1 MODULE CODE AND NAME: TDBCE AND TDA: BUILDING

SERVICES

YEAR 2: SEMESTER II

MODULE CREDIT: 3CU

1.0 SUB MODULE 1: ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Electricity can be simply considered as a form of energy due to free movement of tiny
particles referred to as electrons. If sufficient of these free or loose electrons move, an
electric current is produced in the material through which they move. Materials like metals
and water, which allow an electrical current to flow readily, are referred to as conductors.
Materials that resist the flow of an electric current such as rubber, glass and plastics are
called insulators.

For an electric current to flow there must be a complete circuit from an energy source
through conductor back to the source. The pressure that forces or pushes the current around
the circuit is called the voltage. The rate at which the current flows is measured in amperes
and the resistance offered by the circuit to the passage of electrons is measured in ohms. A
watt is a unit of power given by product of voltage (volts) x current (amperes). Similarly
voltage is given by the product of current (amperes) x circuit resistance (ohms).

Power (P) = VI

Voltage (V) = IR

Two possible sources of electricity supply on site are;

1. Portable self powered generators

2. Metered supply from the local area board e.g. UMEME

The second option is usually adopted since electricity supply is required for various site activities
and final structure and also generally possible to tap off permanent supply cable to the proposed
development for construction operations instead of installing a temporary supply cable.

Requirements for signing a contract for temporary supply of electricity:

1. Address of site
2. Site location plan

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 3. Maximum anticipated load demand in kW for construction period. A reasonable method
of estimating this demand is to allow for a loading of 10W/m2 for total floor area of the
finished structure and to add for any high load equipment such as cranes pumps and
drying out heaters used.
4. Final load of demand of the completed building to ensure that the correct rating of cable
laid for permanent supply.
5. Date on which the temporary supply is required.
6. Name, address and telephone number of the building owner and contractor.

Most domestic premises receive a single a single phase supply of electricity from an area
authority at a rating of 230 volts and frequency of 50 hertz. The authority's cable for domestic
supply consists of four lines, three lines each carrying a 230 volt supply and a fourth is a
common return line or neutral line, which is connected to the earth at the transformer or
substation as a safety precaution as a safety precaution should a fault occur in the electricity
appliance.

Electricity is generated and supplied as an alternating current, which means current flows one
way then the other. The direction of change is rapid and hardly noticeable in fittings such as
light. The cycle of this reversal of flow is termed as frequency.

The consumer unit should be located as close as possible to the intake for example on the inside
of a cavity wall or an adjacent partition.

1.1 Ohm's law, Power in circuits methods of detecting and measuring electric
current, voltmeters, ammeters, functions of multipliers and shunts

1.1.1 Ohm's law

States that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the two points
Mathematically, Ohm's Law for DC circuits can be stated as three equations:

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E = IR Voltage measured in volts, symbolized by the letters "E" or "V".
I = E/R Current measured in amps, symbolized by the letter "I".
R = E/I Resistance measured in ohms, symbolized by the letter "R".

derived from;

Where E is the electric field vector with units of volts per meter (analogous to V of
Ohm's law measured in volts), J is the current density vector with units of amperes
per unit area (analogous to I of ohm's law in amperes) and ρ is the resistivity
measured in ohm meters (analogous to R of Ohm's law measured in Ohms)

Substituting for E and J in equation 1 and 2

But electrical resistance of a uniform conductor is given in terms of resistivity by:

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Substituting in 3

1.1.2 Power in circuits

Power is a measure of how much work can be performed in a given amount of time. Work is
generally defined in terms of the lifting of a weight against the pull of gravity. The heavier the
weight and/or the higher it is lifted, the more work has been done. Power is a measure of how
rapidly a standard amount of work is done.
In electric circuits, power is a function of both voltage and current.

Power (P) is exactly equal to current (I) multiplied by voltage (E). The unit of measurement for
power is the watt, abbreviated with the letter "W."

Power is the combination of both voltage and current in a circuit. Voltage is the specific work (or
potential energy) per unit charge, while current is the rate at which electric charges move through
a conductor. Voltage (specific work) is analogous to the work done in lifting a weight against the
pull of gravity. Current (rate) is analogous to the speed at which that weight is lifted. Together as
a product (multiplication), voltage (work) and current (rate) constitute power.

Using algebra again to manipulate the formulae, the original power formula is taken and
modified for applications where both voltage and current are not known:
If only voltage (E) and resistance (R) are known:

If only current (I) and resistance (R) are known:

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Summary of Power equations

1.1.3 Methods of detecting and measuring electric current

Most common ways to sense current are:
 Resistive shunt
 the current transformer
 Hall effect current sensor
1. Resistive shunt
The resistive shunt (so named because it is a shunt with respect to the voltmeter or system
wiring) is simply a resistor placed in series with the load. According to ohm's law, a voltage is
developed across the shunt that is directly proportional to the current flowing through the load:

Where;
I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)
R = resistance (ohms)

Most shunts are termed as DC shunts because of their inherent added series inductance, which
limits the frequency response of the device. The DC shunt offers the lowest cost and most
accurate solution to low current measurement requirements where the measured current is less
than 3A.

Advantages
 Lowest cost method of measuring DC current (< 500A)
 Easy to understand (simply ohm's law)
 Extremely reliable
 No external power requirements
 Zero output to zero current flow (no offset)

Disadvantages

 No electrical isolation, presenting noise and potential safety hazard

 Insertion loss, resulting in heat (energy dissipation and voltage drop in system, difficult to
install.
 Generally amplification required of output
 Good only for DC current measuring and low frequency AC (< 100 Hz)

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  Very large size and weight as measured currents increase.

The resistive shunt may be manufactured to minimise it's inductance and is so referred to an AC
shunt. AC shunts have the highest operating frequency range of any current sensing method.
However AC shunts are more expensive than DC shunts.

Advantages

 Easy to understand (simply ohm's law)

 Extremely reliable
 No external power requirements
 Zero output for current flow (no offset)
 Can measure DC and AC current to high frequencies (> 500 kHZ)

Disadvantages

 Excessive cost due to non - inductive design

 No electrical isolation, presenting noise and potential safety hazard
 Insertion loss, resulting in heat (energy dissipated and voltage drop in system, difficult to
install
 General amplification required of output
 Very large size and weight as measured currents increase.

1.1.4 Voltmeters, ammeters, functions of multipliers and shunts

Voltmeters and ammeters are devices used to measure the electrical characteristics of parts
of a circuit.
 Ammeters measure current.
 Voltmeters measure voltage (potential difference).

Ammeters are always wired in series to the circuit.

 Since the current in a series circuit is the same all the way, the current you
measure with the ammeter is also the current flowing through the resistor.

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  If the ammeter was wired in parallel, part of the current would branch off into the
ammeter, part into the resistor, there wouldn’t be an accurate reading of the
current in the circuit.
 Since the ammeter is in series in the circuit there is need to make sure that it has
the lowest resistance possible.
o If it has very much resistance at all, it would increase the overall resistance
of the circuit and change the current you are measuring.

Voltmeters are always wired in parallel to the circuit.

 Anything that is connected in parallel has the same voltage across everything, so the
voltage drop you measure across the resistor is accurate.
o If there is no source of electricity or resistance between the connections of the
voltmeter it will read zero, since no potential difference exists between the two
points.
 If the voltmeter was wired in series, it would have a voltage drop of its own, but would
not be able to measure the potential difference between two points in the circuit.
 Since the voltmeter is in parallel, we need to minimize how much of the current will
branch off into it.
o For this reason voltmeters always have very high resistances.

1.1.5 Load
The load refers to the item that requires the supply in order to function. For example, this might mean the
lights in a circuit, a heater, a motor to drive a pump or any item of equipment (or combinations of these)
that require an electrical supply in order for them to work.

Electrical loads are rated in watts or kilowatts (W and kW). The size of the load is generally
stamped on the equipment or marked on a name plate. This can contain the:
 rating in watts
 supply voltage
 frequency of the supply
 full load current.

If this information is not available on a nameplate, then it would be necessary to refer to the
manufacturer’s literature to establish the requirements of the load.

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1.1.6 Current Transformer
The current transformer and Hall effect current sensor are based on the fact that for a given
flow, a proportional magnetic field is produced in accordance with Ampere's law. The
current transformer couples this magnetic field into the secondary, providing a proportional
current output. The operation of the device is identical to that of any voltage step - up
transformer. The sensed or aperture current forms the primary turn, while the large number of
turns wound on the magnetic core forms the secondary. The turns ratio determines the
current output. Two types of current transformers are commercially available i.e;

 high volume, low - cost, lower frequency devices

 lower volume dramatically higher frequency, higher cost research grade devices.

The former is intended for low constant - frequency (60Hz or 400Hz, for example)
applications, while the research grade devices focus on high -frequency (in megahertz) RF
and pulsed applications.

The advantages of high volume, low - cost, lower frequency devices:

 Low - cost method of measuring AC current (< 100A)
 Provides voltage isolation
 Provides current output, ideal for noisy environments and easily converted to a
voltage
 Very reliable
 No external power requirements

Disadvantages

 Measures AC current only

 Produces AC insertion loss
 Output is frequency dependent
 Very large size and weight as measured currents increase
 High susceptibility to stray AC magnetic fields.

1.1.7 Hall Effects Sensors

Hall effect current sensors incorporate Hall generators, four terminal solid - state devices that
output a voltage proportional to the normal magnetic field and magnitude of the input control
current.

Advantages
 Measures DC and AC currents
 Lowest cost method of measuring large AC and DC currents (> 500 A)

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  Provides electrical isolation
 very reliable

Disadvantages
 Outputs signal for zero current flow (has offset)
 Requires external power supply
 Difficult to understand
 Technical considerations required for over temperature performance, over current and
power supply variations

These sensors are classified as either open loop or closed loop sensors.

1.1.7.1 Open - Loop

This type of Hall effect sensor is the easier to understand. The hall generator is mounted in the
air gap of a magnet core. A current - carrying conductor placed through the aperture of the core
produces a magnet field proportionate to the current. The core concentrates the magnetic field,
which is measured by the hall generator. The signal from the hall generator is low and is
therefore amplified to a useful level which becomes the output of the sensor.

Hall generator is a four terminal - solid state device most commonly made of a thin film of
silicon, germanium, indium, antimonide or gallium arsenide. Two leads provide the voltage
output; the other two require a voltage or current input source. The voltage output is a
differential voltage between the two leads that is dependent on normal magnetic field and the
control current flowing through the input leads.

Hall generators are designed to have a constant current source to power the device allowing the
output to be a function of the incident magnetic field, rather than depend on temperature varying
input resistance and as well make corrections in sensitivity change over temperature.

Open loop method contains four building blocks i.e; the hall generator, the magnetic core, the
amplifier and temperature compensated constant current source.

1.1.7.2 Closed loop

Closed loop Hall effect current sensors are said to have five basic building blocks and these
include; the hall generator, magnetic core, amplifier, a driver circuit and coil wound in series
opposition around the magnetic core. The term closed loop is used because the magnetic field
generated by the current carrying conductor is nulled within the magnetic circuit of the core thus
closing the magnetic loop. This technique allows great improvements in sensor performance.

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1.1.8 Comparison between open and closed loop sensors
Open loop Closed loop
Lowest cost in higher current ranges (>100 A) Highest accuracy at ambient and over
temperature
Low, constant power consumption regardless Provides a current output, ideal for noisy
of sensed current environments and easily converted to a voltage
Smallest size, lowest weight in higher current Higher frequency range (> 150kHz)
ranges (> 100A)
No damage from excessive over currents (>10x No magnetic hysteresis offset
rating)
Offers excellent performance with respect to Has superior linearity, low temperature drift,
price and is preferable for battery operated fast response time and wide frequency range
applications where power consumption, size
and weight are dominant concerns

1.1.9 Applications
Hall effect sensors are used in power supplies, motor drives and general load applications.

1.1.9.1 Power supplies

These could be all electronic equipment in one form or another whose examples include; lasers,
computers and nuclear weapons.

1.1.9.2 Motor Drives

Trains, factories, elevators and air handlers all rely on motor drives, where a motor torque is
proportional to the motor's electric current.

1.1.9.3 General applications

These could be lighting on airport runways, tall structures.

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1.2 Conductors and cables, materials for conductors and reasons for their use,
reasons for stranding conductors, current rating of cables
1.2.1 Circuit conductors (cable)
The circuit conductors are those parts of the circuit which the current passes through. These are
the cables. Cables have two components to them. One is the conductor itself. This is usually
made of copper. The other part is insulation, usually made from PVC, which forms a sheath
around the conductor.

The insulation is required to:

 prevent the conductors touching together; this could short the circuit and preventing it from
working
 prevent users of the circuit from coming into contact with the conductors and receiving an
electric shock.

The type of insulation required is determined by the voltage which is to be applied to the cable.

Cables come as either single or multi - core cables. Both have an overall sheath to keep all the
associated cables together and to provide a minimal degree of mechanical protection.

The size of conductor used in a circuit is important and needs to be calculated accurately. We
need to be sure that the conductor is large enough to carry the current produced by the load and
to be sure that the load receives sufficient voltage for it to work safely.

A wire is a single slender rod or filament of drawn metal.

A conductor is a wire suitable for carrying an electric current.
A cable is either a stranded conductor (single-conductor cable) or a combination of
conductors insulated from one another (multiple-conductor cable). The term "cable" is a general
one and usually applies only to the larger sizes of conductors. A small cable is more often called
a stranded wire or cord (such as that used for an iron or a lamp cord). Cables may be bare or
insulated. Insulated cables may be sheathed (covered) with lead, or protective armor. Figure
below shows different types of wire and cable used in the Navy.

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Stranded conductor.

Conductors are stranded mainly to increase their flexibility. The wire strands in cables are
arranged in the following order:

 The first layer of strands around the center conductor is made up of six conductors. The
second layer is made up of 12 additional conductors.
 The third layer is made up of 18 additional conductors, and so on. Thus, standard cables
are composed of 7, 19, and 37 strands, in continuing fixed increments.
 The overall flexibility can be increased by further stranding of the individual strands.

1.2.2 FACTORS GOVERNING THE CURRENT RATING

The current rating of a cable or wire indicates the current capacity that the wire or cable can
safely carry continuously. If this limit, or current rating, is exceeded for a length of time, the heat
generated may burn the insulation. The current rating of a wire is used to determine what size is
needed for a given load, or current drain.

The factors that determine the current rating of a wire are the conductor size, the location of the
wire in a circuit, the type of insulation, and the safe current rating. Another factor that will be
discussed later in this chapter is the material the wire is made of. As you have already seen, these
factors also affect the resistance in ohms of a wire-carrying current.

1. CONDUCTOR SIZE

An increase in the diameter, or cross section, of a wire conductor decreases its resistance and
increases its capacity to carry current. An increase in the specific resistance of a
conductor increases its resistance and decreases its capacity to carry current.

2. WIRE LOCATION

The location of a wire in a circuit determines the temperature under which it operates. A wire
may be located in a conduit or laced with other wires in a cable. Because it is confined, the wire
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operates at a higher temperature than if it were open to the free air. The higher the temperature
under which a wire is operating, the greater will be its resistance. Its capacity to carry current is
also lowered. Note that, in each case, the resistance of a wire determines its current-carrying
capacity. The greater the resistance, the more power it dissipates in the form of heat energy.

Conductors may also be installed in locations where the ambient (surrounding) temperature is
relatively high. When this is the case, the heat generated by external sources is an important part
of the total conductor heating. This heating factor will be explained further when we discuss
temperature coefficient. We must understand how external heating influences how much current
a conductor can carry. Each case has its own specific limitations. The maximum allowable
operating temperature of insulated conductors is specified in tables. It varies with the type
of conductor insulation being used.

3. INSULATION

The insulation of a wire does not affect the resistance of the wire. Resistance does, however,
determine how much heat is needed to burn the insulation. As current flows through an
insulated conductor, the limit of current that the conductor can withstand depends on how hot
the conductor can get before it burns the insulation. Different types of insulation will burn at
different temperatures. Therefore, the type of insulation used is the third factor that determines
the current rating of a conductor. For instance, rubber insulation will begin deteriorating at
relatively low temperatures, whereas varnished cloth insulation retains its insulating properties at
higher temperatures. Other types of insulation are fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), silicone
rubber, or extruded polytetrafluoroethylene. They are effective at still higher temperatures.

1.3 Insulators, functions of insulators, types of insulating cables, where used,

effect of temperature and humid conditions

Precautions taken for cables on site include

1. Cables never to be trailed on ground unless when suitably encased in tubes or conduits
with the said methods being used for short times.

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 2. Overhead cables to be suitably supported by hangers attached to straining wires and
suitably marked with flags or similar visual warning
Recommended minimum height clearances for overhead cables are:
 5.2m in positions inaccessible by vehicles
 5.8m where a cable crosses an access road or any part of the site accessible by
vehicles
3. Cables likely to be in place for a long time such as those supplying to cranes should
preferably be sited underground at a minimum depth of 500mm and covered by tiles or
clay ware.
4. Placement of placards for instructions to first aid treatment for victims of electricity
accidents.

Copper and aluminium

The choice generally is between copper and aluminium. Copper has better conductivity for a
given cross-sectional area and is preferable, but its cost has risen over the years. Aluminium
conductors are now sometimes preferred for the medium and larger range of cables. All cables
smaller than 16mm2 cross-sectional area (csa) must have copper conductors.

Conductor Advantages Disadvantages

Copper  Easier to joint and  More costly
terminate  Heavier
 Smaller cross-sectional
area for given current
rating

Aluminium  Cheaper • Bulkier for given current

 Lighter rating
 Not recommended for use
in hazardous areas
Copper and aluminium conductors compared

Other conductor materials

Cadmium copper: has a greater tensile strength for use with overhead lines.

Steel reinforced aluminium: for very long spans on overhead lines.

Silver: used where extremely good conductivity is required. However, it is extremely expensive.

Copperclad (copper-sheathed aluminium): cables that have some of the advantages of both
copper and aluminium but are difficult to terminate. Whatever the choice of conductor material
the conductors themselves will usually be either stranded or solid. Solid conductors are easier,

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and therefore cheaper, to manufacture but the installation of these cables is made more difficult
by the fact that they are not very pliable. Stranded conductors are made up of individual strands
that are brought together in set numbers. These provide a certain number of strands such as 3, 7,
19, 37 etc. and, with the exception of the 3-strand conductor, all have a central strand surrounded
by the other strands within the conductor.

Conductor size

There are many factors that affect the choice of size of conductor.
Load and future development
The current the cable is expected to carry can be found from the load, taking into account its
possible future development, i.e. change in use of premises, extensions or additions.
Ambient temperature
The hotter the surrounding area, the less current the cable is permitted to carry.
Grouping
If a cable is run with other cables then its current carrying capacity must be reduced.
Type of protection
Special factors must be used when BS 3036 (semi-enclosed) fuses are employed.
Whether placed in thermal insulation
If cables are placed in thermal insulation, de-rating factors must be applied.

Voltage drop
The length of circuit, the current it carries and the cross-sectional area of the conductor will
affect the voltage drop. Regulation 525-01-02 states that the maximum voltage drop must not
exceed 4 per cent of the nominal voltage of supply.

Insulation and sheathing

To insulate the conductors of a cable from each other and to insulate the conductors from any
surrounding metalwork, materials with extremely good insulating properties must be used. This
material around the cable is called the sheath. Cables can be installed in a variety of different
situations, and you must take care that the type of insulation and sheath on the chosen cable is
suitable for that particular situation.

Insulation types

Listed below are some of the working properties of the more common types of cable insulation:
 PVC
 synthetic rubbers
 silicon rubber
 magnesium oxide
 phenol-formaldehyde.

PVC
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This is a good insulator: it is tough, flexible and cheap. It is easy to work with and easy to install.
However, thermoplastic polymers such as PVC do not stand up to extremes of heat and cold, and
BS 7671 recommends that ordinary PVC cables should not constantly be used in temperatures
above 60°C or below 0°C. Care should be taken when burning off this type of insulation (to
salvage the copper) because the fumes produced are toxic.

Synthetic rubbers
These insulators, such as Vulcanised Butyl Rubber, will withstand high temperatures much better
than PVC and are therefore used for the connection of such things as immersion heaters, storage
heaters and boiler-house equipment.

Silicon rubber

FP 200 cable using silicon rubber insulation and with an extruded aluminium over sheath foil is
becoming more popular for wiring such things as fire-alarm systems. This is due largely to the
fact that silicon rubber retains its insulation properties after being heated up or burned and is
somewhat cheaper than mineral-insulated metal-sheathed cables.

Magnesium oxide
This is the white powdered substance used as an insulator in mineral-insulated cables. This form
of insulation is hygroscopic (absorbs moisture) and therefore must be protected from damp with
special seals. Mineral-insulated cables are able to withstand very high temperatures and, being
metal sheathed, are able to withstand a high degree of mechanical damage.
Phenol-formaldehyde

This is a thermosetting polymer used in the production of such things as socket outlets, plug tops,
switches and consumer units. It is able to withstand temperatures in excess of 100°C.

Environmental conditions

Many factors affect cable selection. Some will be decided by factors previously mentioned and
some by the following:

 risk of excessive ambient temperature

 effect of any surrounding moisture
 risk of electrolytic action
 proximity to corrosive substances
 risk of damage by animals
 effect of exposure to direct sunlight
 risk of mechanical stress
 risk of mechanical damage.

Ambient temperature
Current-carrying cables produce heat, and the rate at which the heat can be dissipated depends
upon the temperature surrounding the cable. If the cable is in a cold situation, then the
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temperature difference is greater and there can be substantial heat loss. If the cable is in a hot
situation, then the temperature difference of the cable and its surrounding environment will be
small, and little, if any, of the heat will be dissipated.

Problem areas are boiler-houses and plant rooms, thermally insulated walls and roof spaces. PVC
cables that have been stored in areas where the temperature has dropped to 0°C should be
warmed slowly before being installed. However, if cables have been left out in the open and the
temperature has been below 0°C (say, a heavy frost has attacked the cables), then you must
report this situation to the person in charge of the installation. These low temperatures can
damage PVC cables.

Moisture
Water and electricity do not mix, and care should be taken at all times to avoid the movement of
moisture into any part of an electrical installation by using watertight enclosures where
appropriate. Any cable with an outer PVC sheath will resist the penetration of moisture and will
not be affected by rot. However, suitable watertight glands should be used for termination of
these cables.

Electrolytic action
Two different metals together in the presence of moisture can be affected by electrolytic action,
resulting in the deterioration of the metal. Care should be taken to prevent this. An example is
where brass glands are used with galvanised steel boxes in the presence of moisture. Metal-
sheathed cables can suffer when run across galvanised sheet-steel structures, and if aluminium
cables are to be terminated on to copper bus bars then the bars should be tinned.

