
electrical energy than it was charged with,
because the electrochemical reactions that
occur involve quite significant heat degrada-
tion. Moreover, accumulators are costly and
heavy because they can only store 0.1 kWh
per kg, which, along with price, has been the
principal obstruction to the development of
an electric car.
4 > Energy
> CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY 17
Our electrical power consumption varies
throughout the day, rising sharply, for example,
in the evening. It is hard for nuclear power
plants to keep up with these variations. Because
of low energy loss in electromechanical
exchanges, dams are used not only as sources
of hydroelectric energy, but also as reservoirs
of energy. At off-peak times, water is pumped
up from the bottom of the dam using elec-
tricity from nuclear power plants, and at peak
times this water is let down again, operating
the power station’s turbines and generating
electricity. Because this form of storage uses
mechanical energy at one stage, it requires
the movement of very large masses of water –
several metric tons per kWh stored.
Chemical and nuclear fuels store energy
efficiently, but we can only recover such energy
as heat.
TRANSPORTING ENERGY
The relative ease of storage and also of trans-
© PhotoDisc
portation over long distances of coal, oil and
gas has been one of the key factors of indus-
Electricity can be converted almost entirely into any other
trial development over the last two centuries. type of energy, and can be transported at a relatively low cost.
The increasing use of the car is also due to its
ability to carry enough fuel to travel several
hundred kilometers. However, electricity is the
only form of energy that can be converted RESERVES
almost entirely into any of the others and Energy sources can be divided into fossil ener-
transported over long distances in large quan- gies and renewable energies. The first rely on
tities at relatively low cost. Nevertheless, the use of minerals and fuels formed through-
energy losses due to heat from high voltage out the Earth’s history and only exist in limited
lines and transformers reach 8%. quantities. Considering rising consumption and
From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy
18 > CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY > CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY 19

Certain combustion residues of coal, oil, gaso-

line or even gas if it does not burn properly,
are harmful to human health. Carbon dioxide
is the gas emitted in the greatest quantity. It
builds up in the atmosphere and is in danger
of affecting our climate by increasing the
greenhouse effect. Nuclear reactions generate
radioactive waste, which must be processed
or reduced, especially long-lived waste. Hydro-
electric power stations have a negative impact
on valleys. Wind turbines are noisy and do not
guarantee continuous production. They also
take up a great deal of space for the rather
small amount of power they provide. Photo-
voltaic cells have the same drawback and are
very expensive. The conversion of solar energy
© PhotoDisc
“Renewable energies
are those that
reach us directly or
indirectly from the
Sun, the wind, etc.”
of this water significantly, and can thus modify
its ecological balance. Significant savings can
be made by recovering this lost heat. Half the
energy we consume is intended for domestic
or industrial heating, making use of coal, gas,
fuel oil or electricity. This could be reduced

Wind turbines exploit a renewable source of energy but only produce a small amount of power.
the possible discovery of new deposits, esti-
mated global reserves stand at a few decades
for oil, about a hundred years for gas and ura-
nium, and a few centuries for coal. The devel-
opment of technologies such as breeder reac-
tors, however, would multiply our nuclear
energy reserves more than a hundredfold.
Renewable energies
Renewable energies reach us directly or indi-
rectly from the Sun through the constant radi-
ation it emits. They include solar, water and
wind energy, and also the chemical energy built
up in plant life, which can be used for fuel
(timber, waste, alcohol). However, the total
amount of power drawn from these renewable
energies is limited. Forests should not be burnt
more quickly than they can grow. Although
renewable energies constitute a useful top-up,
they can only replace a small proportion of fossil
energies.
HAZARDS
Handling all types of energy has, to some
degree, harmful effects on our environment,
and these must be individually assessed.
into electricity is therefore only suitable for through more efficient use of the heat from
supplying very isolated dwellings, or for oper- power stations. Average per capita energy con-
ating small portable devices such as pocket sumption reflects not only standards of living,
calculators. Furthermore, a lot of energy is but also the amount of energy wasted. This
required to manufacture photovoltaic cells. example illustrates a key point: the many
sources of energy reflect the diversity of uses,
Thermal pollution and a global approach to energy problems is
Thermal pollution is the consequence of energy essential.
degradation and all non-renewable energy
sources. Most fossil energies used are even-
tually converted into heat. An earlier example
demonstrated how a car operates by converting
chemical energy supplied as gasoline into heat
released into the environment. Even though
this thermal pollution is too slight to influence
the climate, it can have local effects: a thermal
or nuclear power plant cooled by water from a
river increases the downstream temperature

From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy From natural sources to production challenges 4 > Energy