Corrosive substances

The metal sheaths, armour, glands and fixings of cables can also suffer from corrosion when
exposed to certain substances. Examples include: magnesium chloride used in the construction of
floors plaster undercoats containing corrosive salts unpainted walls of lime or cement oak and
other types of acidic wood. Metalwork should be plated or given a protective covering. In any
environment where a corrosive atmosphere exists special materials may be required.

Damage by animals

Cables installed in situations where rodents are prevalent should be given additional protection
or installed in conduit or trunking, as these animals will gnaw cables and leave them in a
dangerous condition. Installations in farm buildings should receive similar consideration and
should, if possible, be placed well out of reach of animals to prevent the effects of rubbing,
gnawing and urine.

Direct sunlight

Cables sheathed in PVC should not be installed in positions where they are exposed to direct
sunlight because this causes them to harden and crack: the ultraviolet rays leach out the
plasticiser in the PVC, making it hard and brittle.

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1.4 Electricity Generation, Transmission and Distribution
Electricity Generation, Transmission and Distribution

Power is supplied in three stages

• Generation (25kV)
• Transmission (25kV - 132kV) step up, (132 kV - 33kV or 66kV) step down
• Distribution (275kV/400kV super grid)
Step down Tx
Step up transformer 275/132kV,
Generation 25/275 or 25/400kV 400/275kV

132kV
275/400kV Transmission
super grid line

(Switching 33 kV Heavy Step down

11 kV light
substation ) step Industries Tx 33/11kV
industries
down TX 132/33kV

33kV secondary
transmission 11 kV hV
distribution

Local distribution
substation 11kV/415V

Y
B
N 415V 3ø wire
distribution

Typical Power Supply System

Advantages of Grid System

• The whole country can be linked by a common extra high voltage network
• Small and inefficient stations are eliminated.

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 • Best use is made of large highly efficient generating stations built upon the most
advantageous sites.
• Load flow is under control enabling generating plants to be operated at high efficiency.
• Standby plants and spares are kept to a minimum.
• Supply frequency and voltage can be standardised.
• Loss of supply due to breakdown is minimised
• Electricity is more readily available to isolated communities

Equipment at Supply Point for small Single Phase SupplierEarth Earth

bar
conductor
Fuse Main switch Consumer
Supply Meter (Linked)
main fuse
Neutral (N) Consumer
Authority fuse circuit
L L
Incoming
cable N

Incoming N
cable Neutral Neutral
ink
Sealing
chamber Insulated Earth
earth lead electrode
Consumer
fuse box

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1.4.1 Source of supply
Often a circuit is thought of as being the load and the conductors supplying the load. However in
reality they are only part of the circuit. In order for current to flow two conditions have to be
met.

1. There has to be a potential difference applied across the circuit (voltage).

2. There has to be a complete circuit (circle) for current to flow around.

The source of supply can be a.c. or d.c. If a d.c. supply is required, then this is derived from a
battery. For an a.c. supply, either an a.c. generator or a d.c. generator with electrical components
to rectify the supply, can be used.

An a.c. supply can be obtained directly from the mains. Single phase 230 V or three phase 400
V.

The size and type of voltage required for the supply is determined by the load equipment to be
used. All electrical equipment will have a plate attached to it indicating its safe working voltage.

1.4.2 Transmission and Distribution

The main distribution network is by overhead conductors used in domestic installations are
called cables carried on pylons and consist of a conductor of low resistance such as copper or
aluminium surrounded by an insulator of high resistance such as rubber or plastic. Cable sizes
are known by the nominal cross sectional area of the conductor and up to 2.5mm2 which are
J. B. Isoke
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usually of one strand. Large cables consist of a number of strands to give them flexibility. All
cables are assigned a rating in amperes which is the maximum load a cable can carry without
overheating as shown in Figure 1 below:

Figure 1

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For domestic work, wiring drawings may not be required but positions of outlets, switches and
lighting points are shown as symbols on plans as shown figures 2 below. Specifications of
fittings, fixing heights and cables are given in a schedule or written document.

Voltages are high for economic reasons, being 275 kV or 400 kV on the super grid and 132 kV
on the primary grid. At certain points along the line the voltage is stepped down at transformer
stations to 66 kV where to this stage the responsibility of the Central Generating Board. Local
Electricity Boards take their supply from these main sub stations and serve their areas with 66,
33 and 11 kV lines. They control all smaller sub stations at all voltage changes and at 11 kV the
power is reduced to 415/ 240 volts. The 11 kV sub stations serve the domestic and industrial
premises although some manufacturers who high voltages have their own sub stations.

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A 240 volt single phase is used for house and similar properties and the cable includes a phase
wire and a neutral wire. The 415 volt three phase supply is needed for large premises. The supply
authorities must ensure that the voltage provided at the consumer's terminal does not vary more
than + percent nor frequency vary more than + 1 percent.

Precautions taken to eliminate the dangers of high voltage cables;

1. Applying to the local area supply board to have the cables re- routed at a safe distance or
height.
2. Applying to have the cable removed from service.
3. Erect warning barriers to keep men and machines at a safe distance

Recommended voltages for use on construction sites are as follows:

Mains voltage
415 V Three phase
240 V single phase
Reduced voltage
110 V three phase
110 V single phase
50 V single phase
25 V single phase
 Supply to transformer unit, heavy plant such as cranes and
movable plant via a trailing cable
 Hoists and plants powered by electric motors in excess of a
2 kW rating
 Supply to transformer unit
 Supply to distribution unit
 Installation in site accommodation buildings
 Fixed floodlighting
 Small static machines
 Portable and hand held tools
 Portable and hand held tools
 Small items of plant
 Site floodlighting other than fixed floodlighting
 Portable hand lamps
As listed for 110 V single phase but being used for damp
situations

All supply cables must be earthed and in particular 110 V supplies should be center point earthed
so that the nominal voltage to earth is not more than 65 V on a three phase circuit and not more
than 55 V on a single phase circuit.

Protection to a circuit could be given by using bridge fuses, cartridge fuses and circuit breakers.
Adequate protection should be given to all main and sub circuits against any short circuit current,
overload current and earth faults.

Earth protection may be achieved through two different ways;

J. B. Isoke
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 1. Provision of a path of low impedence, to ensure over current device will operate in a
short space of time
2. Insertion in the supply of a circuit breaker with an operating coil which trips the breaker
when the current due to earth leakage exceeds a predetermined value.

BS 4363 recommends as an additional precautionary measure, the use of colour coding

identification for plug and socket outlets to prevent incorrect connections being made as follows:

25 V - violet

50 V - white

110 V - yellow

240 V - blue

415 V - red

Equipment used to distribute an electrical power supply around a construction site is as follows:

1. Supply incoming unit (SIU) - supply, control and distribution of mains supply on site -
accommodation supply boards equipment and has one outgoing circuit
2. Main distribution unit (MDU) - control and distribution of mains supply for circuits of
415 V three phase and 240 V single phase
3. Supply, incoming and distribution unit (SIDU) - a combined SIU and MDU for use on
sites where it is possible to locate these units together.
4. Transformer Unit - Transforms and distributes electricity at a reduced voltage and can be
for single phase, three phase or both phases and is abbreviated as TU/1, TU/3 or TU/1/3
accordingly.
5. Outlet unit (OU/1 or OU/3) - Connection, protection and distribution of final sub circuits
at a voltage lower than the incoming supply.
6. Extension outlet unit (EOU/1 or EOU/3) - similar to outlet unit except outlets are not
protected,
7. Earth monitor unit (EMU) - Flexible cables supplying power at mains voltage from MDU
to movable plant incorporate a separate pilot conductor in addition to the main earth
continuity conductor.
A very low voltage current passes along these conductors between the portable plant and
the fixed EMU. A failure of the earth continuity conductor will interrupt the current flow
which will be detected by the EMU and the device will automatically isolate the main
circuit.

Routing of the supply and distribution cables should be carefully planned around the
construction site.

J. B. Isoke
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1.5 Electricity supply in a building

MBR
MBD

CB2

R BAL

CB1 CBR

MS

SR
DR

BAL

Figure 3

J. B. Isoke
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1.6 Layout of a domestic distribution and control unit

WB SH

SW
MBR HT
MBD LF
SO

LF SO

CB2
SW
SO TV
LF

R BAL
SW HT SH

CB1 CBR
CCU

LF
SO
SW
CC

LF

SO
SW KIT

MS
HT

SO TV TL
WB DR
SO
SO

SR
LF
SO LF
SW

SW

BAL LF

J. B. Isoke
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Figure 4

1.7 DOMESTIC INSTALLATIONS

Domestic structures are wired with incoming cables comprising of a live insulated phase
conductor and an insulated neutral conductor which is earthed at the substation. The cables enter
the building via a service position, a board fixed to the wall by porcelain insulators to
accommodate the gear, where the board's equipment of cut out and meter is placed as shown in
the figure 5 below:

Figure 5

Most of the domestic installations are of single phase (2 wire) type and supplied at 230 V line to
neutral. Basic arrangement of the connections from the supply authority’s distribution pole is
shown. This shows the installation diagram Figure 6 from the service cable of the supply
authority, which is usually supplied overhead from the distribution pole. This comes to the
service fuse box (or cut out as commonly known) and then to the energy meter. Up to the energy
meter belongs to the supply authority. The consumer’s installation proper starts from the Main
switch, which is likely not to exceed 30A for a single phase supply. This will be followed by
usually one (or more) RCCBs (other than some older installations which have an ELCBs, and
some even older installations which have no earth leakage protection). Each RCCB would be
followed by a Consumer Unit (with different rated MCBs) or in older installations a Distribution
Board (with Fuses). The final circuits are taken from the consumer unit (or distribution unit)
J. B. Isoke
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Figure 6

Figure 7

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Figure 7 shows the use of loop-in method for wiring a final circuit for lighting. The loop in
method enables all joints and terminations in a single final circuit to be made at ceiling roses,
switches or other accessories. This makes all joints accessible for the purpose of alterations and
for testing. Each final circuit has both its live conductor as well as the neutral conductor
terminating at the consumer unit. The wires are usually laid in PVC conduits. Lamp circuits do
not normally need an earth wire unless there is a metallic fitting which needs to be earthed for
safety.

Two way switches

Figure 8

A two-way switch is used when it is necessary to operate a lamp from two positions, such as at
the top and bottom of a staircase and at the ends of a long corridor. The connection and operation
are shown in the figure 8.

The supply may be from overhead or underground, in case of underground, the cable enters the
sealing box before the cut out or service fuse box as shown in the Figure 6 above. Leads from
the meter join the consumer's service unit of the main switch and fuse board. The service is
divided at the fuse board into sub circuits each originating from the branch of the live conductor
(via a fuse) and a branch of the neutral conductor. Standard equipment for this gear in a house
comprises of small metal clad boxes occupying minimum space or may be combined together in
form of a consumer's control unit. The fuse board has six or more fuses as follows;

 one for the cooker (up to 30 amp) and water heater

 two for the socket outlets (power plug points)
 and two for the lighting circuits

A sub circuit may supply a cooker rated at 30 amps may supply an electric cooker connected by
means of a cooker control unit having a main switch and rated at 30 amps and which may
include one socket outlet for a kettle.

The water heater circuit would be of 13 or 15 amps.

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The two lighting circuits (for each 90m2 of floor area) would each be 5 amps for ground floor
and first floor lights.

The supply or intake cable will enter the building through ducts and be terminated in the area
authority's fused sealing chamber, which should be sited in a dry accessible position. From the
sealing chamber, the supply passes through the meter which records the electricity consumed in
units of kilowatt/per hour to the consumer unit, which has a switch controlling supply to the
circuit fuses or miniature circuit breakers. These fuses or circuit breakers are a protection against
excess current or overload of the circuit by isolating the circuit from the supply.

The number of fuse ways or miniature circuit breakers contained in the consumer unit will
depend upon the size of the building and equipment to be installed. A separate ring circuit of 32
amperes should be allowed for every 100m2 of floor area and as far as practicable the number of
outlets should be evenly distributed over the circuits. A typical domestic circuit would have the
following circuits from the consumer unit:

1. 6 amp ground floor lighting up to 10 fittings a total load of 6 amps

2. 6 amp upper floor lighting as a above
3. 16 amp immersion heater
4. 32 amp ring circuit 1
5. 32 amp ring circuit 2
6. 32 amp ring circuit, kitchen
7. 45 amp cooker unit

A further 40 - 45 amp circuit breaker may be or fuse may be installed for an electric shower unit.

The complete installation is earthed by connecting the metal consumer unit casing to the sheath
of the supply cable, or by connection to a separate earth electrode. The figure 9 below shows a
standard consumer unit with an outlook of fuseways or miniature circuit breakers.

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Figure 9: Ring circuits and plug wiring

A preferable alternative is the split load consumer as shown in figure 10 below

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Figure 10: Split Load consumer unit

1.8 Commercial Installations

These include schools, offices, warehouses and all public buildings. Supply is usually 415 V
three phase and the installation is similar to that for large flats. In take in long buildings normally
occur at 30m intervals. Certain buildings such as offices may be re-planned as the usage changes.
Cables should be placed in ducts where they can be withdrawn and re-positioned if necessary or
preferably in trunking. Trunking is advantageous because it allows access all along its length by
removal of its cover. Trunking can also be used for other internal wiring such as telephones,
radio, staff location systems e.t.c., each service being placed in separate channels; it is often
conveniently sited within skirtings. Ducts of conduits or larger sections can be incorporated in
floor screeds or above suspended ceilings. Ducts can also be formed in in-situ concrete floors
using inflatable rubber tubes which are withdrawn when concrete has set.

Large commercial consumers often have their own substation in the building and this would have
an 11 kV supply. It would be placed near to the switching equipment already described and have
two compartments one for the high voltage intake and switch gear and the other for the
transformer. Wide doors and good access may be required for the sub-station to allow for
possible replacement of transformers.

1.9 Industrial Installation

Depending on the size of the manufacturing process the supply may be three phase 415/240 V or
3.3 kV or 11kV, requiring a separate substation. The installation in similar to commercial
undertakings, but allows for greater flexibility of the wiring. Most of this will be on the surface
and a convenient form for machines is the busbar trunking. The trunking is supported from
overhead to keep the floor space clear. Galvanised conduit is said to be used for the lighting
circuit. The maximum number of outlets from a ring main in an industrial layout is 10.

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1.10 Wiring systems e.g. sheathed cables, ducts, trunking, circuit and wiring
diagrams of different types of installations (Electrical and Telephone
diagrams), need for color coding, bell circuit, lighting and heating
circuits

1.11 Determine appropriate wiring systems, enclosures and equipment

1.11.1 The role of BS 7671

Chapter 13 Part 1 of BS 7671 requires that all electrical installations shall be designed to provide
for the protection of persons, livestock and property and the proper functioning of the electrical
installation for the intended use.

In order to do this BS 7671 requires us to determine the characteristics of the available supply.
This can be done by calculation, measurement, enquiry or inspection of existing supplies. The
characteristics that need to be determined are:

 the nature of the current – either a.c. or d.c.

 the number of conductors
 voltage
 frequency
 maximum current allowed
 prospective short-circuit current
 earth loop impedance
 nature and size of the load
 number and type of circuits required
 the location and any special conditions that may apply. This should take into account the
nature of the location and structure that will support the wiring system and the
accessibility of the wiring to people and livestock.

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1.11.2 Insulation colours

To identify cables the insulation is coloured in accordance with BS 7671, Table 51.
Table 51 Identification of conductors
Function Colour
Protective conductors Green and yellow
Functional earthing conductor Cream
(1)
a.c. power circuit
Phase of single-phase circuit Brown
Neutral of single- or three-phase circuit Blue
Phase 1 of three-phase a.c. circuit Brown
Phase 2 of three-phase a.c. circuit Black
Phase 3 of three-phase a.c. circuit Grey
Two-wire unearthed d.c. power circuit
Positive of two-wire circuit Brown
Negative of two-wire circuit Grey
Two-wire earthed d.c. power circuit
Positive (of negative earthed) circuit Brown
Negative (of negative earthed) circuit Blue
Positive (of positive earthed) circuit Blue
Negative (of positive earthed) circuit Grey
Three-wire d.c. power circuit
Outer positive of two-wire circuit derived from three-wire system Brown
Outer negative of two-wire circuit derived from three-wire system Grey
Positive of three-wire circuit Brown
Mid-wire of three-wire circuit(2) Blue
Negative of three-wire circuit Grey
Control circuits, ELV and other applications Brown, black, red,
Phase conductor orange, yellow,
violet, grey, white,
pink or turquoise
(3)
Neutral or mid-wire Blue
NOTES
(1) Power circuits include lighting circuits.
(2) Only the middle wire of three-wire circuits may be earthed.
(3) An earthed PELV conductor is blue.

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Table : To identify cable insulation in accordance with BS 7671
Conductor Old colour
Phase Red
Neutral Black
Protective conductor Green and yellow
Phase two Yellow
Phase three Blue
Neutral Black
Protective conductor Green and yellow

Single- or three-phase power supplies

The size of supply brought into most households is 100 amps single phase, 50 Hertz. Should the
assumed current demand of an installation exceed 100 amps, then a three-phase supply is
required. However the selection of a three-phase supply can also simply be down to the load, i.e.
a requirement to install three-phase machines, motors, pumps etc.

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1.12 Circuits
BS 7671 defines a circuit as ‘an assembly of electrical equipment supplied from the same origin
and protected against overcurrent by the same protective devices’.

1.13 Final circuit distribution

1.14 Final circuits for socket outlets:

Socket outlets (commonly called plug points by electricians) are wired in two ways. These are
the ring circuit connection and the radial connection.

1.14.1.1 Radial circuit

Each circuit commences from the consumer unit/distribution board through an MCB/fuse of
specific rating (e.g. 20A), loop into each socket outlet but ends at a socket outlet (does not
return to the original fuse/mcb).

A radial circuit is a mains power circuit found in some homes to feed sockets and lighting points.
It is simply a length of appropriately rated cable feeding one power point then going on to the
next. The circuit terminates with the last point on it. It does not return to the consumer unit or
fuse box as does the more popular circuit, the ring main

Two types of radial circuit are permitted for socket outlets.

 20 Amp fuse or miniature circuit breaker protections with 2.5 mm² cable can feed a floor
area of not more than 50 m². The maximum length of cable is 33m
 30 Amp cartridge fuse to BS 888 or miniature circuit breaker of 20amp with a 4 mm²
cable can supply a floor area no greater than 75m². The maximum length of cable to be
used is cable is 38m when used with a cartridge fuse and only 33m when used with an
MCB

Radial circuits are generally used in larger buildings where, to return the cable back to the unit
can effectively double the cost of the installation. As with a ring main, units and appliances

J. B. Isoke
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which draw large amounts of current such as showers and electric cookers must be installed on
their own circuit.

Additional wiring can be added to a radial circuit to turn it into a ring main.

1.14.1.2 Ring circuit

Each circuit commences from consumer unit (or distribution board) through an MCB (Miniature
Circuit Breaker or fuse) of specific rating usually 30 A, loops into each socket outlet and returns
to the same MCB (or fuse) in the consumer unit (distribution board). Looping must be done for
the live conductor, neutral conductor and the protective conductor in separate rings. The ring
method of connection is done only for the 13 A socket outlets, as the individual 13A plugs are
separately having fuses (fuses may be usually rated at 13 A or 3 A depending on the type of
load).

A typical ring circuit connection is shown in the figure. A ring circuit may have an unlimited
number of socket outlets provided that the floor area served by the ring does not exceed 100 m2
and that the maximum demand of the circuit does not exceed the MCB (or fuse) rating. A kitchen
should usually have a separate ring circuit.

Sockets
The most economical method of supplying the socket outlets is the ring main circuit system as
shown in Figure 15, with one ring having unlimited outlets being used for each 90m2 to 100m2 of
floor area. In domestic work the number 13 amp sockets is unlimited for floor area of 90m2.

The ring circuit consists of a 2.5mm2 earthed cables starting from and returning to the consumer
unit. The cables are looped in the outlet boxes, making sure the correct cables are connected to
the correct terminals figure 16.

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Figure 15

Figure 16

Site layout of Circuits for Sockets

Socket outlets (commonly called plug points by electricians) are wired in two ways. These are
the ring circuit connection and the radial connection.

These are looped in ring circuits from main switch and back to main switch.

This project had two ring circuits as follows:

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Loop circuit for sockets

MBR
MBD

CB2

R BAL

CB1 CBR

KIT

MS

SR
DR

BAL

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Ring/Loop circuit connection for sockets

MS

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The plug tops in the ring have their own fuse of 2, 5, 10 or 13 amp rating to suit the loading
appliance to which they are connected. Spur outlets leading of the main ring circuit are
permissible provided the limitations of not more than half the socket outlets on the circuit are on
spurs are not exceeded. Socket outlets can be switched controlled and of single or double outlet,
with the double outlet is considered the best arrangement as it discourages the use of multiple
adaptors. Fixed appliances such as wall heaters should be corrected directly to a fused spur outlet
to reduce the number of trailing leads. Movable appliances such as irons, radios and standard
lamps should have a fused plug for connection to the switched outlet, conforming to the
requirements of BS 1363. The rating of the cartridge fuse should be in accordance with rating of
the appliance.

Appliances with a rating of 480 watts should be protected by a 2 amp fuse

Appliances with a rating of not more than 720 watts should be protected by a 3 amp fuse.

Appliances greater than 720 but less than 3000 watts are protected by a 13 amp fuse

The number of outlets is not mandatory but the said minimum numbers recommended for
various types of accommodation are:

 Kitchen; 6 plus cooker control unit with one outlet socket

 Living room; 8
 Dining rooms; 4
 Bedrooms; 4
 Halls; 1
 Garages; 1
 Stores and workshops; 1

Outlets should be installed around the perimeter of the rooms in the most convenient and
economical positions to give maximum coverage with minimum amount of trailing leads.

Wiring of domestic work is said to be achieved in three ways;

 By use of PVC (Polyvinyl chloride sheathed cable (p.v.c.s) the cheapest and most
commonly used
 PVC insulated cable inside black enameled circular conduit being 75% more expensive
than p.v.c.s.
 Mineral insulated copper sheath cable (m.i.c.s) which is two time more expensive than
p.v.c. s

 Cables are also described according to the number and diameters of strands e.g.
3/0.74 cable has 3 strands each of 0.74mm diameter.

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  Cables must have adequate load carrying capacity, in addition should have sufficient
strength to resist damage during installation, service and repair.
 Cables cross sectional area has to be large enough to ensure the circuit resistance is
less than that which will cause an excessive voltage drop.

1.14.2 Lighting circuits

The wiring is currently achieved by using ring circuits as opposed to the older method of having
a separate fused sub circuit to each socket outlet. Lighting circuits are carried out by using the
loop in method as shown in figure 11 below.

Lamp

lamp feed

Earth N
N

(Nuetral has no
function at switch)

C L1 L1 C (common)
strapper
Common
carries either
strapper lamp or switch
L2 feed
L2
Figure 11

In a lighting circuit, the phase and neutral leads are looped into one terminal in the switch and
light respectively; a switch wire connects the other terminals of the switch and light and is made
live when the switch is placed in on position. Figure 12 and Figure 13. The current rating in a
lighting circuit supplying more than one lamp is not to exceed 15 amp.

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Examples lighting circuits on a multi storeyed building

These were two in number

Lighting circuit 1

1W 1G

CB1

MS
2W 1G

WB
2W 1G

SR ST DR

P
2W 1G

ST
2W 2G

Figure 12

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 Lighting circuit 2

WB 2W 1G

MBD ST

2W 1G

MBT KP
K

1W 1G

2W 1G

ST
2W 1G
CB

1W 1G

CB2

Corridor
1W 1G

MS
2W 1G

Figure 13

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Figure 14

For lighting circuits using sheathed wiring a 1.5mm2 conductor is required and therefore a twin with earth cable is used. The loop in
method of wiring is shown in Figure 14. It is important for lighting circuits to be properly earthed since most domestic fittings are said
to contain metal parts or fittings which become live when a fault occurs. Furthermore lighting circuits using conduit installation with

Figure 15

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single core cables can be looped from switch to switch as shown in Figure 15.

Conduit installation consists of metal or plastic tubing together with junction boxes for housing
switches which gives a protected rewireable system.

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J. B. Isoke
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1.15 Delta and star connection in circuits
There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase system.

In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through only one
wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit. So in single
phase minimum amount of power can be transported. Here the generating station and load station
will also be single phase. This is an old system using from previous time.

Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three phases are sent together from the
generator to the load. Each phase are having a phase difference of 120°, i.e 120° angle
electrically. So from the total of 360°, three phases are equally divided into 120° each. The
power in three phase system is continuous as all the three phases are involved in generating the
total power. The sinusoidal waves for 3 phase system is shown below

Why Three Phase is preferred Over Single Phase?

There are various reasons for this question because there are numbers of advantages over single
phase circuit. The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it can act as three
single phase system.

The three phase generation and single phase generation is same in the generator except the
arrangement of coil in the generator to get 120° phase difference. The conductor needed in three
phase circuit is 75% that of conductor needed in single phase circuit.

And also the instantaneous power in single phase system falls down to zero as in single phase we
can see from the sinusoidal curve but in three phase system the net power from all the phases
gives a continuous power to the load.

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In three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:

1. Star connection

2. Delta connection

Star Connection

In star connection, there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral which is
taken from the star point. Star connection is preferred for long distance power transmission
because it is having the neutral point. In this we need to come to the concept of balanced and
unbalanced current in power system.

When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as balanced current.
And when the current will not be equal in any of the phase, then it is unbalanced current. In this
case, during balanced condition there will be no current flowing through the neutral line and
hence there is no use of the neutral terminal. But when there will be unbalanced current flowing
in the three phase circuit, neutral is having a vital role. It will take the unbalanced current through
to the ground and protect the transformer. Unbalanced current affects transformer and it may also
cause damage to the transformer and for this star connection is preferred for long distance
transmission.

The star connection is shown below-

In star connection, the line voltage is √3 times of phase voltage. Line voltage is the voltage
between two phases in three phase circuit and phase voltage is the voltage between one phase to
the neutral line. And the current is same for both line and phase. It is shown as expression below
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Delta Connection

In delta connection, there is three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken. Normally delta
connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced current in the circuit.
The figure is shown below for delta connection. In the load station, ground can be used as neutral
path if required.

In delta connection, the line voltage is same with that of phase voltaage. And the line current is
√3 times of phase current. It is shown as expression below,

In three phase circuit, star and delta connection can be arranged in four different ways-

1. Star-Star connection

2. Star-Delta connection

3. Delta-Star connection

4. Delta-Delta connection

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But the power is independent of the circuit arrangement of the three phase system. The net power
in the circuit will be same in both star and delta connection. The power in three phase circuit can
be calculated from the equation below,

Since there is three phases, so the multiple of 3 is made in the normal power equation and the PF
is power factor. Power factor is a very important factor in three phase system and sometimes due
to certain error, it is corrected by using capacitors.

1.16 Control equipment

Comprises of;

 Switches and fuse gear

 Distribution boards
 Control gear for motors
 light switches
 Ceiling roses
 Socket outlets
 Plug tops

1.16.1 Main Switch

The primary control beyond the cable entry is the main switch which may be single pole or triple
pole according to the number of phases. The switch is placed in a small metal - clad box which
cannot be opened until the switch is in the off position. Each pole has its own fuse to control the
outgoing sub-mains and is associated with a meter. Heavy duty switches have a circuit breaker
instead of a fuse, this is electromagnetically or thermally operated trip which cuts off the supply
should the circuit get overloaded.

1.16.2 Main distribution board

From the switch gear the circuits are controlled via a main distribution board used where a circuit
sub divides several boards being needed to suit the requirements. In addition distributions boards
are provided to sub divide the supply into final circuits and sub circuits. Fuses are placed in
boards at each sub division and these serve to open the circuit in case of a power overload.

Isolation is the ability to remove the supply from all the live conductors, such as at the mains
switch, to a complete installation. Emergency switching is another area of control that is required
for some circuits. This allows us to press one button and turn off the main supply to a series of
equipment, in the event of danger.

1.16.3 Switching of lighting circuits

There are numerous switching arrangements that make up a lighting circuit.

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Cabling Switching arrangements
Wiring in conduit and/or trunking Two-way switching
Wiring using multicore/composite cables. Intermediate switching
One-way switching

1.16.3.1 Wiring in conduit and trunking

Wiring in this type of installation is carried out using PVC single-core insulated cables (Ref.
6491 X). This code number is a manufacturer’s code used to denote different types of cable. The
phase (live) conductor is taken directly to the first switch and looped from switch to switch for
all the remaining lights connected to that particular circuit. The neutral conductor is taken
directly to the lighting outlet (luminaires) and looped between all the remaining luminaires on
that circuit. The switch wire is run between the switch and the luminaire it controls.

1.16.3.2 Wiring using multicore/composite cables

This type of cable is normally a sheathed multicore twin and earth or three cores and earth (two-
way and intermediate circuits only) (Ref. 6242Y and 6243Y respectively). A ‘loop in’ or ‘joint
box’ method may be employed with this type of installation. In many instances a loop-in system
is specified as there are no joint boxes installed and all terminations are readily accessible at the
switches and ceiling roses.

With a joint box system normally only one cable is run to each wiring outlet. Where such joint
boxes are installed beneath floors they should be accessible by leaving a screwed trap in the
floorboard directly above the joint box. All conductors should be correctly colour identified.

On a composite cable installation, where the conductors other than brown are used as a phase
conductor, they should be fitted with a brown sleeve at their terminations. All conductors must
be contained within a non-combustible enclosure at wiring outlets (i.e. the sheathing of the cable
must be taken into the wiring accessory). Throughout the lighting installation a circuit protective
conductor (cpc) must be installed and terminated at a suitable earthing terminal in the
accessory/box.

Where an earthing terminal may not be fitted in a PVC switch pattress, the cpc may be
terminated in a connector. Where the sheathing is removed from a composite cable the cpc must
be fitted with an insulating sleeve (green and yellow); this provides equivalent insulation to that
provided by the insulation of a single-core non-sheathed cable of appropriate size complying
with BS 6004 or BS 7211.

1.16.3.3 Lighting switches

Most lighting switches are of the 5 amp type with a slow silent make and break types as shown
in Figure 16.

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Figure 16

Switches are of three types namely;

 One way switch for a lamp or lamps controlled from one point as in A.
 Two way switch commonly used on staircase landings; where the same lamp as in B or
lamps can be controlled from two points
 Intermediate switches used at several points in conjunction with a pair of two way
switches e.g. at C where an intermediate switch is placed between two two-way switches
with both lights controlled from any of the three positions.

All types of switches are available as either flush pattern or surface fittings.

 Flush pattern is insert in the 16mm plaster thickness, the mechanism being placed in a
wood box screwed to the wall and covered with a metal or plastic plate as shown below;

 The surface switch is similar but having a metal base and not recessed.
 The ceiling switches operated by a cord are also used for example in bathrooms to
prevent the danger of shocks.

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  Door switches fixed to door frames are operated by opening and closing of the door for
example burglar alarm switches.
 The time lag switch turns off the light after a certain time interval
 The thermostat switch operates at a given temperature
 Waterproof, flameproof and time switches are used in lighting and heating circuits which
function by a clock mechanism.

Ceiling roses are of innumerable kinds, of insulated construction having two or three terminals
the third being used for looping in.

1.16.3.3.1 One-way switching

The most basic circuit possible is the one-way switch controlling one light, as shown in Figure
17 below. In this system, one terminal of the one-way switch receives the switch feed; the switch
wire leaves from the other terminal and goes directly to the luminaire (a). Once operated, the
switch contact is held in place mechanically and therefore the electricity is continually flowing
through to the light (b). In other words, while supplying the switch feed terminal, point (A). the
switch is operateed and it comes out at the switch wire terminal, point (B).

Figures 18 to 19 show the full circuit when wired using single-core cables, which would be run
in either conduit or trunking.

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Using the old cable colours again, Figure 20 now shows a second light point fed from the same
switch wire. This means that the second light is now wired in parallel.

1.16.3.3.2 Two-way switching

Sometimes there may be a need to switch a light on, or off, from more than one location, e.g. at
opposite ends of a long corridor. When this is required, a different switching arrangement must
be used, the most common being the two-way switch circuit. In this type of circuit, the switch
feed is feeding one two-way switch, and the switch wire goes from the other two-way switch to
the luminaire(s). Two wires known as ‘strappers’ then link the two switches together. In other
words: the switch feed terminal, point (A) is supplied.

However, depending on the switch contact position, the electricity can come out on either
terminal B or terminal C. In the following diagram it is shown energising terminal B.

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If the switch is now operated, the contact would move across to energise terminal C.

Switching of lighting circuits

By connecting together the two two-way switches, there is the ability at each switch to either
energise the switch wire going to the light or to de-energise it (this is why this system is ideal for
controlling lighting on corridors or staircases). In the first diagram below, the luminaire is off.

However, when the second switch is operated and the common terminal (C) is energised and the
luminaire will now come on.

Figure 21 below shows the full circuit when wired using single-core cable in conduit or
trunking.

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Figure 21: Full circuit wired with single-core cable. Old and new colours

Two-way switches could be used for other purposes for example Figure 22 shows one two-way
switch can control two indicator lamps. This sort of system is frequently used as an entry system
outside offices or dark rooms, where the two lamps can be marked, for example as ‘available’
and ‘busy’.

Two-way switch controlling two lamps

1.16.3.3.3 Intermediate switching

If more than two switch locations are required, e.g. in a long corridor with other corridors
coming off it, then intermediate switches must be used. The intermediate switches are wired in
the ‘strappers’ between the two-way switches.
The action of the intermediate switch is to cross-connect the ‘strapping’ wires. This gives the
ability to route a supply to any terminal depending upon the switch contact positions.
When we operate the switch into position two, the switch contacts cross over (Figure 23).

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Figure 23

This means that a signal sent into terminal A can always be directed on to either terminal B or
terminal C as required. Ignoring terminal markings, Figure 24 shows an arrangement where the
switch wire is de-energised and therefore the luminaire is off.

Figure 24

However, by operating the intermediate switch, we can route the switch feed along another
section of the ‘strappers’ and energise the switch wire terminal, and therefore the luminaire will
come on, as shown in Figure 25.

Figure 25

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To use the example of a long hotel main corridor with other minor corridors coming off it, if we
have an intermediate switch at each junction with the main corridor, anyone joining or leaving
the main corridor now has the ability to switch luminaires on or off. Figure 26 shows the full
circuit in the new colours, when wired using single-core cable in conduit or trunking.

Figure 26 New cable colours

Note: in this diagram the light will be off.

1.16.4 Sockets
The socket outlet and plug used for new work is the 13 amp type, having three flat pins for the
two main wires and earth connection. In some types the neutral and live sockets are protected by
shutters so that they are sealed off when not in use. They have switches that may be flush or
surface mounted.

1.16.5 Fuse and circuit breakers

1.16.5.1 Circuit protection

Every circuit requires protection if, in the event of a fault, damage is to be avoided. The inclusion
into the circuit of a suitably rated fuse or protective device, such as a miniature circuit breaker
(MCB) will protect both the load, and the cables supplying the load, from the heat damage
associated with large fault currents. Protective devices are used to provide a circuit with overload
protection, short-circuit protection and shock protection.

The protective device, or fuse, is deliberately designed to be a ‘weak link’ in a circuit. When
current increases to a level where damage can be sustained, the fuse operates and automatically
interrupts the supply to the circuit. As the fuse is a part of the circuit, once it is ‘broken’ it also
breaks the flow within the circuit, ending the supply.

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Circuits supplied at voltages below 50 V may be required to have circuit protection for
functional reasons. Circuits supplied at 50 V and above are required to have circuit protection
that complies with the requirements of BS 7671. For example, low voltage circuits (above 50
volts, but not exceeding 1000 volts) supplying socket outlets must automatically disconnect in
the event of an earth fault within 0.4 seconds.
Protective device types include:
 Rewirable fuses to BS 3036
 Cartridge fuses to BS 1361
 Cartridge fuses to BS 88
 MCBs to BS EN 60898
 RCBOs to BS EN 61009.

1.16.5.2 Circuit control

It is vital that any circuit, no matter its level of complexity, can be controlled. This could be
either:
 a simple switch, allowing us to turn the circuit on or off
 a time switch, which activates the circuit at certain times
 a float switch, which controls the water levels in a pump.

1.16.6 Fuses
Fuses are the earliest means of protection against over currents in circuits. Basically, the fuse
consists of a short length of suitable material (often a thin wire). When the current flow is greater
than the fusing current of the fuse, it will get hot and burn (melt), thus interrupting the fault
current before damage could be caused.

1.17 Terms commonly used with fuses

1.17.1 Fuse:
A devise for opening a circuit by means of a conductor designed to melt when an
excessive current flows along it.

1.17.2 Fuse element:

Part of a fuse, which is designed to melt and thus open a circuit

1.17.3 Fuse link:

Part of a fuse, which comprises a fuse element and a cartridge (or other container) and is
capable of being attached to the fuse contacts

1.17.4 Current rating:

This is the maximum current, which the fuse will carry for an indefinite period without
undue deterioration of the fuse element

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1.17.5 Fusing current:
This is the minimum current that will cause the fuse element to heat up melt or blow

1.17.6 Fusing factor:

This is the ratio of the fusing current to current rating

These are of three types;

 re-wirable (semi-enclosed) fuse

 cartridge fuse
 high-rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse – a development of the cartridge fuse

They melt in the event of the current increasing and the former type can be renewed with a fresh
length of bare wire. In the cartridge fuse, the wire is enclosed in a case containing a powder
which prevents the formation of the arc when fusing occurs; it is this type which is fitted in the
standard 13 amp plug top and the whole cartridge has to be replaced when the fuse melts. In
places where the interruption of supply is as a result of fusing is serious, and time cannot be
spared to replace a broken fuse, a circuit breaker could be used as an alternative to prevent
overload effects.

1.17.6.1 Semi-enclosed (re-wirable) fuse:

Is a simple device. It consists of a short length of wire, generally of tinned copper. The current at
which the wire melts depends on the length of the wire and its cross sectional area (R= l/A).
Although the re-wirable fuse is cheap, involving only the fuse element, it has a number of
disadvantages and limitations as listed below;
 Deterioration with time due to oxidation - may operate at lower currents than expected due to
the reduction in cross sectional area and hence increase in resistance
 very easy for an inexperienced person to replace a blown fuse-element with a wire of
incorrect size or type
 the time taken for the fuse to blow may be as long as several seconds during which time
considerable electrical and physical damage may result to the circuit conductors and the
equipment being protected.
 Calibration of re-wirable fuse can never be accurate

 unsuitable for circuits which require discriminative protection. i.e. it is possible in certain
circuit conditions
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 for the 15 A rated fuse element to start melting before the 10 A rated element completes
fusing
 not capable of discriminating between a transient high current (such as motor starting
current) and a continuous fault current. i.e. some times may burn during motor starting
 has an associated fire risk
 when the fault current is particularly high, though the fuse works, an arc may still be
maintained by the circuit voltage (through air and metallic vapour)

Due to the above reasons, the semi-enclosed or re-wirable fuses are not regarded as a suitable
means of protection against over currents and are now not recommended.

1.17.6.2 Fully enclosed (cartridge) fuse

Was developed to overcome the disadvantages of the re-wirable type of fuse. In its simplest
form, the fuse wire is enclosed in an evacuated glass tube with metal end caps. Non-deterioration
of the fuse element is one of the most reliable features and is usually more accurate. However,
cartridge fuses are more expensive to replace.

Both re-wirable and cartridge type fuses are usually of low rupturing capacity (product of
maximum current which the fuse will interrupt, and the supply voltage). They are used in general
house-hold, commercial and small scale industrial applications

1.17.6.3 High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses

Are used for high current applications. The HRC fuse is usually a high-grade ceramic barrel
containing the fuse element. The barrel is usually filled with sand, which helps to quench the
resultant arc produced when the element melts. The barrel is able to withstand the
shockconditions which occur when a high fault current is interrupted. Normally, the fuse
elements are in parts connected in the middle by bridges which have a very precise melting point
of about 230oC. These are very accurate. With a specific current, the temperature rises and the
bridge melts producing a break in the circuit. The metal vapour diffuses with silica powder and
the product is of high resistance. The HRC fuses are expensive to replace once blown.

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1.18 Circuit breakers for over current protection
The circuit breaker is a device for making and breaking a circuit (under normal and abnormal
conditions). A circuit breaker is selected for a particular duty taking the following into
consideration
a) the normal current it will have to carry
b) the amount of current which the supply system will feed into the circuit under a fault
(which current the circuit breaker will have to interrupt without damage to itself). It is
able to provide a more accurate degree of over current protection than that normally
provided by either semi-enclosed or cartridge fuses.

The circuit breaker has a mechanism which, when it is in the closed position, holds the contacts
together. The contacts are separated when the release mechanism of the circuit breaker is
operated by hand or automatically.

1.18.1 Miniature Circuit Breakers (mcb)

Which are commonly used in domestic installations, incorporate most of the features of the
circuit breaker in a compact form and are being fitted in place of fuses in consumer units in the
home or office. An MCB eliminates the cost of fuse replacement and may be used as a switch for
isolating circuits.

In the mcb, the automatic operation is by magnetic or thermal means. The reason for the two
characteristics is to have proper operation during both short circuit and overload conditions.

Magnetic mechanism
The magnetic mechanism uses a solenoid with an iron piece. It is used for short circuit (fault)
protection, as high fault currents have to be isolated almost instantly. When the circuit current is
above a certain level, the magnetic field strength increases to cause the iron piece to move in the
direction of solenoid. This operates the tripping linkage and opens the contacts. Even if the mcb
is closed again, the contacts will not hold while the fault is still present.

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Thermal mechanism
The thermal mechanism uses a heat sensitive bimetal element. When the element is heated to a
pre-determined temperature, the resultant deflection trips the circuit breaker. The time taken to
heat the element to this temperature depends on the magnitude of the current and provides the
necessary time delay characteristics (tripping by this means is not so rapid as with magnetic
tripping).

When a small sustained overload occurs, the thermal trip will come into operation after a few
seconds or even minutes. However, when a heavier over load occurs, the magnetic trip coil
operates quickly to disconnect the faulty circuit. This time delay characteristic is useful to avoid
unwanted interruptions during the starting of motors and similar instances where the initial
current may be high, but not an overload condition.

Advantages of mcb s over fuses are

 Non destructive determination of tripping characteristics
 Shorter tripping times under moderate over currents than with fuses
 Immediate indication of faulty circuit
 Reclosing can be effected at once after the fault has been cleared
 No stock of fuses are required
 Can be easily used as a circuit control switch when needed
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1.18.2 Circuit Breakers for earth leakage circuit protection:

These are used to detect electrical faults to earth in equipment and to clear the fault by tripping
and may be classified into two types:

 Voltage operated protection − Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)

 Current operated protection − Residual Current Circuit Breakers (RCCB) or Residual
Current Device (RCD)

The earth leakage protection device is commonly known as Trip Switch by electricians.

1. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):

It is to be noted that for the proper operation of the ELCB, two earth terminals are required.
These are the frame earth to which all non-conducting metallic parts of equipment are connected,
and the ELCB reference earth. The ELCB will normally operate when the voltage across the coil,
which corresponds to the voltage of the frame earth with respect to the reference earth, exceeds
about 40 V. [Note: Up to about 50V has been traditionally considered as a safe voltage.
However, it is now known that what is important is the current that may pass through the human
body rather than the voltage, and that too is time dependent. Thus the RCCB is now preferred to
the ELCB.

2. Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB):

The operation is based on a fault current, causing a difference between the line current and the
neutral current (the difference need not actually flow to earth but back to the circuit through an
unplanned path). This difference is used to energize the solenoid, which causes the switch to
open. Under normal operating conditions, two identical windings, m1 and m2, will carry the main
current. Since the currents are equal and opposite through the two windings, there is mmf
balance and there will be no induced emf on the detector winding. Thus the operating coil will

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not be energized. However, in case of a fault the line and neutral currents will not equal and the
trip coil will be energized due to the induced currents in the detector winding.

In both the ELCB and the RCCB, a test switch ‘T’ is provided to create an artificial fault for test
purposes.

Advantages of RCCB:

If the live wire is exposed (the insulation is open) and then some body touches it, he may get a
shock if a current passes through him. In the case of voltage operated ELCB this earth current is
not going through the tripping coil and will cause danger. But in the case of RCCB, the return
path is going to loose part of the current, which passed through the human body, which in turn
would cause a resultant flux within the ring energizing the tripping circuit.

1.19 Electric protection and earthing

1.19.1 Earthing

Earthing or grounding of equipment refers to the connection of non-current carrying parts of

electrical equipment to the earth to maintain earth potential. In domestic systems, the earthing
circuit is usually earthed by connecting to metallic water pipes buried in ground. An effective
earthing (grounding) system avoids having dangerous potentials on the equipment even during
electrical faults and also ensures the proper operation of electrical protection equipment during
fault conditions.

1.19.2 Reasons for earthing

Earthing is carried out in an electrical installation for the purpose of,

a) limiting the potential (voltage) of current carrying conductors forming a part of the
system − “neutral earthing”
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 b) limiting the potential of non-current carrying metal work associated with equipment,
apparatus and appliances in the system − “equipment earthing”.

The potential of an installation is measured with respect to the general mass of the earth or
commonly called earth. Thus the potential is limited with respect to earth.

Neutral earthing: This is important because the performance of the system in terms of short
circuits, stability, protection, etc., is greatly affected by the state of the neutral conductor. When
the neutral is properly grounded, voltages of the phases are limited to near phase to ground
voltage.

Equipment earthing: This refers to grounding of all metal work of equipment other than the parts
which are normally current carrying. This is governed by various regulations such as the IEE
regulations. The objective of this grounding is to ensure effective and rapid operation of the
protective gear in the event of earth fault currents which might otherwise be undetected and
cause fire and also protect against danger to life through shock due to installation metal work
being maintained at a dangerous potential relative to earth.

1.19.3 Types of earthing arrangement:

In the regulations for electrical installations, the types of earthing systems are identified as
follows, depending on the relationship of the source (supply authority network) and of the
exposed conductive parts of the installation, to earth.

These are

1. TN - earthing of the installation is done to that supplied by the supply authority

2. TT - supply authority earth and the installation earth is independent
3. IT - supply authority has effectively an isolated neutral and the installation has an
independent earth

In these, the first letter denotes the earthing arrangement at the supply authority side and the
second letter denotes the relationship of the exposed conductive parts of the installation to earth.

With the First letter, T (short for terra or earth) refers to a direct connection of one or more points
of the source to earth, and I (short for isolated) indicated that all live parts are isolated from earth
or one point connected to earth through a high impedance.

With the Second letter, T denotes a direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts
of the consumers installation to earth, independently of the earthing of any point of the supply
authority side, while N denotes a direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts to
the earthed point of the supply authority side, which for ac is usually the neutral point.

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1.19.4 Earthing a consumer unit

1.19.4.1 TT System

The TT System of earthing is the one whereby the supply is earthed at the source end, and all
exposed-conductive parts of the installation are connected to an electrically independent earth
electrode at the consumer end.

The normal earthing practice is to provide a circuit protective conductor throughout every
installation. A circuit protective conductor connects exposed conductive parts of equipment to
the main earthing terminal.
The method employed for earthing, at the domestic installations could be to use an earth
electrode (commonly a galvanized iron pipe). The resistance of this electrode to earth also
depends on the condition of soil and may have values in excess of 100 Ω. Thus in the TT system
of earthing, it is now essential to use an RCCB for protection.

Figure : earth fault loop path from the consumer’s earth to the supply earth.

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The connection at the consumer’s earth can be by means of either an earth electrode at the
building where the earth is required or may be in the form of a cable which runs back to the
generator or transformer and is then connected to an earth point.

Because the transformer or generator at the point of supply always has an earth point, a circuit is
formed when earth-fault currents are flowing. If these fault currents are large enough they will
operate the protective device, thereby isolating the circuit.
The star point of the secondary winding in a three-phase four-wire distribution transformer is
connected to the earth to maintain the neutral at earth potential

Results of an unearthed appliance

A person touching the appliance shown, which is live due to a fault, completes the earth circuit
and receives an electric shock.

Figure : Electric Shock

The severity of shock will depend mainly upon the surroundings, the condition of the person
receiving the shock and the type of supply. When the current starts to flow, the high resistance
connection will heat up and this could be a fire hazard. Also, because the current flowing may
not be high enough to blow the fuse or trip the circuit breaker, the appliance casing remains live.

Results of a good earth path

A good earth path, that is a low resistance one, will allow a high current to flow. This will cause
the protective device to operate quickly, thereby isolating the circuit and giving protection
against electric shock.

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Figure : Good earth path

Earth-fault loop impedance

The path made or followed by the earth fault current is called the earth-fault loop or phase-earth
loop. It is termed impedance because part of the circuit is the transformer or generator winding,
which is inductive. This inductance, along with the resistance of the cables to and from the fault,
makes up the impedance.

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1.19.4.2 Protective multiple earthing (PME).
Such a supply system is described in BS 7671 as TN-C-S. The advantage of this system is that it
provides an effective and reliable method of providing customers with an earth connection. For
example the maximum Ze specified by a distributor is 0.35 Ω for TN-C-S supplies compared to
0.8 Ω for TN-S supplies. However, under certain supply system fault conditions (PEN conductor
of the supply becoming open circuit external to the installation) a potential can develop between
the conductive parts connected to the PME earth terminal and the general mass of earth.
However, since there are multiple earthing points on the supply network and bonding is provided
within the building complying with BS 7671, the risk is considered to be small.

Special Locations
The Electricity Association publications provides guidance on PME systems. Whilst PME
systems provide an effective and reliable earth connection precautions need to be taken when
dealing with special locations. For example Regulation 9(4) of the Electricity Safety, Quality and
Continuity Regulations does not allow the combined neutral and protective conductor to be
connected electrically to any metalwork in a caravan or boat. This prevents PME terminals being
used for caravans or boat mooring supplies, although they may be used for fixed premises on the
sites, such as the site owner’s living premises and any bars or shops, etc. Petrol filling stations
are another area where precautions need to be taken. The reference publication is “Guidance for
the design, construction, modification and maintenance of petrol filling stations”, published by
the Association for Petroleum and Explosives Administration (APEA) and the Institute of
Petroleum, which recommends a TT supply for hazardous areas. A separate earth electrode and
RCD or other alternative arrangement is required to ensure the segregation of petrol filling area
earthing and that of the PME earth of the distribution network. A PME earth may be used for
permanent buildings such as shops and restaurants.

Also, mines and quarries are another area. A supply taken to an underground shaft, or for use in
the production side of a quarry, must have an earthing system which is segregated from any
system bonded to the PME terminal.

Finally, because of the practical difficulties in bonding all accessible extraneous-conductive-

parts electricity distribution companies might not provide a PME earth to agricultural and
horticultural installations and construction sites.

1.19.4.3 TN-S system

A TN-S system has the neutral of the source of energy connected with earth at one point only, at
or as near as is reasonably practicable to the source and the consumer’s earthing terminal is
typically connected to the metallic sheath or armour of the distributor’s service cable into the
premises or to a separate protective conductor of, for instance, an overhead supply. Large
consumers may have one or more HV/LV transformers dedicated to their installation and
installed adjacent to or within their premises. In such situations the usual form of system earthing
is TN-S.

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1.19.5 Continuity
Continuity refers to being part of a complete or connected whole. In electrical applications, when
an electrical circuit is capable of conducting current, it demonstrates electrical continuity. It is
also said to be “closed,” because the circuit is complete. In the case of a light switch, for
example, the circuit is closed and capable of conducting electricity when the switch is flipped to
"on." The user can break the continuity by flipping the switch to "off," opening the circuit and
rendering it incapable of conducting electricity.

For consumers, the most obvious sign that there is an electrical continuity issue with their wiring
is when plugged-in electrical devices fail to work. However, unintended breaks in continuity can
have more serious consequences, such as electrical fires or damage to electrical equipment, and
therefore, it is recommended that all electrical wiring be kept in good working order and properly
maintained.

1.19.6 conductors and earthing lead

Earthing conductors which are defined in BS 7671 as a protective conductor connecting the main
earthing terminal of an installation to an earth electrode or other means of earthing must be
adequately sized particularly where buried partly in the ground, and be of suitable material and
adequately protected against corrosion and mechanical damage. The size of an earthing
conductor is arrived at in basically the same way as for a circuit protective conductor, except that
Table 54A of BS 7671 must be applied to any buried earthing conductor. For a TN-C-S (PME)
supply, it should be no smaller than the main bonding conductors.

1.19.7 Requirements for installation in bathrooms

Whilst installing the bonding conductor does not alleviate the cause of the shock, it eliminates
the voltage potential. As with all cases of equipotential bonding, it works by maintaining the
conductive paths at the same potential.

The main causes for shocks in bathrooms are:

(i) MEN Shocks: A high impedance in the neutral of the consumer’s mains or
distribution system causes the neutral current to flow through the MEN connection to
earth. This causes a voltage rise on the water pipes, and a voltage potential between
the taps and the wet bathroom floor which contains the reinforcing mesh.
(ii) Induced Voltages: An existing cable installed in the concrete induces a voltage onto
the reinforcing mesh, causing a voltage potential between the wet bathroom floor and
the taps.
(iii) Damaged Cable: An existing, damaged cable installed in the concrete short circuits
to the reinforcing mesh, causing a voltage potential between the wet bathroom floor
and the taps.

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Remedies to bathroom shocks:

 Using a round similar to an earth electrode tied to the re – bar and projecting upwards out
of the slab in an accessible location to allow connection of the earth clamp for the
equipotential bonding conductor.
 Conductor may be solid or flexible, 4 mm earth conductors will need to be doubled over
to ensure a good connection
 Securing a copper equipotential bonding conductor to the reinforcing mesh. The
conductor should exit the slab in an accessible position to allow connection to the
earthing system.
 Use of plastic pipes since they are poor conductors.

1.20 Illumination: Types of lamps, e.g. incandescent filament lamps, arch

lamps
Human activities depend on light. Sun is a prime natural source of light but artificial lighting
plays almost main role in our daily life. These artificial lights are produced by mechanical lamps
and electrical lamps.

But due to poor performance the mechanical light are totally replaced by electrical lights. The
electrical lighting are mainly used for decorative purpose, advertising, traffic control, medical
field and street lighting etc.

An Illumination system consists of Lamp which may be Incandescent lamp, Discharge lamp or
Fluorescent lamp along with control gear placed in a suitable luminaire.

1.20.1 Luminaries
Luminaire or Luminaries provide support and electrical connection to Lamp or Lamps within it.
They control, distribute and direct the Light on to the object. They ensure that lamps are operated
in a way such that operating temperature is kept within prescribed limits. They should be easy to
install and maintain, aesthetically pleasant and economically viable. Systems may be commercial
or general. Usually Fluorescent Lamps with one or more at a preferred mounting height less than
5 – 6 m are used for general lamps. Fluorescent Lamp may be Batten Fully exposed or Multi
lamp type. Ventilated-Reflectors with Mirrors optics are used.

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 Typical Luminaries with reflectors and louvres

Box type Luminaries

1.20.1.1 Industrial Luminaries

Coming to industrial areas if in the Interior-up to 6m Fluorescent Lamp with matt white
reflector are employed. In High bays beyond 6m Discharge Lamps with Mirror
Reflectors are employed. Luminaries in Hazardous Areas are specially designed. They
are encapsulated in boxes made of steel or cast iron exterior housing to avoid any
explosion, sturdy resisting pressure.

1.20.1.2 Road Lighting

Conventionally by they are arranged in a column, mounted on a wall or suspended by a
span wire. Plane of Symmetry being in vertical plane perpendicular to the axis of the road
along the road. Catenary – suspended from a catenary cable parallel to the axis of road.
Plane of symmetry parallel to the axis of road. They employ Corrosion Resistant sturdy
materials and are usually closed.

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 Typical Post Top Lanterns

1.20.1.3 Flood Lights

Rain Proof Lamp holder with wide / narrow beam Reflectors are used for flood light. They are
usually High wattage Incandescent Lamps, and arc lamps

Spot lights / down lights are usually used with Screens, Reflectors, Filters, Colored
envelope and Closed Lamps.

Down lights are Spot lights when suspended.

Electrical lighting has following advantages:

1. Cleanliness

2. Easy to control

3. Economical

4. Easy to handle

5. Steady output

6. Better reliability

7. Suitable for almost all purposes etc.

1.21 Terms used in Illumination

1. Light

2. Luminous flux

3. Lumen

4. Plane angle

5. Solid angle

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 6. Steradian

7. Candle power

8. Luminous intensity reduction factor

9. Glare

10. Lamp efficiency

1.21.1 Light
That part of radiant energy from a hot body which produced the visual sensation on human eye is
called light.

1.21.2 Luminous Flux

• The total quantity of radiant energy per second responsible for visual sensation from a
luminous body is called Luminous Flux.

• It is represented as F of Ø and measured in lumens.

1.21.3 Lumen
It is the unit of luminous flux. One lumen is defined as the luminous flux emitted per unit solid
angle from a point source of one candle power.

Plane Angle

The angle subtended at a point by two converging lines lying in the same plane is called plane
angle. It is measured in radians and equal to the ratio of the length of the arc too its radius,

θ = arc/ radius = l/ r radians

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Solid Angle

The angle subtended by the partial surface area of a sphere at its centre is called as solid angle. It
is measured in steradians and equal to the ratio of area of the surface to the square of radius of
sphere,

ω = area of surface/ square of radius = A/ r2 steradians

1.21.4 Steradian
The unit of solid angle. One steradian is defined as the solid angle that is subtended at the centre
of a sphere by its surface having area equal to radius square,

ω = surface area/ (radius)2

= r 2 / r2 = 1 steradian

1.21.5 Candle Power

• The light radiating capacity of a source is called its candle power. The number of lumens
given out by a source per unit solid angle in a given direction is called its candle power. It is
denoted by C.P.

Total flux emitted = CP X solid angle

= 1 X 4π = 4π lumens

= 4π lumens

1.21.6 Luminous Intensity

• Luminous intensity in any particular direction is the luminous flux emitted by the source
per unit solid angle in that direction.

• It is denoted by I and its unit is candela or candle power (CP) .

• Luminous intensity of source in a particular direction, I = φ / ω

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1.21.7 Reduction Factor
Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical candle power to its mean
horizontal candle power.

Reduction factor = MSCP/ MHCP

1.21.8 Illumination
When light falls on a surface, it becomes visible, the phenomenon is called as illumination.

It is defined as luminous flux falling on a surface per unit area. It is denoted by E and measured
in lumen per square meter or meter- candle.

E = Ф / A lux

1.21.9 Lux
One meter candle or lux is defined as the illumination produced by a uniform source of one CP
on the inner surface of a sphere of radius one meter.

1.21.10 Glare
In the human eye, the opening of pupil is controlled by its iris which depends upon the intensity
of light received by the eye. If the eye is exposed to a very bright source of light, the pupil of the
eye contracts automatically in order to reduce the amount of light admitted and prevent damage
to the retina. This effect is called glare.

Glare is defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such a character so as to cause
discomfort and interference in vision.

1.21.11 Lamp Efficiency

It is defined as the visible radiations emitted by it in lumens per watt.

Usually, the light sources do not radiate energy only in the visible spectrum. The radiant energy
is also accompanied with infrared and ultra violet radiations.

Sun light produces majority of radiations in the visible spectrum. The tungsten lamp produces
small radiations so its efficiency is very poor.

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The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is more than tungsten lamp.

1.21.12 Reflection Factor

Whole of the light incident on a reflecting surface is not reflected. Some portion of it is absorbed
by the surface.

The ratio of the reflected light to the incident light is called reflection factor.

1.21.13 Law of Illumination

The illumination on a surface depends upon the luminous intensity, distance between the source
and surface and the direction of rays of light. It is governed by following laws:

1. Inverse square law

2. Lambert’s cosine law

Inverse Square Law

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It states that the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of
the surface from the source.

E α 1/d2

Lambert’s Cosine Law

This law states that the illumination on any surface is proportional to the cosine of angle between
the direction of the incident flux and perpendicular to the area. E = 1/d2 cos θ

1.22 Electrical method of producing Light

Following are the methods of producing light:

1. By developing arc between two electrodes

2. By passing a current through a filament

3. By electric discharge through vapors or gases

1.22.1 Arc Lamp

The principle of an arc lamp is that when two electrodes carrying current are separated through a
small distance, an arc is struck between them. The arc lamps were used in the past for street
lighting purposes but now a day these are used when extreme brightness is required.

Most commonly use arc lamp is Carbon Arc Lamp.

This is the oldest type of lamp and is still being employed in cinema projectors and search lights.
It consists of two hard carbon rods (Electrodes). The diameter of +ve electrode is double to that
of –ve electrode. The –ve electrode is generally fixed and +ve electrode is placed in adjustable
holder and the process is manually or automatic. The arc consists of carbon vapors surrounded
by orange red zone of burning carbon and pale green flames.

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When the lamp is OFF, the two electrodes are touching each other due to spring pressure on +ve
electrode. When the supply is ON a large current is flowing through electrodes. The temperature
of carbon electrode is increased and thus the +ve electrode is pulled away against its spring
pressure through a small distance by coil and thus an arc is struck between electrodes. This arc is
maintained by transfer of carbon particles from one electrode to other electrode.

These particles travel from +ve electrode to –ve electrode, thus after sometime of operation +ve
electrode become hollow and –ve become pointed. That’s why +ve electrode is made double
than –ve electrode.

In carbon arc lamp 85 % of light is given by +ve electrode which produces high intensity light
and only 10 % by –ve electrode and 5 % by air. The temperature of +ve electrode is 4000 oC and
that of –ve electrode is about 2500 oC. The luminous efficiency of such lamps is about 9
lumen/watt.

For maintaining the arc, a minimum voltage required is given by: V = (39 + 28 L ), where L is
length of arc in centimeter.

1.22.2 Filament or Incandescent Lamp

Working Principle :

When a room heater is switched On, it gives out red light with heat at the working temperature of
750 oC and at this temperature the radiations are mostly in infrared regions. This working
principle is used to develop the filament lamp.
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When an electric current is passed through a fine metallic wire , it raises the temperature of wire.
At low temperature only heat is produced but at higher temperature light radiations goes on
increasing. As filament lamp consists of fine wire of high resistive material placed in an
evacuated glass bulb. This type of lamps are operated at the temperature of 2500 oC

A tungsten filament is enclosed in evacuated glass bulb but to improve its performance some
chemical like argon or nitrogen gas are filled.

Properties of Metal for Filament

1. High melting point: so that it can be operated at high temperature.

2. High specific resistance: so that it produces more heat.

3. Low temperature coefficient: so that filament resistance may not change at operating
temperature.

4. Low vapor pressure ; so that it may not vaporize

5. High ductile : so that it may withstand mechanical vibrations

1.23 Types of lighting Schemes

Lighting schemes are classified according to the location, requirement and purpose etc. are as
under:

There are 6 basic types of light schemes:

1. Direct
2. Indirect
3. Diffuse
4. Semi-indirect

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 5. Trans illumination
6. Back-lighting

1.23.1 Direct light

As is clear from the name, in this system almost 90 to 95 % light falls directly on the object or
the surface. The light is made to fall upon the surface with the help of deep reflectors. Such type
of lighting scheme is most used in industries and commercial lighting. Although this scheme is
most efficient but it is liable to cause glare and shadows.

Must be located to prevent direct glare. Glare can be minimized by using recessing light sources
or supplementary shades. A visible light source can cause a loss in reading efficiency. Shielded
light sources are excellent for accent lighting.

1.23.2 Indirect
In this system, the light does not fall directly on the surface but more than 90 % of light is
directed upwards by using diffusing reflectors. Here the ceiling acts as a source of light and this
light is uniformly distributed over the surface and glare is reduced to minimum. It provides
shadow less illumination which is useful for drawing offices and composing rooms. It is also
used for decoration purposes in cinema halls, hotels etc.

Luminaires produce a pleasant lighting quality, but a white or ‘high’ tone’ ceiling is necessary
and more electrical power is required.

Diffuse light

Fixtures or luminaires are good for high ceilings. There is, however, the possibility of some
glare.

1.23.3 Semi-indirect
This is also an efficient system of lighting and chances of glare are also reduced. Here
transparent type shades are used through which about 60 % light is directed downward and 40 %
is directed upward. This also provides a uniform distribution of light and is best suited for room
with high ceilings.

In this system about 60 to 90 % of total light is thrown upward to the ceiling for diffused
reflection and the rest reaches the working plane directly. A very small amount of light is
absorbed by the bowl. It is mainly used for interior decoration.

Fixtures are a compromise; use soft lighting combined with some direct and some diffused light
for economy of operation.

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Trans-illumination carries light via molded clear plastic paths to illuminate displays. This is
commonly accomplished by fiber-optics.

1.23.4 Back-lighting
Is used for some displays such as dials or for projection of illustrations on screens from behind.

1.23.5 General, Accent and Task lighting

This system employs such type of luminaries, shades and reflectors which give equal
illumination in all the directions.

When evaluating the best lighting scheme in a room, always think in terms of the three layers of
light: general, accent and task lighting. The best lighting schemes will offer plenty of flexibility,
so always aim to use at least three types of lighting. Blending these layers with care will create a
more dynamic, stimulating atmosphere.

General or ambient light controls the general illumination of a room, playing the role of daylight.
General light can include both direct and indirect (reflected) light sources. Lights in this category
include central pendant lights, ceiling-mounted fittings, wall lights, downlighters, uplighters and
standard lamps. I’m not a great fan of central lights and use them very rarely because I find them
unflattering and inflexible and they tend to leave the corners of a room in shadow, which makes
the room feel smaller. Working exceptions to this are when they are positioned over a dining
table or as specific decorative features, for example, hanging in a shelving recess or with one in
each corner of a room. Hang them low in a room to give it an impression of more height.

1.23.5.1 Accent lighting

Is directional lighting that highlights particular features. These lights can create a dramatic
atmosphere in an interior, with focal points and contrasts of darkness and light. This method of
lighting also serves to break up the evenness of general lighting. Examples of this type of light
are halogen spotlights, table lamps with opaque shades to channel light downwards, picture
lights and downlighters and uplighters with wide beams positioned near walls to wash them in
light.

1.23.5.2 Task lighting

Is a functional light designed around specific activities, such as reading, studying, cooking or
shaving. It needs to be a glare-free light that does not tire the eyes and one that ensures enough
light to define close detail. Kitchen lighting needs maximum flexibility. As well as a good
general level of light, task lighting is required for specific food preparation activity. Here,
downlights have been fitted on the underside of the cupboards for this purpose.

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Task lighting can also add to the general illumination of a room. This light requires a bulb of at
least 60 watts and should be considerably brighter than the other light sources in a room. Lights
should be arranged to avoid shadows being cast in the activity area. Such lights include
directional lights, such as downlighters, angled lamps and spotlights. As well as lighting an
activity, task lighting has the potential to improve the dynamics of a space, create divisions
within it and link items of furniture into groups.

1.24 Design of Indoor Light Scheme

While designing a good lighting schemes, the following points must be kept in mind :

1. It should provide adequate illumination.

2. It should provide uniformly distributed light all over working plane.

3. It should avoid glare and shadows as far as possible.

4. It should provide light of suitable colors.

1.24.1 Factors required for Light Scheme

The following factors are required to be considered while designing the lighting scheme :

1. Illumination level

2. Quality of light

3. Co efficient of utilization

4. Depreciation factor

5. Space height ratio

1.24.1.1 Illumination Level

This is the most vital factor in deciding the number and wattage of luminaries so that we are able
to see and recognize the object properly. Colors of the body have the property of reflecting the
light in different proportions, degree of illumination, its distance from the viewer, contrast
between the object to be seen and its surroundings.

Illumination Level

Type of work recommended illumination level

Offices 100-400 lumens/ meter square

Schools 250-400 lumens/ meter square

Industry 1000 lumens/ meter square

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Shops 250 -500 lumens/ meter square

Hotels 80 - 100 lumens/ meter square

Hospitals 250 -3500 lumens/ meter square

1.24.1.2 Quality of Light

This means that the illumination should not be harmful to the viewers. It should be glare free,
shadow less and contrast free. Direct glare from the source of light is most common factor.
Presence of polished and glassy surface will cause indirect glare unless diffused light is used.
Hard and long shadows can be avoided by using a large number of lamps and adjusting the
mounting height.

1.24.1.3 Co – efficient of Utilization

A surface to be illuminated receive light either directly from the lamps or reflected from the
ceiling and walls or both. In this case, the total flux reaching the surface will never be equal to
the flux emitted by the lamp, due to absorption by reflectors, ceiling and walls.

Utilization factor = lumens reaching at the working place

total lumens emitted by the source

Usually it varies from 0.5 to 0.8. efficient of Utilization

1.24.1.4 Depreciation Factor

The total flux emitted by the source and its fitting may be reduced due to deposition of dust upon
the surfaces. Similarly quantity of light reflected from the ceiling and walls also decreases with
the passage of time. This is called as depreciation factor.

Usually it varies from 1.3 to 1.6.

1.24.1.5 Space Height Ratio

The ratio of space (horizontal distance) between the two adjacent lamps to the vertical height of
the lamps above the working plane is called space height ratio.

So the distance between the lamps is not too much. An ideal scheme could be when there is large
number of small size lamps are used also it increases the cost of installation. So the space height
ratio is 1 to 1.5.

1.25 Testing and inspection electrical installations: polarity and continuity

tests
Among the requirements for Inspection includes;
 checking the connection of conductors,
 identification of conductors,

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  checking routing of cables,
 checking proper selection of conductors,
 checking connection of single-pole devices,
 checking connection of equipment,
 checking for presence of fire barriers,
 methods of protection against electric shock,
 prevention of detrimental influences,
 presence of appropriate devices for isolating and switching,
 presence of under-voltage protective devices,
 choice of setting of protective devices,
 labelling of protective devices, switches and terminals,
 selection of equipment appropriate to external influences,
 access to switchgear and equipment,
 presence of warning signs and danger notices,
 presence of diagrams, instructions and similar information and erection methods.

Testing includes;
 continuity of live, neutral and protective conductors,
 the resistance of earth electrodes,
 insulation resistance of all live conductors to earth,
 insulation resistance between live conductors,
 polarity to ensure all switches are connected in phase conductors and not neutral;
 phase earth loop impedance tests,
 operation of residual current devices.

1.26 Electrical Safety

Accidents may occur due to mechanical damage, faults in a cable or a appliance or a short
circuit. Automatic provision should be made to render the installation safe.

1.26.1 Main causes of accidents and treatment of electric shock

1.26.1.1 Electric Shock

BS 7671 classifies electric shock into two categories – shock resulting from either:
 direct contact with the electrical supply
 indirect contact with supply via exposed conductive parts or metalwork that have become live
due to a fault.

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 If an electric current passes through the human body, the effects could be an electric
shock or even death. The degree of danger of electric shock depends on the value of the
body current and the time for which the current flows. A low current for a long time can
easily prove just as dangerous as a high current for a relatively brief time. One of the
objects of earthing is to reduce the amount of current available for passage through the
human body in the event of the occurrence of an earth leakage current in an installation

The most common types of faults in domestic systems are;

 the short circuit faults (phase to neutral faults) - as a result of which large
currents will flow and damage may occur to wires, insulators, switches, etc., due
to overheating;
 insulation failure (fault between the phase conductor and non-current carrying
metallic parts) of an electrical equipment - as a result of which high voltages may
appear on the frames of equipment and may be dangerous to a person coming in
contact with it.

1.26.1.2 Shock protection

BS 7671 requires measures to be taken against:

 both direct and indirect contact - Could be achieved by reducing the voltage of an
installation to 50 V supply. The system is run through a safety isolating transformer a
device not connected to the earth, so the installation must meet the requirements of BS
7671 for a SELV (separate extra low voltage) supply.
 or protection against direct contact - achieved by;
 protection by insulating live parts
 protection by barriers or enclosures
 protection by obstacles, so preventing access
 protection by placing out of reach

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  RCDs (residual contact devices) may be used as a supplementary means of shock
prevention from direct contact, but only in addition to the measures listed in (i) to
(v). Residual current devices (RCDs) are designed to detect and automatically
disconnect the supply in the event of earth-faults.
 Barriers or enclosures
All live electrical components should be within enclosures. In some cases they
will also be protected by barriers, preventing easy access from the public.

 or protection against indirect contact - In this situation, conductive parts, such as

metalwork, have become live due to fault conditions. The potential voltage on this
metalwork rises above that of earth and electric shock results when a person touches the
metalwork.
Measures taken to prevent electric shock by indirect contact include (Section 413 in BS
7671) the following;
 Earthed equipotential bonding and the automatic disconnection of the supply
(EEBAD).
 Use of class II equipment and/or equivalent insulation. Class II usually relates to
portable equipment or factory-built equipment. Equipment to this class must not have
enclosing metalwork earthed. Furthermore for a class II installation, close supervision
is required to ensure the installation or its equipment is not changed from class II. The
symbol on the equipment that indicates that it is class II or double insulated is a
square within a square.
 Non-conducting location, i.e. physical separation from exposed conductive parts, no
earth connection.
 Earth free local equipotential bonding. Every part is bonded and therefore ‘no voltage
difference – no shock’.
 Electrical separation. A transformer fed secondary is not connected to earth or an
isolated generator supply is used.

1.26.1.3 Purpose of Protection

Therefore, all electrical wiring systems and all electrical apparatus associated with wiring
must be protected to:
 prevent damage by fire or shock
 maintain continuity of the supply
 disconnect faulty apparatus from the remainder of the system
 prevent damage to wiring and equipment
 minimize the system interruptions under fault conditions.

1.26.1.4 Characteristics of protection mechanisms

Protection must be provided against excess currents and earth leakage. Protective equipment
must possess the following features:
 Certainty and reliability of operation under fault conditions and non-operation under
normal conditions.

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  Discrimination
 Rapidity of operation
 Simplicity, low initial and maintenance cost
 Easy adjustment and testing.
 the use good workmanship,
 Approved materials and equipment to ensure that the correct type, size and current-
carrying capacity of cables is chosen.

Assignment 1

Read and make notes on the following:

1. Earthing regulations

2. Motors used in construction industry

3. Any other types of lights

4. Testing, inspection procedures and safety precautions for electrical installations.

5. Procedures for handling an electric shock victim

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2.0 Sub-module 2: Water Supply in a Building
1.1 Sources of water, water impurities, characteristics of water for domestic
purposes
1.1.1 Sources
Water is formed by condensation in form of clouds and falls to the ground as rain, snow or
hail, thus becoming water sources in the form of surface water like rivers, streams, oceans,
seas, or percolates through the subsoil until it reaches the impervious stratum or held in a
water bearing subsoil as ground water for example boreholes, wells, springs.

1.1.2 Water uses

Water use is categorised according to user and purpose as follows:

Category Purpose
Domestic use (Households)  Drinking
 Food preparation
 Cleaning
 Washing
 Toilet flushing
 (Vegetable, garden watering)
Industrial and commercial use  Process water (raw material for soft
drinks/beverages like soda, juice,
alcohol)
 Boiler feed water (Steam generation)
 Hot water systems
 Air conditioning systems
 Paper works
 Steel works
 Refineries such as oil and fuel pdructs

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 Other uses
 Agriculture and horticulture  Spraying through irrigation
 Livestock and Poultry farming  Drinking livestock, cleaning stables

 Public service (schools, offices, hotels,  Fire fighting

rail way/bus stations)  Fountains in leisure places
 Lawn sprinkling
 Swimming pools

 Flushing, cleaning pipe systems

 Water supply company

1.1.3 Water Use and Quality

Because of the different water uses, quality of water is an important consideration given the fact
that the sources from which this water is drawn are prone to purification deficiencies due to
environmental exposure resulting in pollution of water.

Purification of water aims at removal of organic, inorganic impurities and pathogens before
distributing to the respective user functions.

In case of piped drinking water supply the best quality is also used for water use which requires
less strict quality demands.

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1.1.4 Quality requirements for drinking water
Interest of involved parties
Consumer * No influence on health Bacteriological safe water should be free of
pathogenic organisms such as:
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Protozoa
 Amoebes
 Cysts
 Spores
No toxic matter present
* Aesthetics aspects  Clear, no colour, good taste
* Scale formation, staining
 No attack of equipment
* Sufficient pressure
 Avoiding contamination
Water Supplier Water should be transportable
* No quality deterioration during
transportation (after growth,
dissolving pipe materials)
* No attack of pipes (not aggressive)
* No deposits

Requirements are translated in terms of quality parameters.

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1.1.4.1 Health and other effects of various constituents

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1.1.4.2 WHO guide parameters and limits

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1.1.5 Raw water aspects

Assignment 2

1. Classify the different types of raw water source pollutants giving examples of each.
2. State the requirements of good quality drinking water.

1.2 Water Treatment

Therefore because of poor quality of raw water, the water supply service utility/provider/
authority will extract the raw water from the different sources and subject it to some form of
treatment to attain the desired quality standards before distributing it for consumption.

Objectives of Water Treatment

 Transformation of raw water into drinking water.

 To make water transportable (no corrosion of pipes, avoiding quality deterioration during
transport to consumers).
By changing the chemical/ biological composition:
 Partly or entirely removal of constituents
 Adding useful substances

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To improve the raw water quality, many water treatment methods are available. Each treatment
method has its special application field or is suitable to improve one or more quality parameters.
The treatment methods include;

1.2.1 Aeration

Aeration aims at removing, iron, ammonia volatile substances that cause bad taste and odor for
example H2S, CH4, organic solvents excess CO2, O2 in case of super saturation (raw water with
algae). Aeration could be in form of;

Droplets / Spray aeration as shown below

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Bubble aeration

Film aeration
Several types of packing exist: gravel, plastics, coke, coarse sand or wood. packing can act as a
catalyst.

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1.2.2 Micro Straining
Micro straining aims at;

 removal of zoo and phytoplankton (algae)

 removal of small fish
 removal of all kind of coarse floating materials like (weeds, leaves, water hycinth) and some
turbidity.

1.2.3 Coagulation
Coagulation involves removal of small colloidal particles which cause turbidity, which are
otherwise difficult to remove by sedimentation and filtration. This process takes place by
removing repulsive surface charge (Destabilisation), while improving the capability of sticking
together. The particles then move to each other to provide collisions and later agglomerating into
microflocs that are setteable/filterable.

The removal of the (mostly negative) surface charge can be achieved by chemicals (often
positively charged species/ ions as for example Al3+ or Fe3+)

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The agglomerates or flocs are removed by two further methods that is sedimentation (bulk/big
flocs) followed by the filtration method to remove the small flocs.

Objectives of Coagulation in water treatment

 Removal of:
 turbidity (suspended matter)
 colour (organic matter)
 PO43-, F-
 heavy metals
and other impurities in small quanties
 some pesticides
 micro organisms (algae, bacteria, viruses)

Flocculation mechanism

Particles (microflocs) move to hit each other, after which agglomeration to macroflocs takes
place.

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1.2.4 Sedimentation

The sedimentation process comprises of a horizontal rectangular tank with plates arranged inside
to settle and remove flocs. The removal of flocs (sludge) is achieved by placing plates under at
an angle of 600.

1.2.5 Deep bed filtration

The filtration process involves removal of flocs and turbidity particles by sieving through a sand
bed. The filtration goes through two stages that is rapid sand filtration and slow sand filtration.
In the rapid sand filtration, the big flocs are removed first from water as show in the diagram
below. However this stage requires scouring (washing away) of plates to remove the floc
clogging using backwash water. The bed height (Hbed) of a rapid sand filter bed ranges between
0.8 - 1.0m, velocity of flow (Vf) being 6m/h and grain diameter (dg) ranging between 0.8 -
1.2mm.

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In the case of slow sand filtration (referred to as a bio - reactor because biological processes are
involved), as shown in diagram below having a similar arrangement to rapid sand filtration,
involves polishing the water quality further by;

 removal of smaller turbid particles

 removal of NH4+, organic matter, color
 removal of pathogenic bacteria (GOOD ALTERNATIVE FOR CL2)

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The slow sand filtration process is characterised by a 3cm biological activity layer (referred to as
the Schmutzdecke containing bacteria for implementing the removal of elements mentioned
above. The filter does not require backwashing so as to maintain the bacteria at the top for the
biological actions; however for proper functioning it may be slightly scrapped off. It also
contains some chlorine for coping and ripening period of the Schmutzdecke. The bed height of
SSF is about 1m, flow velocity (Vf = 0.3 m/h) requiring a larger surface area and grain diameter
dg = 0.2 - 0.5mm.

1.2.6 Disinfection
Is the process of removing pathogens and ammonia from clear water with low turbidity using
chorine.

However chlorine use is disadvantageous because it leads to formation of Trihalomethanes

(THMs) compounds which are said to be cancerous. Alternatively Ozone treatment could be
used which is thought to be more advantageous as a stronger disinfectant compared to chlorine,
in terms of killing viruses. However Ozone treatment is expensive in that it requires Activated
Carbon filtration for removal of toxic peroxides and air/O3 exhaust gas needs to be treated as
well.

Applications of Activated - Carbon in Water treatment

Objectives
 removal of taste and odour producing compounds (from algea)
 elimination of inconvenient or toxic compounds
 removal of heavy metals
 removal of organic matter and assimible organic carbon
 safety reasons (unknown pollutants)
 removal of NH4+ (in case of a filter)
 removal of peroxides in case of proceeding O3 - disinfection
 removal of Cl2 (chemical reaction)
 removal of mineral oil

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All the above aim at polishing the water quality.

Assignment 3

 Write short notes on hardness of water and how it can be overcome

 Summarise the water treatment process in logical order of a simple plan layout.

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1.3 Cold water supply (direct and indirect):
After treatment, water is supplied or distributed to the end user from a water authority or service
provider's network or mains by means of;

 Pipes
 gravity
 pumping
 mobile trucks

1.3.1 Connection and laying of service pipes from water mains to dwelling
Care must be taken to ensure that the laid supply network is placed in a position that will not be
vulnerable to frost attack, heavy traffic or building loads. A minimum depth of 750mm is said to
be recommended for supplies to domestic properties, in cases where the pipe passes under the
building, it should be housed in a protective duct or pipe suitably insulated within 750mm of the
floor level as shown in figure below.

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1.3.2 Functions and names of various pipes used in cold water supply

1.3.2.1 Main: A pipe for general conveyance of water, as distinct from the conveyance to
individual premises.

1.3.2.2 Service: A system of pipes and fittings for supply and distribution of water in any
premise.

1.3.2.3 Service pipe: A pipe in a service that is directly subject to pressure from a main,
sometimes called the rising main, inside a building.

1.3.2.4 Communication pipe: That part of the service pipe that is vested in the water
undertaking.

1.3.2.5 Distribution pipe: Any pipe in a service conveying water from a storage cistern.

1.3.3 Water Meter

A meter is a standard installation for all new buildings and conversions within buildings as a
resource conservation measure. Existing buildings may have meters installed at the authority's
discretion. Where practicable the meter is located on the service pipe, in a small compartment
below the ground and just inside the property boundary. If this is not possible owing to lack of
space, the meter may be positioned at the base of the rising main.

1.3.4 Materials used for water mains

Suitable materials for service pipes are used for example copper, PVC, polythene and galvanised
steel. Copper pipes are said to be laid on and covered by a layer of sand to prevent direct contact
with the earth, or wrapped with suitable proprietary insulating material as shown in the diagram
above. Plastic coated copper pipes are also available for underground pipework. Steel pipes
should have a similar protection, but plastic pipes are resistant to both frost and corrosion and
have largely superseded metallic pipes in this situation.

1.3.4.1 Copper pipes

Copper pipes have a smooth bore giving low flow resistance, they are strong, easily jointed and
bent. Joints in copper pipes can be made by one of the following methods as illustrated in the
diagram below:

 Manipulative compression joint: The end of the pipe is manipulated to fit into the
coupling fitting by means of a special tool. No jointing material is required, and the joint
offers great resistance to being withdrawn. It is usually a by - law requirement that this
type of joint is used on service pipes below ground.

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  Non Manipulative compression joint: No manipulation is required to cut the end of the
pipe; the holding power of the joint relies on the grip of a copper cone, ring or olive
within the joint fitting.

 Capillary joint: The application of heat makes the soft solder contained in the groove in
the the fitting flow around the end of the pipe, which has been cleaned and coated with a
suitable flux to form a neat and rigid joint.

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1.3.4.2 Steel pipes
Steel pipes for domestic water supply can be obtained as black tube, galvanised or coated and
wrapped for underground services. The joint is usually made with a tapered thread and socket
fitting and to ensure a sound joint, stranded hemp and jointing paste should be wrapped around
the thread, alternatively a non - containing polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) seal tape can be used
as shown below.

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1.3.4.3 Polythene pipe
Polythene pipe is very light in weight, easy to joint, non toxic and is available in long lengths,
which gives a saving on a number of joints required. Jointing of polythene pipes is generally of
the compression type using a metal or plastic liner to the end of the tube as shown in the Figure
below. To prevent undue sagging, polythene pipes should be adequately fixed to the wall with
saddle clips recommended spacings are 14 times the outside diameter for horizontal runs and 24
times outside diameter for vertical runs.

1.3.4.4 Unplasticised PVC (uPVC)

This is plastic pipe for cold water services that is supplied in straight lengths up to 9000 mm long
and in standard colours of grey, blue and black. Blue is the water authorities preferred colours,
for easy identification when buried. Jointing can be by a screw thread, but the most common
method is by solvent welding. This involves cleaning and chamfering the end of the pipe, which
is coated with the correct type of adhesive and pushed into a straight coupling that has been
similarly coated. The solvent will set within a few minutes, but joint does not achieve its working
strength for 24 hours. Heat fusion is also used, but mainly for larger diameter, water authority
mains. Here the pipe spigot and coupling are heated with circular dies to melt the uPVC and
effect a push fit weld.

1.3.5 Pipe sizes

Pipe sizes used in cold water supply systems range from 15 mm and 22 mm.

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1.3.6 Cold water supply systems
Two systems of cold water supply systems exist and these are;

1. Direct system (Non storage /up fed)

2. Indirect system (storage /down fed)

1.3.6.1 Direct system (Non storage/ up fed)

In this system the whole of the cold water supply to tap draw offs and sanitary fittings is directly
tapped from the authority's service pipe, however there is no provision for reserve storage save
for a small cold water storage cistern to feed the hot water tank. The cistern is positioned below
the roof ceiling level, giving a saving on the pipe runs to the roof space and eliminating the need
to insulate the pipe against frost.

Advantages

1. Guarantees portable (fresh water) at all draw off points

2. Guarantees a saving on pipe runs and tank installation to the roof space while eliminating
need for insulating pipes against frost.

Disadvantages

1. Lack of a reserve should the mains supply be cut off

2. Requires constant pressure at all times short of which will cause noise and vibration if it
goes high.
3. Direct connection to sanitary fittings creates a risk of contamination of mains water by
back siphonage

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1.3.6.2 Indirect system (storage /down fed)
In this system, the rising service pipe serves fresh water supply to only the kitchen sink draw off
while the rest of the draw offs and sanitary fittings are supplied indirectly from a cold storage
reserve cistern /tank, positioned at a high level for example a ceiling or support tank stand.

Advantages

1. It gives a reserve supply in case of mains failure

2. Reduces on the risk of contamination by back siphonage
3. Storage tank may serve a dual purpose by serving both cold and hot water supply.

Disadvantages

1. Portable water only served at the kitchen draw off point

2. Requires more pipework

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1.3.7 Cold water storage cistern, and valves their siting and protection
The size of the cold water storage cisterns for dwelling houses will depend upon the reserve
required and whether the cistern is intended to feed the hot water system. Minimum actual
capacities recommended in model water by - laws are 115 litres for cold water storage only and
230 litres cold and hot water services.

Cisterns should be adequately installed in such a position as to give reasonable access for
maintenance purposes. The cistern must be installed so that its outlets are above the highest
discharge point on the sanitary fittings, as the flow is by gravity. If the cistern is housed in the
roof the pipes and cistern should be insulated against any possible freezing of the water,
preformed casings of suitable material are available to suit most standard cistern sizes and
shapes. The inlet and outlet connections to the cistern, should be on opposite sides to prevent
stagnation of water. A securely fitting cover should be provided to prevent ingress of dust, dirt
and insects. To prevent a vacuum occurring as water is drawn, the cover is fitted with a screen
vent. It also has a moulded sleeve/boss for adapting the hot water expansion pipe. The overflow
or warning pipe is also fitted with a filter. Typical cistern installations are illustrated in the figure
below.

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Plastic cisterns are preferred over the traditional galvanised mild steel cisterns because of the
following advantages;

1. Are non corrosive

2. Rot proof and frost resistant
3. Have good resistance to mechanical damage
4. Materials used are polythene and glass fibre, with a wall thickness to withstand the water
pressure and have an indefinite life.
5. Some form of polythene cisterns can be distorted to enable them to be passed through an
opening 600mm x 600mm, a great advantage when planning access to a roof space.
However it is always said to better deposit the cistern within the roof structure during
construction, rather than have access difficulties later.

1.3.8 Float valves

Every pipe supplying cold water a cold water cistern must be fitted with a float valve to prevent
an overflow. The float valve must be fitted at a higher level that than the overflow to prevent it
becoming submerged and creating conditions where back siphonage is possible. A float valve is
designed to automatically regulate the supply of water by a floating ball closing the valve when
water reaches a predetermined level.

Types of valves in common use

Two valves commonly used in domestic work are the piston and diaphragm valves

1.3.8.1 Piston valve

The piston valve has a horizontal piston or plunger that closes over the orifice of a diameter to
suit the pressure, high, medium and low pressure valves are available as shown in the figure
below. Piston valves are however disadvantaged by corrosion due to a sticking piston.

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1.3.8.2 Diaphragm valves
The diaphragm valve shown in the figure below, closes over an interchangeable nylon nozzle
orifice. Diaphragm valves are advantageous over piston valves, in that;

1. They are quieter in operation

2. easily adjustable
3. less susceptible to corrosion trouble
4. Diaphragm valve outlets are placed at the top to increase the air gap between the outlet
and water level, thus reducing the possibility of back siphonage if the cistern water level
were to rise excessively.

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1.3 Hot water supply:
The supply of hot water to domestic sanitary fittings is usually taken from a hot water tank or
cylinder. The source of heat is usually in the form of;

 Gas fired
 oil fired
 Solid fuel (wood, charcoal, coal)
 Liquid fuel (petrol, diesel, paraffin)
 Electric immersion heater fitted into hot water storage tank or cylinder
 Solar
 Hot springs

When quantity of hot water is drawn from the tank it is replaced by cold water from the cold
water cistern. Two main systems are used to heat the water in the tank and these are; direct and
indirect systems. Copper or steel pipes are used in the hot water systems; however they should
be used independently and not be mixed or interchanged within the system. This is due to the
electrolytic attraction that dissimilar metals have in the presence of water, which eventually leads
to corrosion. Copper and Zinc are particularly renown for this problem as zinc is the protective
plating given to steel pipes under the name of galvanising.

1.3.1 Direct and indirect systems

1.3.1.1 Direct system

This is the simplest and cheapest system; the cold water flows through the water jacket in the
boiler, where its temperature is raised and convectional currents are induced which causes the
water to rise and circulate. The hot leaving the boiler is replaced by cold water descending from
the hot water cylinder or tank by gravity, thus setting up the circulation. The hot water supply is
drawn off from the top cylinder by a horizontal pipe at least 450mm long to prevent one pipe
circulation being set up in the vent pipe or expansion pipe. This pipe is run vertically from the
hot water distribution pipe to a discharge position over the cold water storage cistern as shown
below

In this system, hot water circulating between the boiler and storage tank is drawn off as required
for domestic use and replaced by fresh water fed directly in the same primary circuit.

Due to heat loss, the hot water cylinder should be placed close to the boiler and connected by
primary flow and return pipe.

Advantages

1. Economic to install and supply

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Disadvantages

1. Distribution pipes are not circulatory and so their water runs to waste before water is
discharged
2. Not suitable for supplying a central heating circuit or for hard water areas because pipes
and cylinders will become furred with lime deposits. The precipitation of lime occurs
when hard water is heated to temperatures of between 500 and 700, which is the ideal
temperature range for domestic hot water supply.

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 Direct Hot-Water Supply System

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1.3.1.2 Indirect System
In this system hot water also circulates between boilers and storage cylinders but the storage
cylinder is designed such that the hot water in the primary circuit from the boiler is used only to
raise temperature of the stored water. It does not mix with it nor is it drawn off from the
secondary circuit and is replaced by the cold water system.

This system is designed to overcome the problems of furring, which occur with the direct hot
water system. The basic difference is in the cylinder design, which now becomes the heat
exchanger. The cylinder contains a coil or annulus that is connected to the flow and return pipes
from the boiler. A transfer of heat takes place within the cylinder and therefore after the initial
precipitation of the lime within the primary circuit and boiler, there is no further furring as fresh
cold water is not being constantly introduced into the boiler circuit.

The supply circuit from the cylinder follows the same pattern as the direct hot water system, but
a separate feed and expansion system is required for the boiler and primary circuit for initial
supply, also for any necessary topping up due to evaporation. The feed cistern is similar to a cold
water storage cistern but of much smaller capacity. The water levels in the two cisterns should be
equal so that equal pressures act on the indirect cylinder.

The heating circuit can be taken from the boiler, its distribution being governed by the boiler
capacity as shown in figure below. Alternatively a small bore system of central heating may be
installed.

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1.3.9 Circulation of Water on Boilers, Pipers and Cylinders
The direct cylinder system of hot water supply is based on the principle of gravity circulation.
This is the movement of the heated water brought about by convection currents. These currents
are set up by the difference in density between water at different temperatures.

Figure below shows a simple system with boiler, circulating pipes and cylinder. The water in the
cylinder is heated as follows:

1. Radiant heat from the fire is conducted through the boiler plate.
2. The water in contact with the boiler plate becomes heated and therefore becomes less dense
than the cold water.
3. The cold water pushes the heated water to the top of the boiler and as more heat is applied,
the water passes up the flow pipe.
4. Hot water enters the cylinder and convection currents are set up until warm water eventually
passes down the return pipe, and being at a lower temperature than the water in the flow pipe,
and therefore heavier, it continues to push the water being heated in the boiler up the flow
pipe and into the cylinder until all the water in the cylinder is heated.

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J. B. Isoke
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J. B. Isoke
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 Secondary circulation

1. A dead leg is a term used to describe a situation where cold water has to be drawn off from a
hot tap before a supply of hot water is obtained. It is caused by the hot storage vessel being
fitted a long way away, thus you have an excessively long hot water distribution pipe. Dead
legs are not normally a problem in a domestic installation but in larger systems such as
hotels, hospitals, factories etc, they are wasteful both of energy and water.
2. To promote maximum economy of energy and water the hot water distribution system should
be designed so that hot water appears quickly at draw-off taps when they are opened. To
achieve this it is necessary to install a secondary return.
3. Secondary circulation is achieved by fitting a secondary return pipe after the last hot water
connection on the system. The secondary return should connect to the top third of the hot
store vessel; if this is not done the hot water will mix with the cooler water in the vessel
reducing its temperature.

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4. In systems where it is not possible to attain secondary circulation by gravity, a non-corroding
circulating pump should be installed to ensure that water within the secondary circuit
remains hot. The pump should be located on the secondary return pipe close to the cylinder.
5. Figure below shows a direct cylinder system with a secondary return fitted.

Secondary Circulation

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1.3.2 Boilers and cylinders

1.3.2.1 Cylinders
Copper cylinders are produced to the recommendations of BS 1566. The standard recommended
sizes, capacities and positions for screwed holes for pipe connections.

To overcome the disadvantage of the extra pipework involved when using an indirect cylinder, a
single feed or prismatic cylinder can be used. This form of cylinder is entirely self- contained
and is installed in the same manner as a direct cylinder but functions as an indirect cylinder. It
works on the principle of buoyancy of air, which is used to form seals between the primary and
secondary water systems. When the system is first filled with water the cylinder commences to
fill and fully charges the primary circuit to the boiler with the water. When the cylinder water
capacity has been reached, two air seals will be formed, the first in the upper chamber of the
primatic unit and the second in the air vent pipe. These volumes of air are used to separate the
primary and secondary water. When water is heated in the primary system expansion, it displaces
some of the air in the upper chamber to the lower chamber. This is a reciprocating action the
seals transfer from chamber to chamber as the temperature rises and falls.

Any excess air in the primary system is vented into secondary system, which will also
automatically replenish the primary system should this be necessary. As with indirect systems
careful control over the heat output of the boiler is advisable to prevent boiling and consequent
furring of the pipework. Examples of cylinders are illustrated in the figure below.

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J. B. Isoke
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1.3.2.2 Boilers
What is a boiler?

A boiler is simply an enclosed vessel in which water is heated by the application of heat, which
could be either from solid fuel, gas, oil or electricity. There are many types, sizes and shapes of
boilers, therefore the examples given are but a few. Information on individual types and makes
of boilers can be readily obtained from manufacturers and suppliers.

Solid Fuel Boilers

These include those which burn wood, coal, turf or anthracite. They are not considered to be
automatic and consequently the temperature in the heating system can vary widely. Solid fuel
boilers are only suitable for the open vented central heating systems.

Gas Boilers

As the name suggests these boilers are heated by gas, which in Ireland is usually natural gas or
LPG. Gas is an extremely clean and efficient form of fuel. Gas boilers are automatically
controlled which gives an even temperature throughout the system leading to a more economical
use of the fuel. These boilers can be used on open vented or sealed heating systems.

Oil Boilers

These boilers are heated by pressure jet oil burners. These can produce excessive carbon deposits
(soot), therefore the heat exchanger (boiler) needs regular cleaning. In areas where natural gas is
not available oil is a good alternative.

Electric Storage Boilers

These are a new concept which uses cheap rate night-time electricity to heat an element which
warms up a series of refractory blocks. During the day when the heat is required, a fan blows air
around a closed circuit which warms and in turns blows on to a water filled heat exchanger.
Electricity is generally considered to be the cleanest but most expensive method of heating
water.

Calorifer

A storage vessel, not open to the atmosphere, in which a supply of water is heated. The vessel
contains an element, such as a coil of pipe, through which is passed a supply of hot water or
steam, in such a way that the two supplies do not mix, heat being transferred through the walls of
the element.

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Expansion Vessel

A closed vessel for accommodating the thermal expansion of water in a pressurized hot water
heating system

Float Switch

A device incorporating a float that operates a switch in response to changes in the level of a
liquid.

1.3.3 Pipe sizes

Pipe sizes range from 15 mm to 22mm.

1.3.4 Faults in hot water systems

Unless proper design of hot water systems is implemented, the systems are likely to experience
the following faults:

1. Airlocks which are pockets of trapped air in systems which will stop or slow down the
circulation. Air suspended in the will be released when the water is heated and rise to the
highest point. In a good installation pipes are designed to rise 25mm in 3000 mm towards the
vent where the air is released through the vent pipe. The most common positions for airlocks
are sharp bends and upper rail of the towel rail; the remedy for the latter location is for the
towel rail to be vented.
2. Noises from hot water systems are a result of a blocked pipe caused by excessive furring or
corrosion.
 Noise is caused by the imprisoned expanded water and the faulty pipe must be de
scaled or removed otherwise would cause an explosion.
 Inadequate bracketing of pipes is another common cause of plumbing noise,
particularly in the rising main, where pressures are higher than elsewhere. This is
referred to as water hammer.
3. Scale Deposits
The formation of scale deposits in temporary hard water areas can obstruct the primary
circulating pipes, but this is unlikely to happen to both pipes simultaneously as the flow pipe
carrying the hotter water tends to scale up first and the resultant noises in the boiler would
prompt and early investigation.

1.3.5 Mains supply hot water

This has become a popular alternative to the traditional installations. It is very economical in
pipework, space requirements and installation time as conventional expansion facilities are not
required. The system is mains fed and sealed, with expansion accommodated in a specially
designed vessel containing an air cushion. Safety facilities are essential and include both pressure
and thermal relief valves as shown in the figure below.

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1.3.6 Connections to vertical and horizontally fixed cylinders

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1.4 Supply of water in multi-stored buildings
For plumbing purposes, the term “multi-storey” is applied to buildings that are too tall to be
supplied throughout by the normal pressure in the public water mains. These buildings have
particular needs in the design of their sanitary drainage and venting systems. Water main supply
pressures of 8–12 metres (25–40 feet) can supply a typical two-storey building, but higher
buildings may need pressure booster systems. In hilly areas, the drinking-water supply pressures
will vary depending on the ground elevation. In these cases, the water authority may have to
specify areas where particular supply pressures can be relied upon for the design and operation
of buildings. Where a building of three or more storeys is proposed a certificate should be
obtained from the drinking-water supply authority guaranteeing that the present and future public
drinking-water supply pressure will be adequate to serve the building. If the public water
pressure is inadequate, suitable means shall be provided within the building to boost the water
pressure.
Systems for boosting water pressure
Pressure-boosting systems can be of several different types:
• pumping from a ground level or basement gravity tank to a gravity roof tank;
• pumping from a gravity storage tank or public water main into a hydro-pneumatic pressure
tank that uses captive air pressure to provide adequate drinking-water supply pressure;
• installation of booster pump sets consisting of multiple staged pumps or variable speed
pumps that draw water directly from a gravity storage tank or the public water main.
Multistage booster pump sets typically include discharge pressure regulating valves to
maintain a constant drinking-water supply pressure.
 Written approval should be obtained from the appropriate authority before any pump or
booster is connected to the supply. Where booster pump sets are permitted to draw directly
from public water mains, the public drinking-water supply must be adequate to meet the peak
demands of all buildings in the area. Otherwise, there is a high risk of backflow and
subsequent contamination of the mains from buildings not equipped with a booster pump.
Building booster

HEALTH ASPECTS OF PLUMBING

72 pumps are not a solution to the problem of inadequate drinking-water supply. Where public
drinking-water supply systems are overburdened and cannot provide adequate pressure on a
continuous basis, water must be stored on site during periods when adequate pressure is available
to fill a gravity storage tank. The size of the storage tank will vary according to the daily water
demand of the building, and the availability of adequate pressure available in the public water
mains. It should not be excessively oversized to avoid stagnation due to inadequate turnover.
Multi-storey buildings can usually be divided into zones of water pressure control. The lower
two to three storeys can generally be supplied directly from the pressure in the public water

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main. Upper storeys, usually in groups of five to eight storeys, can be supplied from pressure-
boosted main risers through a pressure reduction valve for each group. Systems can be up-fed or
down-fed. Up-fed systems usually originate from a pressure booster pump set or hydro-
pneumatic tank in the basement of the building. Down-fed systems usually originate from a
rooftop gravity tank. Where a building is divided into water pressure zones, care must be taken
not to cross-connect the piping between two or more zones. This is a particular problem when
domestic hot water is recirculated from a central supply system.
Where hydropneumatic tanks are used for storage, the tank is filled to one third to a half full by a
float level device that controls the drinking-water supply source (a well pump or pressure booster
pump). The pressure is maintained at the desired operating level by an air compressor. As the
building uses water from the tank, the water level and air pressure drop. When the water level
drops to the “on” setting of the float level control, the well pump or booster pump starts and
raises the water level in the tank to the “off” level. This restores the pressure in the tank. If some
of the captive air above the water has been absorbed by the water, the air compressor starts and
restores the air charge, raising the system pressure to the normal level. Hydropneumatic tanks are
typically made of steel or fibreglass and must be rated for the system operating pressure. Steel
tanks must have a protective coating of suitable composition for drinking-water contact on the
inside to protect the tank from corrosion and avoid contaminating the water. They should be
checked on a regular basis to ensure that the protective coating is intact and the water remains
potable.
Smaller hydropneumatic tanks can also be used to help control pressure booster pumps, allowing
them to be cycled on and off by a pressure switch. The captive air within the tank keeps the
system pressurized while the pump is off. When the water pressure drops to the “on” pressure
setting, the pump starts and raises the volume and pressure of the water in the tank. No air
compressor is needed where tanks have a flexible diaphragm between the air and the water in the
tank, charged with air at initial start-up. The size of pressure tanks for booster pumps must match
the capacity of the pump and the peak system demand so that the pump “off” cycle is longer than
the “on” cycle and the pump does not cycle too frequently.

1.5 Principles and working of taps and valves used in water supply to include: bib,
globe, and stop taps, ball values, gate values, drain taps and plug corks

1.3.10 Valves and Taps

Valves and taps are devices designed to regulate, open or close the flow of liquid or gas in a
pipeline. They are essential components of a piping system that conveys liquids, gases, vapors,
slurries etc. Some valves are self-operated while others manually or with an actuator or
pneumatic or hydraulic is operated. They should be made of brass, gun metal or other corrosion
resisting alloys. They may be made by casting metal into moulds or by hot pressing metal
between dies.

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Functions from Valves are:

• Stopping and starting flow

• Reduce or increase a flow
• Controlling the direction of flow
• Regulating a flow or process pressure
• Relieve a pipe system of a certain pressure

Some of the more common valves and taps and their uses are given below.

1.3.10.1 Stopcocks
Used on incoming high pressure water mains. They must be fitted the correct way round, so that
the water passing through the valve pushes the jumper up from its seating. For this reason
stopcocks are stamped with an arrow indicating the direction of the water flow.

1.3.10.2 Gate Valves

Used are used to control the flow of fluids in low pressure systems, such as distribution pipework
from storage cisterns, or heating systems. Gate valves do not have washers fitted and therefore
there is no restriction to the flow of liquids through them. A wedge shaped gate closes into a
matching seating when the valve is operated.

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1.3.10.3 Drain off cock (DOC)
Used to is used to drain boilers, cylinders, sections of pipework etc. They are usually fitted at
low points in plumbing and central heating systems.

1.3.10.4 Bib taps

A well mounted tap fixed to the wall with a back plate. They are used with Belfast and cleaner’s
sinks and are useful for filling buckets and are often fitted externally also for outdoor/outside
use. A hose union connection is also available. Bib taps can be plain or chromium plated.

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1.3.10.5 Pillar taps
Used on sinks, wash hand basins and baths. Are manufactured with long inlet threads which
allow them to be fitted through sanitary appliances and thereby clamped in position. When
fitting pillar taps it is essential to ensure that an adequate “air gap” is allowed for, to prevent
back siphonage.

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1.3.10.6 Mixer taps
A tap in which hot and cold water are delivered through a common spout. Used on sinks, wash
hand basins and baths. There are two basic designs of mixer taps: in which the hot and cold
water is mixed in the tap body or spout (single outlet mixer), and those in which the hot and cold
water do not actually mix until it is discharged from the outlet nozzle (double outlet mixer). The
first type is only suitable for use when the water from the hot and cold supplies are at equal
pressures. Failure to observe this could result in the water having greater pressure flowing back
down the other feed pipe. This results in unsatisfactory water flows discharging from the nozzle
outlet. There is also a risk of contamination from stored water getting into the mains water
supply.

Many mixing taps are fitted with a swivel outlet. This allows the water to be discharged at
various positions and proves useful with modern sinks which often have more than one bowl.
One major drawback to mixer taps with a swivel outlet is the fact that the neoprene “O” ring
used to ensure a watertight seal tends to wear out and therefore requires frequent replacement.

1.3.10.7 Plug cocks

A quick closing valve used mainly on gas installations.Can be fully opened or closed by turning
the square top through one quarter of a turn. This means that the valve can be closed very

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quickly, and for this reason it is not used on water supply systems because of the risk of water
hammer. Plug cocks have a square head into which a slot is cut; if this slot is in line with the
pipe it means the valve is open; if the slot is at right angles to the pipe the valve is closed. Plug
cocks are used almost exclusively on gas services.

1.3.10.8 Radiator valves

Used to control the flow of water to and from radiators. They are fitted to radiators and convector
heaters. In general one valve is fitted to each end. They may be straight or angle pattern with a
wheelhead or lock-shield cover. The lock-shield valve is used when balancing the heating
system, ensuring an equal distribution of hot water. It the radiator has to be taken down, the
lock-shield valve can be shut off. The wheelhead valve is used to turn the heater on or off.
Thermostatic radiator valves are also available. These valves are fitted with a built-in heat
sensor. They are designed to open and close automatically, allowing hot water to the radiator as
heat is required.

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 Repacking Glands on Radiator Valves

1.3.10.9 Anti-vacuum Valve

A valve in a water service that opens to admit air if the pressure within the water service falls
below atmospheric pressure.

1.3.10.10 Ball Valve

A valve that controls the entry of water into a storage cistern or flushing cistern, closing off the
supply when the water level in the cistern has reached a predetermined level. It is sometimes
called a ball cock or float-operated valve.

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1.3.10.11 Butterfly Valve
A valve in which a disc is rotated about a diametric axis of a cylinder to vary the aperture. It is
used where space is limited or more sophisticated control is required.

1.3.10.12 Gate Valve

A valve that provides a straight-through passage for the flow of fluid and in which the passage
can be closed by a gate. It is used where the water pressure is low and on distribution pipework
from a storage cistern. This valve is sometimes referred to as a fullway gate valve because when
it is fully open, there is no restriction of flow through the valve.

1.3.10.13 Loose Jumper Type Stopcock

A screwdown pattern valve with horizontal inlet and outlet connections. It incorporates a loose
jumper valve permitting flow in one direction only. It is used for isolating the supply of water in
a high pressure pipeline. In case the supply main is shut off and drained down for any reason, the
‘non-return’ action of the loose valve plate will stop any backflow from the service pipe.

1.3.10.14 Non-return Valve

A valve that prevents reversal of flow in the pipe of a water supply by means of the check
mechanism, the valve being opened by the flow of water and closed by the action of the check
mechanism when the flow ceases, or by back pressure. It is also known as check valve.

1.3.10.15 Pressure Reducing Valve

A valve that reduces the pressure of a fluid immediately downstream of its position in a pipeline
to a preselected value or by a predetermined ratio.

1.3.10.16 Pressure Relief Valve

A self-acting valve that automatically opens to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being
exceeded.

1.3.10.17 Temperature Relief Valve

A self-acting valve that automatically opens to prevent a predetermined safe temperature being
exceeded.

1.3.10.18 Globe valves

A Globe valves is a linear motion valve and are primarily designed to stop, start and regulate
flow. The disk of a Globe valve can be totally removed from the flowpath or it can completely
close the flowpath.

Conventional Globe valves may be used for isolation and throttling services. Although these
valves exhibit slightly higher pressure drops than straight=through valves (e.g., gate, plug, ball,
etc.), they may be used where the pressure drop through the valve is not a controlling factor

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Globe valves are extensively employed to control flow. The range of flow control, pressure drop,
and duty must be considered in the design of the valve to avert premature failure and to assure
satisfactory service. Valves subjected to high-differential pressure-throttling service require
specially designed valve trim.

Body designs of Globe valves

There are three primary body designs for Globe valves, namely: Tee Pattern or Z-body, Angle
Pattern and Wye Pattern or Y-body body.

Tee Pattern Globe valve design is the most common body type, with a Z-shaped diaphragm.
The horizontal setting of the seat allows the stem and disk to travel perpendicular to the
horizontal line. This design has the lowest coefficient of flow and higher pressure drop. They are
used in severe throttling services, such as in bypass lines around a control valve. Tee-pattern
Globe valves may also be used in applications where pressure drop is not a concern and
throttling is required.

Angle Pattern Globe valves design is a modification of the basic Tee Pattern Globe valve. The
ends of this Globe valve are at an angle of 90 degrees, and fluid flow occurs with a single 90
degrees turn. They have a slightly lower coefficient of flow than wye-pattern Globe valves. They
are used in applications that have periods of pulsating flow because of their capability to handle
the slugging effect of this type of flow.

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Wye Pattern Globe valves design, is an alternative for the high pressure drop, inherent in Globe
valves. Seat and stem are angled at approximately 45 degrees, what gives a straighter flowpath at
full opening and offer the least resistance to flow. They can be cracked open for long periods
without severe erosion. They are extensively used for throttling during seasonal or startup
operations. They can be rod through to remove debris when used in drain lines that are normally
closed.

Disk & Seat & Stem of Globe valves

Disk: The most common disk designs for Globe valves are: ball disk, composition disk and the
plug disk. Ball disk design is used primarily in low pressure and low temperature systems. It is
capable of throttling flow, but in principle it is applied to stop and start flow.

Composition disk design uses a hard, non-metallic insert ring on the disk, which ensures a tighter
closure.

Plug disk design provides better throttling than ball or composition designs. They are available in
many different designs and they are all long and tapered.

Seat: Globe valve seats are either integrated or screwed in to the valve body. Many Globe
valves have backseats inside the Bonnet. Back seats provide a seal between the stem and Bonnet
and prevents system pressure from building against the valve pakking, when the valve is fully
open. Back seats are often applied in Globe valves.

Stem: Globe valves use two methods for connecting the disk and the stem: the T-slot and the
disk nut construction. In the T-slot design, the disk slides over the stem, while in the disk nut
design, the disk is screwed into the stem.

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Construction of a Globe valve

Globe valves usually have rising stems, and the larger sizes are of the outside screw-and-yoke
construction. Components of the Globe valve are similar to those of the gate valve. This type of
valve has seats in a plane parallel or inclined to the line of flow.

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Maintenance of Globe valves is relatively easy, as the discs and seats are readily refurbished or
replaced. This makes Globe valves particularly suitable for services which require frequent valve
maintenance. Where valves are operated manually, the shorter disc travel offers advantages in
saving operator time, especially if the valves are adjusted frequently.

The principal variation in Globe-valve design is in the types of discs employed. Plug-type discs
have a long, tapered configuration with a wide bearing surface. This type of seat provides
maximum resistance to the erosive action of the fluid stream. In the composition disc, the disc
has a flat face that is pressed against the seat opening like a cap. This type of seat arrangement is
not as suitable for high differential pressure throttling.

In cast-iron Globe valves, disc and seat rings are usually made of bronze. In steel-Globe valves
for temperature up to 750°F (399°C), the trim is generally made of stainless steel and so provides
resistance to seizing and galling. The mating faces are normally heat-treated to obtain differential
hardness values. Other trim materials, including cobalt-based alloys, are also used.

The seating surface is ground to ensure full-bearing surface contact when the valve is closed. For
lower pressure classes, alignment is maintained by a long disc locknut. For higher pressures, disc
guides are cast into the valve body. The disc turns freely on the stem to prevent galling of the
disc face and seat ring. The stem bears against a hardened thrust plate, eliminating galling of the
stem and disc at the point of contact.

Flow direction of Globe valves

For applications with low temperature, Globe valves are normally installed so that the pressure is
under the disc. This contributes an easy operation and helps protect the packing.

For applications with high temperature steam service, Globe valves are installed so that the
pressure is above the disk. Otherwise, the stem will contract upon cooling and tend to lift the
disk off the seat.

Advantages and disadvantages of Globe valves

Advantages:

 Good shutoff capability

 Moderate to good throttling capability
 Shorter stroke (compared to a gate valve)
 Available in tee, wye, and angle patterns, each offering unique capabilities
 Easy to machine or resurface the seats
 With disc not attached to the stem, valve can be used as a stop-check valve

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Disadvantages:

 Higher pressure drop (compared to a gate valve)

 Requires greater force or a larger actuator to seat the valve (with pressure under the seat)
 Throttling flow under the seat and shutoff flow over the seat
Typical Applications of Globe valves

The following are some of the typical applications of Globe valves:

 Cooling water systems where flow needs to be regulated

 Fuel oil system where flow is regulated and leak tightness is of importance
 High-point vents and low-point drains when leak tightness and safety are major
considerations
 Feedwater, chemical feed, condenser air extraction, and extraction drain systems
 Boiler vents and drains, main steam vents and drains, and heater drains
 Turbine seals and drains
 Turbine lube oil system and others

Back Siphonage
The backflow of water by siphonic action from an appliance or storage cistern into the pipe
feeding it, thus is contaminating the water supply. To overcome the problems caused by back-
siphonage the water authority lay down strict guidelines which must be observed and any pipe on
mains supply connected to appliances and cisterns must have some means of backflow
prevention. This could be achieved by ensuring that where an outlet discharges allowance is
made for an air gap of at least that shown in the chart.

Back Siphonage
Internal Pipe Diameter Vertical distance (air gap) between outlet and highest
possible water level

Up to 14mm 20mm

15mm – 21mm 25mm

22mm – 41mm 70mm

Over 41mm Twice the internal bore of the inlet pipe

If a specified air gap cannot be achieved some other means of backflow prevention must be
catered for. In the case of hose pipes and shower hoses connected to the mains supply a double

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check valve assembly or similar arrangement such as a check valve followed by an anti-vacuum
valve must be used.

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3.0 Sub-module 3: Drainage and Sanitation out of a Building
3.1 Sanitary fittings: bathtubs, water closets, flushing cisterns, wash hand
basins, sinks showers, urinals, and bidets.

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Sanitary fittings are classified in two categories:

Soil fitments: These are said to remove soil water and human excreta for example water closets
and urinals.

Waste water fitments: These are said to remove the waste water from washing kitchen utensils,
washing clothes, cleaning the house, cooking and food preparation, hospital use, industrial or
laboratory use etc. Examples of appliances responsible or involved include; wash hand basins,
lavaratory sinks, kitchen sinks, shower trays or showers, bathtubs, bidets etc.

Requirements of sanitary appliances

1. Should be made from impervious materials,

2. Be quiet in operation
3. Be easy to clean
4. Of a convenient shape fixed at a suitable height

1.1.1. Materials for domestic sanitary fittings

Vitreous china

This is a white clay body that is vitrified and permanently fused with glazed surface when fired
at a very high temperature, to the recommendations of BS 3402. Appliances made from this
material are non corrosive, hygienic and easily cleaned with a mild detergent or soap solution.

Glazed fire clay

This consists of a porous ceramic body glazed in similar manner to vitreous china, it is
exceptionally strong and resistant to impact damage but will allow water penetration of the body
if the protective glazing is damaged. Like vitreous china, these appliances are non corrosive,
hygienic and easily cleaned.

Vitreous enamel

This is a form of glass that can be melted and used to give a glazed protective coating over a
steel or cast iron base. Used mainly for baths, sinks and draining boards, it produces a fitment
that is lighter than those produced from a ceramic material, hygienic, easy to clean, and has a
long life. The finish however can be chipped and is subject to staining from copper compounds
from hot water systems.

Plastic materials

Acrylic plastics, glass reinforced polyester resins and polypropylene sanitary fittings made from
these plastics require no protective coatings, are very strong, light in weight and chip resistant,
but generally cost more than the ceramic or vitreous enamel products. Care must be taken with

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fitments made of acrylic plastics as they become soft when heated and thus should be used for
cold water fitments or use thermostatically controlled mixing taps. Plastic appliances can be
easily cleaned using warm soapy water and any dullness can be restored by ordinary polishing.

Stainless steel

This is made from steel containing approximately 18% chromium, and 8% nickel, which give the
metal a natural resistance to corrosion. Stainless steel appliances are very durable and relatively
light in weight for domestic situation, the main applications is for sinks and draining boards.
Two finishes are available; polished or mirror finish and satin finish with the latter having
greater resistance to scratching.

Factors considered when selecting sanitary fitments:

1. Cost - considers outlay, fixing and maintenance

2. hygiene - inherent and ease of cleaning
3. Appearance - size, color and shape
4. Function - suitability, speed of operation and reliability
5. Weight - support required from wall/ or floor
6. Design - Ease with which it can be included into the general services installations

3.1.1.1 Water Closets

Most of WCs are made from ceramic base to the requirements of BS EN 33 or 37 with a
horizontal outlet. They comprise of; a pan, seat, flush pipe and flushing cistern. The cistern can
be high level, low level or closed coupled as shown in the Figure below. Water closets may be
termed as;

 washdown relying on flush of water to wash out the bowl contents round the trap and
into the soil pipe
 or siphonic wcs which are more efficient and quieter in operation but have a greater risk
of blockage if misused.

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Ceramic washdown WC pan

Siphonic water closets are produced in two types:

 Single trap: Has a restricted outlet that serves to retard flow, when flushed so that the
bore of the outlet connected to the bowl becomes full and sets up the a siphonic flushing
action, completely flushing out the contents of the bowl as shown in figure below.
 Double trap: In this type air is drawn from the pocket between the two traps, when the
flushing operation is started this causes the atmospheric pressure to expel the bowl
contents through the traps into the soil pipe as shown in figure below

The pan is fixed to the floor with brass screws and bedded in suitable compressible material; the
connection to the soil pipe socket can be made with cement mortar or preferably mastic to allow
for any differential movement between the fitment and structure. Connection to PVC soil pipes

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are usually made with compressible rings. The flush pipe is invariably connected to the pan with
a special plastic or rubber one piece connector.

Flushing cisterns together with flush pipes constructed to BS 1125 and EN 997 are made from
enamelled cast iron, enamelled pressed steel, ceramic ware or of plastic materials. Flushing
cisterns are categorised in two types as shown in figure below;

 Bell or cone type: This is obsolete but may still be found in service. It is activated by
pulling the chain, which raises and lowers the bell or cone and in the process raises the
water level above the open end of the flush pipe, thus setting up the siphonic action.
These cisterns are efficient and durable but noisy in operation.
 Piston type: Is one in general use and activated by a lever or button. When activated, the
disc or flap valve piston is raised and with it the water level, which commences the
siphonage is controlled by a float valve, and an over flow or warning pipe of a larger
diameter than the inlet is fitted to discharge so that it gives the visual warning usually in
the external position. Capacity of the cistern could range between 6, 7.5 and 9 litres

3.1.1.2 Wash Basins

Are made from ceramic or metal material (Metal basins complying with BS 1329). Ceramic ones
comply with BS 1188 and BS 5506. These are available in different sizes, shapes and colors.
The ceramic wash basins and pedestals are specified in two basic sizes that is 635mm x 457mm
and 559mm x 406mm. Small wall hung hand rinse basins are also available for limited space. All
basins are one piece fitment having an integral over flow, separate waste outlet and general pillar
taps as shown in figure below.

Wash basins are supported on wall mounted cantilever brackets leg supports or pedestals.
Pedestals are made from a similar material to that of the wash basin and are recessed at the back
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to receive the supply pipe to the taps and waste pipe from the bowl. It is recommended that the
pedestal be reinforced by use of small wall mounted brackets to support basin.

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3.1.1.3 Baths and showers
Baths are available in a wide variety of designs and colors made from porecelain enamelled cast
iron, vitreous enamelled sheet steel, 8mm cast acrylic sheet or 3mm cast acrylic sheet reinforced
with a polyester resin/ glass fibre laminate. Baths are rectangular in plan (1700mm x 700mm)
with a height of n x 50mm where n is a natural number which could be unity and made flat
bottomed as possible with sufficient fall to allow for gravity emptying and resealing of the trap.
Baths are also supplied with holes for pillar taps or mixer fittings and for waste outlets. Options
include; built in soap and sponge recesses and overflow outlets for limiting water level and
minimising splashing. Baths are supported by adjustable feet for cast iron and steel and by a
strong cradle for acrylic baths.

Panels of enamelled hardboard or moulded high impact polystyrene or glass fibre are available
for enclosing bath. Panels can be fixed by using stainless steel or aluminium angles or direct to a
timber stud formwork.

A separate shower fitment may be preferable because it requires less space compared to a
conventional bath, uses less hot water and is more hygienic as the used water is continuously
discharged.

A shower fitment consists of the shower tray with waste outlet, the impervious cubicle and a
door or curtain as shown above.

The spray is normally fixed to the wall and is connected to a mixing valve so that the water
temperature can be controlled.

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Shower sprays can be used in conjunction with a bath by fitting a rigid plastic shower screen or
flexible curtain screen to one end of the bath.

3.1.1.4 Sinks
Sinks are used mainly for preparation of food, washing of dishes and clothes and usually
positioned at drinking water supply. Their general design follows that described for basins except
they are larger in area and deeper. Any material considered suitable for sanitary appliance
construction can be used.

Design ranges from the simple Belfast sink with detachable, draining boards of metal, plastic or
timber to combination units consisting of integral draining boards and twin bowls. Support can
be wall mounted cantilevered brackets, framed legs or purpose made cupboard unit as shown in
the figure below

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3.1.1.5 Bidet

1. Involves use of the toilet first. The purpose of the bidet is to help clean off after toilet use.
While some people believe that using a bidet is a hygienic substitute for toilet paper, many
choose to use both.
2. Straddle the bidet. On most standalone bidets one can either face the bidet's water controls
or one can face away from them, as one would on a toilet. It is easier to control the flow
and temperature of the water if you face the controls, but if one is wearing pants there will
generally be need to remove them in order to straddle the bidet in this manner. There are a
variety of bidet designs, so the configuration of the jets and the area of body that one wishes
to clean may dictate which way one needs to face.
3. The temperature and jet strengths are adjusted for comfort. If the bidet has both hot and
cold water controls, hot water is turned on first. Once it's hot, cold water is added until a
comfortable temperature is attained to prevent burning sensitive areas when the hot water is
turned on first.)
 Being careful when turning on the water, as many bidets can produce a very high jet of
water with only a slight turn of the control.
 Being sure that one knows where the water will be coming from ahead of time, to avoid
ending up with a surprise shower. If bidet does have a spray nozzle set in the bowl, the
hand is placed above it to subdue any jet of water and then either pressing or pulling the
diverter lever between or immediately behind the taps.
 There may be need to hold the control to keep the jets on
4. Positioning oneself over the water jets so that the jets hit the desired area. For some
bidets one can continue to hover above the bidet or can sit down on it. Most bidets don't
have seats, but are still meant to be sat upon; by just sitting directly on the rim. Some bidets
do not have jets, but instead simply have a faucet that fills the basin, as would fill a sink
basin.

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5. Cleaning anal area and/or genitals. The desired area is cleaned using one's hands, as
would when taking a shower.
6. Drying one's skin. Some bidets have a built-in air dryer that could be used. For others,
simply pat dry with toilet paper. Many bidets have a towel on a ring positioned next to the
bidet. This is for drying the genitals or the hands but sometimes it is used for mopping up any
splashes around the rim after rinsing it
7. Rinsing out the bidet. Once off the bidet, the jets are run at very low pressure for a few
seconds to rinse the basin and keeping the bidet fresh.
 Wash hands with soap and water, as one would any time after using the toilet

1 2 3

4 5 6 7

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3.1.1.6 Urinal

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3.2 Drainage:
3.2.1 Connections of drainage and external plumbing system
Drainage is a system of pipework, usually installed below and above ground level, to convey the
discharge from sanitary fittings, rainwater gutters and downpipes to a suitable disposal
installation. The usual method of disposal is to connect the pipework to the public sewer, which
will convey the discharges to the local authority treatment plant for example the National Water
and Sewerage Corporation treatment plant at Bugolobi. Alternatively, a small self contained
treatment plant (septic tank) on site or a cesspool (a collection tank to hold the discharge until it
can be collected in a special tanker lorry and later disposed at the local authority treatment plant)
may be installed.

3.2.2 Principles of good drainage

i. Materials should have adequate strength and durability.
ii. Diameter of drain to be as small as practicable: for soil drains the minimum diameter
allowed is 100mm and for surface water the minimum diameter is 75mm.
iii. Every part of the drain should be accessible for the purpose of inspection and cleansing.
iv. Drains should be laid in straight runs as far as possible.
v. Drains must be laid to a gradient that will render them efficient. The fall or gradient
should be calculated according:
 to the rate of flow
 the velocity required
 diameter of drain
vi. Every drain inlet should be trapped by a sanitary fitting to prevent the entry of foul air
into the building, the minimum seal required is 50mm. Rainwater drains need not to be
trapped unless when connected to a soil drain or sewer.
vii. A rodding access should be located at the head or start of each drain run.
viii. Inspection chambers, manholes, rodding eyes or access fittings should be placed at
changes of direction and gradient if these changes would prevent the drain from being
readily cleansed.
ix. Inspection chambers must also be placed at a junction, unless each run can be cleared
from an access point.
x. A change of drain pipe size will also require access.
xi. Junctions between drains must be arranged so that the incoming drain joints at an oblique
angle in the direction of the main flow.
xii. Drains under buildings should be avoided if possible, if unavoidable they must be
protected to ensure water tightness and to prevent damage. The usual protection methods
employed are:
 encase the drain with 100 mm (minimum) of granular filling.
 use cast iron pipes under the building.

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xiii. Drains that are within 1m of the foundations to the walls of buildings and below the
foundation level must be backfilled with concrete up to the level of the underside of the
foundations. Drains more than 1m from the foundations are backfilled with concrete to a
depth equal to the distance of the trench from the foundation less 150mm.
xiv. Where possible, the minimum invert level of a drain should be 450 mm to avoid damage
by ground movement and 700 mm for traffic. The invert level is the lowest level of the
bore of a drain.

3.2.3 Drainage schemes

The following factors influence the scheme or plan layout of drain:

 Number of discharge points

 Relative positions of discharge points
 Drainage system and location of the local authority sewers
 Internal layout of sanitary fittings
 External positions of rainwater pipes
 Disposition of buildings
 Topography of the area to be served.

3.2.4 Characteristics of drain systems

 Drainage systems must be designed within the limits of the terrain, so that the discharges
can flow by gravity from the point of origin to the point of discharge.
 The pipe sizes and gradients must be selected to provide sufficient capacity to
accommodate maximum flows, while at the other extreme they must have adequate self -
cleansing velocity at minimum flows to prevent accumulation of debris.
 Economic and construction factors control the depth to which drains can be laid, thus for
the flat and opposingly inclined areas may require provision of pumping stations to raise
the drainage discharge to higher level sewers.

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3.3 Drainage above ground: pipe used, combined (one pipe) system, dual (two
pipes) system, and sing stack system
3.3.1 Combined (One pipe) System
This consists of a single discharge pipe which conveys both soil and waste water directly to the
drain. To ensure that water seals to the traps are not broken, deep seals of 75mm for waste pipes
up to 65mm diameters and 50mm for pipes over 75mm diameter are required. To allow for
unrestricted layout of appliances most branch pipes will require an anti-siphon arrangement as
shown in the figure below.

Advantages

 System has flexibility of appliance layout

Disadvantages

 It is expensive in terms of cost and as such has been superseded by the single stack
system

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3.3.2 Two pipe (Dual) System
As its name implies, this system consists of two discharge pipes: one conveys soil discharges
while the other all the waste discharges as shown in figure above. It is simple, reliable and a
costly system.

Advantages

 Has a complete flexibility in appliance layout

 Does not require deep seal traps

Disadvantages

 It is simple but more expensive method and as such has been superseded by the single
stack system.

3.3.3 Single Stack System

This is a simplification of a one pipe system by using deep seal traps relying on the venting by
the discharge pipe and placing certain restrictions on basin waste pipes which have a higher risk
of self-siphonage than other appliances as shown in diagram below.

Materials used for domestic stack pipework include; galvanized steel prefabricated stack units
(BS 3868), cast iron (BS 416) and uPVC (BS EN 4514). The latter is the standard commonly
used because of being light and easy to install with simple push fit or solvent weld joints.
Branch waste pipes can be of a variety of plastics including uPVC, polyethylene and
polypropylene or copper.

The fittings for the different piping systems have water closet socket connections, bosses for
branch waste connections and access plates for cleaning and maintenance arranged as one
prefabricated assembly to ease site work and ensure reliable and efficient connections to the
discharge or soil pipe.

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Single Stack System

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3.4 Rainwater Drainage
A rainwater drainage installation is required to collect the discharge from roofs and paved areas
and convey it to a suitable drainage system. Paved areas such as garage forecourts or hardstands
are laid to fall so as to direct the rainwater into a yard gully, which is connected to the surface
water drainage system. A rainwater installation for a roof consists of, a collection channel called
a gutter, which is connected to vertical rainwater pipes.

The flow into a gutter depends on the area of surface being drained and whether the surface is
flat or pitched (and, if it is pitched, on the angle of pitch). Table 16 shows a way of allowing for
the pitch by working out an effective area. Where rain driven against a wall by the wind can run
down onto the roof or into a gutter, 50% of the area of the wall shall be added to the effective
area of the roof.

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J. B. Isoke
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Table 17 shows the largest effective areas which should be drained into the gutter sizes which are
most often used. These sizes are for a gutter which is laid level, half round in section with a
sharp edged outlet at only one end and where the distance from a stop end to the outlet is not
more than 50 times the water depth. At greater distances, the capacity of the gutter should be
reduced. The Table shows the smallest size of outlet which should be used with the gutter.

Where the outlet is not at the end, the gutter should be of the size appropriate to the larger of the
areas draining into it. Where there are two end outlets, they may be up to one hundred times the
depth of flow, apart.

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Gutters should be laid with any fall towards the nearest outlet. Where there is a fall, or the gutter
has a section which gives it larger capacity than a half-round gutter, or the outlet is round edged,
it may be possible to reduce the size of the gutter and pipe.

Gutters should also be laid so that any overflow in excess of the design capacity caused by
conditions such as above normal rainfall will be discharged clear of the building.

The rainwater pipe is terminated at its lowest point by means of a rainwater shoe for discharge to
a surface water drain or a trapped gully if the discharge is to a combined drain. If a separate
system of drainage or soakaways is used it may be possible to connect the rainwater pipe direct
to the drains provided there are alternative means of access for cleansing.

The size of a rainwater pipe should be at least the size of the outlet from the gutter. A down pipe
which serves more than one gutter should have an area at least as large as the combined areas of
the outlets.

3.4.1 Eaves drop systems

Eaves drop systems allow rainwater from roofs to drop freely to the ground. Where these are
used, they should be designed: -

 to protect the fabric of the building from ingress of water, caused by water splashing on
the external walls;
 to prevent water from entering doorways and windows;
 to protect persons using doorways etc. from falling water;
 to protect persons and the fabric of the building from rainwater as it hits the ground by
splashing, for example by provision of a gravel layer or angled concrete apron deflecting
the water away from the building;
 to protect the foundations from concentrated discharges such as those from valleys or
valley gutters or from excessive flows due to large roofs (i.e. where the area of roof per
unit length is high);
 to protect against discharge of water onto neighbouring properties or buildings.

3.4.2 Rainwater recovery systems

Harvesting of rainwater consists of collecting rainwater from the external surfaces of buildings
and hard-surface areas and diverting it via a filter system to a storage cistern or system. It is then
pumped directly to the services using the reclaimed water or to a header tank to feed by gravity
to the system. The recovered water, without treatment, can be used for: -

 toilet flushing;
 vehicle washing;
 and landscape maintenance / irrigation.

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  It may also be used for washing machines but occasionally the colour and odour
associated may be a problem.

3.4.3 Treatment:
Where the water is collected from the roof only, i.e. not from hard surfaces where faecal
contamination may occur, and is to be used for purposes where there is no possibility of it being
consumed or used for personal hygiene, then rainwater does not need to be disinfected and the
only treatment necessary is filtering to remove leaves and other solid debris. This filter should
be: -

 water and weather resistant;

 removable and readily accessible for maintenance purposes;
 at least 90% efficient;
 and designed to permit a maximum particle size of <1.25 mm.

Precautions:

To prevent contamination of the collected rainwater and the backup potable water supply and to
prevent accidental ingestion, the system should: -

 have pipe-work clearly marked in accordance with BS 8515: 2009 Rainwater harvesting
systems.
 have external taps supplying rainwater clearly labelled and consideration should be given
to having a removable handle (see Diagram 10);

 have category 5 protection (an air gap, see I.S. EN 1717: 2000 Protection against
pollution of potable water in water installations and general requirements of devices to
prevent pollution by backflow)
 have a non-return valve fitted on the overflow;

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  have an anti-rodent device fitted to the overflow system;
 have an automatic drainage system from the header tank, where used, in the event of
stagnation.

All systems should be adequately maintained to ensure effective and efficient operation.

3.4.4 Materials for gutters, rainwater pipes and joints

The materials available for domestic rainwater installation are; galvanised pressed steel, cast iron
and uPVC. The materials used should be of adequate strength and durability and,

 all gutter joints should remain watertight under working conditions,

 pipes inside a building should be capable of withstanding the airtightness test
 gutters and rainwater pipes should be firmly supported without restricting thermal
movement,
 different metals should be separated by nonmetallic material to prevent electrolytic
corrosion.

3.4.5 Cast iron rainwater goods

Cast iron rainwater pipes, gutters and fittings are generally made to the requirements of BS 460
which specifies a half round section gutter with a socket joint in diameter from 75 to 150mm and
an effective length of 1800mm. The gutter socket joint should be lapped in the direction of flow
and sealed with either putty or an approved sealing compound before being bolted together. The
gutter is supported at 1000-1800mm centers by means of steel gutter brackets screwed to the feet
of rafters for an open eaves or the fascia board with closed eaves.

Down pipes are fixed to the walls by means of nails and spacers when the pipes are supplied with
ears or with split ring hinged holderbats when the pipes are supplied without ears cast on.

3.4.6 Unplasticised rainwater goods

The advantages of uPVC rainwater goods over cast iron are said to be:

 easier jointing, gutter bolts are not required and the joint is self sealing generally by
means of butyl or similar strip.
 corrosion is eliminated
 Decoration is not required; several standard colours are available including brown, black,
white or grey.
 Breakages are reduced
 Better flow properties usually enable smaller sections and lower falls

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Half round gutters are supplied in standard effective lengths up to 6m with diameter ranging
from 75 to 150mm. Down pipes are supplied in two standard lengths of 2 and 4m with diameters
50, 63, 73 and 89mm.

3.4.7 Sizing of pipes and gutters

The sizing of gutters and down pipes to effectively cater for the discharge from roofs depends
upon;

 the area of roof to be drained

 anticipated intensity of rainfall
 material of gutter and down pipe
 fall within gutter usually in the range 1/50 to 1/600
 number, size and position of outlets.

Connections to inspection chambers or manholes, whether new or existing, can take several
forms, depending mainly upon the differences in invert levels. If the invert levels of the sewer
and incoming drain are similar, the connection can be made in the conventional way using an
oblique branch channel. Where there is a difference in invert levels the following can be
considered;

 a ramp formed in the benching within the inspection chamber

 a backdrop manhole or inspection chamber
 an increase in the gradient of the branch drain.

The generally accepted limited of invert level difference for the use of internal ramps is 700mm
or 1m according to CP 301 and BS 8301.

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3.5 Drainage below ground:
3.5.1 There are three main types of drain systems commonly used namely:
1. Combined system
2. Partially separate/combined system
3. Separate system

3.5.1.1 Combined System

All drains that is storm water, sanitary water/sewage, and most likely industrial waste water
ideally discharge and waters treated in one common or combined sewage/publicly owned
treatment works (POTW).

Advantages

 Is a simple and economical method since it requires one set of drains thus no duplication
or risk of connecting to wrong sewer.
 Is easy to maintain with reasonable maintenance costs
 Easy to clean as it is large in size
 All drains are flushed by rain/storm water thus reducing the sewage strength by dilution.

Disadvantages

 During ordinary heavy storms, the combined sewers may overflow and it may thus put
public health in danger.
 The combined sewer, if not properly designed, gets easily silted and it may even become
foul in dry weather.
 The load on treatment plant increases.
 The sewers are huge in diameter.
 The storm water is unnecessary polluted:
 The system proves to be uneconomical when pumping is required for the lifting of
sewage in periods of heavy rain.

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3.5.1.2 Totally Separate System

In this system, rain water is kept separate from sewage. The rain/ surface water is conveyed
through its own sewer to a suitable outfall such as a river and discharged without treatment. The
second sewer receives all the soil and foul discharge from toilets, baths, sinks and showers
conveyed to a sewage treatment plant.
Advantages of Separate System:

 Load on treatment units become less.

 The natural water is not unnecessary polluted.
 The sewers are small in size.
 The storm water can be discharged into natural streams without any treatment.
 The system proves to be economical when pumping is required for the lifting of sewage.

Disadvantages of Separate System:

 The cleaning of sewer is difficult, as they are of small size and not flushed during heavy
rain.
 The maintenance cost is high.
 They self-cleaning velocity is not easily achieved.
 The system requires two sets of sewer end hence; it may prove to be costly.
 It has the risk of connecting to the wrong sewer.
.

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3.5.1.3 Partially Separate/Combined System
This system comprises of the both the combined and separate systems. It consists of two sewers;

 One for carrying surface water only

 One acting as a combined to carry soil and foul water

Advantages of partially Separate System:

 It combines the advantages of both the above systems.

 The entry of storm water avoids silting in sewers.
 The problem of disposing storm water from houses is simplified.
 The sewers are of reasonable size.

Disadvantages of Partially Separate System:

 The quantity of storm water admitted in sewer may increase the load on pumping &
treatment unit.
 The velocity of flow is low in dry weather

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3.6 Drainage Materials
Drain pipes are considered as either rigid or flexible according to the material used in their
manufacture. Clay is a major material used for rigid drain pipes in domestic work, with cast iron
as an expensive alternative. Flexible pipes are produced from unplasticized PVC.

3.6.1 Clay pipes

This is the traditional material used for domestic drainage with current manufacturing standards
in accordance with BS 65 and BS EN 295.

Clay pipes are produced in ranges of 100 - 300mm nominal bore for general building work.
Lengths vary from manufacturers from 1300mm to 1600mm for plain end pipes, with spigot and
socketed pipes produced in shorter lengths down to 600mm.

Rigid jointing is rarely used now except for small repairs or alterations to an existing drain as it
is difficult to make a sound joint in wet trenches, also system is unable to absorb movement
without fracturing. Most pipes are supplied plain ended for use with push fit polypropylene
sleeve couplings. Example of fittings for use with clay pipes are shown below which give
flexibility when planning drainage layout and also means of access.

Clay pipes are resistant to attack by a wide range of acids and alkalis and therefore suitable for
all forms of domestic drainage.

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Jointing and fittings

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3.6.2 Cast iron pipes
These pipes are generally considered for domestic drainage only in special circumstances such as
sites with unstable ground. Like clay pipes, cast iron pipes are made with a spigot and socket for
rigid or flexible joints. The rigid joint is made with a tarred gaskin and caulked lead, whereas the
flexible joint has a sealing strip in the socket allowing a 50 deflection. Lengths, diameters and
fittings available are similar to those produced for clay pipes but to the recommendations of BS
437 and BS EN 598.

Cast iron pipes are given a protection coating of a hot tar composition or a cold solution of a
naphtha and bitumen composition. This coating gives good protection against corrosion and
reasonable durability in average ground conditions

3.6.3 Pitch fibre pipes

Pitch fibre pipes and fittings came before uPVC as a flexible drainage material. These are rarely
used but will be found in many existing systems. They are made from felted wood cellulose
fibres thoroughly impregnated under vacuum and pressure, with at least 65% coal tar pitch or
bituminous compounds. They have been used for all forms of domestic drainage and because of
their smooth bore with high flow capacity, could be laid at lower gradients than other materials
than most of other materials of their day. Sizes range from 50 to 225 mm nominal bore, with
lengths generally 2400 and 3000 mm.

The original joints had a machined 2o taper on the ends of the pipe, which a drive fit to machined
pitch fibre couplings. These joints are watertight, but do not readily accommodate axial or
telescopic movement. The snap joint used a rubber 'D' ring in conjunction with a polypropylene
coupling, giving a flexible joint.

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3.6.4 Unplasticized PVC pipes
These pipes and fittings are made from polyvinyl chloride plus additives that are needed to
facilitate the manufacture of the polymer and produce a sound, durable pipe. BS 3506 gives the
requirements for pipes intended for industrial purposes and BS 4660 covers the pipes and fittings
for domestic use. Standard outside diameters are 110 mm and 160 mm (100 and 150 mm
nominal bore) with non - standard outside diameters 82, 200, 250 and 315 mm being available
from most manufacturers. Long lengths of 3m and 6m can be easily cut by hacksaw. BS 5481
and BS EN 1401-1 are also available as specifications for uPVC sewer pipes in nominal
diameters of 200 - 630mm. The pipes are obtained with socket joints for either a solvent-welded
joint or a ring seal joint. Like pitch fibre pipes;

 uPVC pipes have a smooth bore.

 are light and easy to handle.
 have long lengths reducing to minimum the number of joints required.
 they can be jointed and laid in all weather.

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3.7 Drain laying
Drains are first excavated and also may be timbered if required. The layout should be as simple
as possible. Drains trenches are excavated to required fall or gradient, laid and backfilled in
succession, so as to leave the excavation open for the shortest time possible. Changes in direction
and gradient should be minimised and as easy as practicable.

Connections of drains to other drains or sewers should be made obliquely, and in the direction of
flow. They should be formed using a standard saddle connection.

The techniques deplored for laying and bedding of drains depends on;

 Material - i.e Rigid or flexible

 joint - i.e rigid or flexible

The choice of bedding and backfilling depends:-

 On the depth at which the pipes are to be laid.

 Size of pipe
 Strength of pipe.

The types of bedding and backfilling which should be used for rigid pipes of standard strength
laid in a trench of any width are shown in Diagram 8 and Table 8. Minimum and maximum
depths of cover are also shown for each type.

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 Flexible pipes may become deformed under load and require support to limit the deformation to
5% of the diameter of the pipe. Bedding and backfilling for flexible pipes is as shown in the
diagram 9. The minimum depth of excavation should be 900mm under any road and 600mm in
fields and gardens. The maximum depth should be 10m.

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Drains should be sufficiently strong and durable enough and jointed in a way that they remain
watertight under all working conditions including any differential movement between pipe and
ground.

Traditionally drains were installed by bedding and haunching in concrete however this method
has been superseded by use of the flexible clay and uPVC drains. The former method was
disadvantageous because of;
 having prohibitive construction costs.
 difficulty in controlling the concrete quality in wet trenches
 system failure caused by ground movement and settlement

However the clay and uPVC drains are advantageous due to accommodating axial flexibility and
extensibility by combining flexible jointing with a granular flexible bedding medium.

Material required for granular bedding laid on jointed concrete base, needs to be of correct
quality.

Pipe strength is derived from the support bedding which can be hard compacted. Non cohesive
granular material with particle size 5 - 20mm is suitable for use and if not available, it can be
imported.

Pipes with socket joints are laid from the bottom of the drain run, with the socket end laid against
the flow, each pipe being aligned and laid to the correct fall.

The collar of the socket is laid in a prepared 'hollow' in the bedding and the bore is centralised.

In case of rigid joints, a tarred gaskin is used, which also forms the seal whereas the mechanical
or flexible joints are self-aligning? Most flexible joints require a lubricant to ease the jointing
process, while those using coupling can be laid in any direction.

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3.7.1 Clearance of blockages
Drains require access for testing, maintenance and clearance of blockages. The siting, spacing
and type of access points will depend on:

 Layout
 Depth
 Size of runs

Access points are said should be one of four types. Table 9 illustrates the depth at which each
type should be used and the recommended dimensions.

The dimensions should be increased at junctions if they do not allow enough space for branches.
The types are: -
 Rodding eyes - capped extensions of the pipes;
 Access fittings - small chambers on (or an extension of) the pipes but not with an open
channel;
 Inspection chambers - shallow chambers, e.g. an armstrong-junction, with working
space at ground level;
 Manholes - large chambers with working space at drain level.

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Siting of access points:
Access should be provided at the following points: -

 on or near the head of each drain run;

 at a bend and at a change of gradient;
 at a change of pipe size);
 at a junction unless each run can be cleared from an access point (some junctions can
only be rodded through from one direction).

Access should be provided to long runs. The distances between access points depend on the
types of access used but should be not more than that shown in Table 10 for drains up to and
including 300 mm.

Construction of access points:

These should contain the foul wastewater under working and test conditions and resist the entry
of ground water and rainwater.

Where half round channels are used in inspection chambers and manholes, the branches should
discharge into the channel at or above the level of the horizontal diameter.

Where the angle of the branch is more than 45°, a three quarter section branch should be used.

Channels and branches should be benched up at least to the top of the outgoing pipe and at a
slope of 1 in 12.

The benching should be rounded at the channel with a radius of at least 25 mm.

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3.7.2 Rodding eyes
These are generally located at the head of a drain and are effectively a swept extension of the
drain to the surface level, with a sealed access plate. They may be an approved option for the
expensive inspection chambers to provide for means of clearance in one direction only.

3.7.3 Shallow access fittings

These provide vertical access to both directions of a drain run that is not over 600mm deep.

3.7.4 Inspection Chambers

These are the enlarged version of the shallow access fittings used to invert depths of up to 1m.
They provide limited access and contain facilities for a few junctions and branch connections.
Materials include; plastics, precast concrete and traditional brick masonry. In case of a plastic
inspection chamber it contains optional adaptors, which can be cut to suit 100 or 150mm pipes at

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various approach angles. The depth of these units is cut to suit drain trench levels, and a cast iron
or aluminium frame and cover are fitted.

3.7.5 Manholes
These are inspection chambers over 1m to invert level. They are a compartment containing half
or three quarter section round channels to enable the flow to be observed and to provide a drain
access point for draining and testing.

Simple domestic drains normally deal with shallow manholes up to an invert depth of 1800mm.
The internal sizing is governed by;

 depth to invert
 number of branch drains
 diameter of branch drains
 space required for a person to work within the manhole.

The sizes of both manholes and inspection chambers are given in Table 9 above.

Manholes can be constructed of brickwork, rectangular or circular precast concrete units. The
access covers used in domestic work are generally cast iron or pressed steel and are light duty as
defined in BS EN 124. They have a single seal, which should be bedded in grease to form an
airtight joint; double seal covers would be required if the access was situated inside the building.
Concrete surface covers are available for use with surface water manholes.

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3.7.6 Connections to Sewers
Generally it is recommended that all connections to sewers shall be made so that the incoming
drain or private sewer is joined to the main sewer obliquely in the direction of flow and that the
connection will remain water tight and satisfactorily under all working conditions.

The method of connection will depend upon;

 relative size of sewer and connecting drain or private sewer

 relative invert levels
 position of the nearest inspection chamber on the sewer run
 whether the sewer is existing or being laid concurrently with the drains or sewers.
 whether stopped or joinder junctions have been built into the existing sewer
 the shortest and most practicable route.

If a public sewer is smaller in diameter, less than 225mm, the practical method is to remove two
or three pipes with new pipes and an oblique junction to receive the incoming drain. If three
pipes are removed, it is usually possible to spring in two new pipes and the oblique junction and
joint in the usual manner, but if only two pipes are removed a collar connection will be
necessary.

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If new connections have been anticipated, stopped junctions may have been included in the
sewer design. A stopped junction has a disc temporarily secured in the socket of the branch arm,
whereas the joinder has a cover cap as an integral part of the branch arm. In both cases careful
removal of the disc or cap is essential to ensure that a clean undamaged socket is available to
make the connection.

Connections of small diameter drains to large diameter sewers can be made by any of the above
mentioned methods or by use of a saddle connection. A saddle is a short socketed pipe with pipe
with a flange or saddle curved to suit the outer profile of the sewer pipe. To make the connection,
a hole must be cut in the upper part of the sewer to receive the saddle, ensuring that little or no
debris is allowed to fall into the sewer. The saddle connection is bedded onto the sewer pipe with
a cement mortar, and the whole connection is surrounded with a minimum of 150mm of mass
concrete.

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Connections to inspection chambers or manholes could take the form of depending upon
difference in invert levels. If the invert level of the sewer and incoming drain are similar, the
connection can be made in the conventional way using an oblique branch channel. Where there is
a difference in invert levels the following can be considered:

 a ramp in Figure below formed in the benching within the inspection chamber
 a backdrop manhole or inspection chamber
 an increase in the gradient of the branch drain.

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The generally accepted limit for invert level difference for the use of internal ramps is 700mm.
according to BS 8301.

Where the limit for ramps is exceeded, a backdrop manhole construction in Figure below can be
considered. This consists of a vertical drop pipe with access for both horizontal and vertical
rodding. If the pipework is of clay or concrete the vertical pipe should be positioned as close to
the outside face of the manhole as possible and encased in not less than 150mm of concrete. Cast
iron pipework is usually sited inside the chamber and fixed to the walls with holderbolts.

Gradient in general is recommended to be such that a self cleansing velocity is maintained and
the requirements of building regulations are observed.

Ventilation of drains

To prevent foul air from soil and combined drains escaping and causing a nuisance, all drains
should be vented by a flow of air. A ventilating pipe should be provided at or near the head of
each main drain and any branch drain exceeding 10m in length. The ventilating pipe could be a
separate pipe or the soil discharge stack pipe and could be carried upwards to act as a ventilating
discharge stack or soil vent pipe. Ventilation pipes should be open to the outside air and carried
and carried up for at least 900mm above the head of any window opening within a horizontal
distance of 3m from the venting pipe which should be finished with a cage or cover that does not
limit the flow of air.

Alternatively air admittance valves in up to four consecutive dwellings of no more than three
storeys. Systems with air admittance valves have the following advantages;

 Ventilating stake can terminate inside the building ( above highest spillover level,
typically in the roof space)
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  Has a greater design flexibility
 Is adaptable to plastic or metal pipework
 Visually unobstrusive as there is no projecting stack pipe.

The system functions in such a way that a discharge of water in the stack creates a negative
pressure, sufficient to open the valve and admit air. After discharge a return to the atmospheric
pressure allows the spring to re-seal and the unit to prevent foul air escaping.

3.8 Drain testing

Drain testing is an exercise carried out to fulfill the building regulations requirements of water
tightness of drains. This requirement is achieved by carrying out certain tests on the drain, so as
to detect and remedy any leakage faults before backfilling and covering up of drains.

There are generally four methods of testing drains and these include:

 Water test
 Smoke test
 Air test
 Ball test

3.8.1 Water test

This involves filling the drain run being tested with water under pressure and observing whether
there is any escape of water.

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3.8.2 Smoke test
Smoke is pumped into the drain run under test and any fall in pressure, as indicated by the fall of
the float on the smoke machine, observed.

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3.8.3 Air test
Though inconclusive, it is used sometimes in special circumstances such as large diameter pipes
where a large quantity of water would be required. This test is supplemented with the more
reliable water test.

In general drain testing should be carried out between manholes, with manholes being testes
separately, while short branches of less than 6m should be tested with the main drain to which
they are connected and long branches would be tested in the same way as the main drain.

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3.9 Drainage disposal: soak away, public sewer cesspool, septic tank, filter
beds, sewage pumps, pneumatic, submersible, drywell suction
3.9.1 Soakaways
A soakaway is a pit dug in the permeable ground that receives the rainwater discharge from the
roof and paved areas of a small building and is so constructed that the water collected can
percolate into the surrounding subsoil. The correct and efficient functioning of a soakaway takes
into consideration the following design factors:

 permeability or rate of dispersion of the subsoil

 area to be drained
 storage capacity required to accept sudden inflow of water, such as that encountered
during a storm
 local authority requirements as method of construction and siting in relation to buildings
 depth of water table

Permission is sought from the local authority before design and construction can take place so as
to ascertain its specific requirements.

The water percolation rate is determined by the soil permeability. Generally clay soils have high
resistance to percolation while sand and gravel have low resistance and satisfactory for
percolation.

A borehole 150mm in diameter should be drilled to a depth of 1m. Water to a depth of 300mm is
poured into the hole and time taken for water to disperse is noted.

The rate of percolation can also be derived from a simple empirical formula, calculates the
volume of soakaway by allowing for a storage capacity equal to one-third of the hourly rain
falling onto the area to be drained.

Types of Soakaway

A soakaway is constructed by excavating a pit of the appropriate size and either filling the void
with selected course granular material or lining the sides of the excavation with brickwork or
[recast concrete rings.

Filled soakaways are usually employed only for small capacities, but these have the challenge of
determining the storage capacity and life of the soakaway which may be limited by silting up of
voids in the fill material.

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Lined soakaways generally more efficient, have a longer life span and access could be provided
for inspection and maintenance at regular intervals.

Soakaways are recommended to be sited away from buildings to protect the foundations from the
effects of percolation of water. The minimum recommended distance is about 5m.

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3.9.2 Public sewer cesspool

Simplified Sewers describe a sewerage network that is constructed using smaller diameter pipes
laid at a shallower depth and at a flatter gradient than conventional sewers. The Simplified Sewer
allows for a more flexible design associated with lower costs and a higher number of connected
households.

Expensive manholes are replaced with simple inspection chambers. Each discharge point is
connected to an interceptor tank to prevent settleable solids and trash from entering the sewer. As
well, each household should have a grease trap before the sewer connection. Another key design
feature is that the sewers are laid within the property boundaries, rather than beneath the central
road. Because the sewers are more communal, they are often referred to as condominial sewers.

Because simplified sewers are laid on or around the property of the users, higher connection rates
can be achieved, fewer and shorter pipes can be used and less excavation is required as the pipes
will not be subjected to heavy traffic loads. However, this type of Conveyance technology
requires careful negotiation between stakeholders since design and maintenance must be jointly
coordinated.

All greywater should be connected to the simplified sewer to ensure adequate hydraulic loading.
Inspection chambers also function to reduced peak discharges into the system. Although
watertight sewers are the ideal, they may be difficult to achieve, and therefore the sewers should
be designed to take into account the extra flow that may result from stormwater infiltration.

Blocks of community-based Simplified Sewers are connected to an existing Conventional

Gravity Sewer or routed to a Simplified Sewer main constructed with pipes of a larger diameter.
A Simplified Sewer main can still be placed at a shallow depth provided it is placed away from
traffic.
Adequacy
 Simplified Sewerage is less expensive than Conventional Gravity Sewerage because of
its shallow installation depth.
 Simplified Sewers can be installed in almost all types of settlements and are especially
appropriate for dense, urban settlements.
 To prevent clogging and maintain the sewers, good pre-treatment is required. It is
recommended that the scum from greywater, heavy solids and garbage be removed from
the wastewater prior to entering the sewer.

Health Aspects/Acceptance
 If constructed and maintained well, sewers are a safe and hygienic means of transporting
wastewater.
 Users must be well educated about the health risks associated with maintaining/ cleaning
blockages and inspection chambers.

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Maintenance
 Household inspection chambers can be upgraded to septic tanks so that fewer solids enter
the Simplified Sewer network, but this will increase maintenance costs associated with
emptying the septic tank.

 Pre-treatment with interceptor tanks and a grease trap is essential. The homeowner must
maintain the interceptor tanks and the grease trap.

 Although, households are expected to be responsible for the maintenance of the sewers,
however in practice this may not be feasible. Alternatively, a private contractor or users
committee can be hired to assume responsibility for the maintenance as inexperienced
users may not detect problems before they become severe, and therefore, more costly to
repair.

 A related problem is that households may drain storm water into the sewer. This practice
should be discouraged whenever possible.

 Blockages can usually be removed by opening the sewer and forcing a length of rigid
wire through the sewer.
 Inspection chambers must be emptied periodically to prevent grit overflowing into the
system.

Advantages
 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
 Construction can provide short-term employment to local labourers
 Capital costs are between 50 and 80% less than Conventional Gravity Sewers; operating
costs are low.
 Can be extended as a community changes and grows
Disadvantages
 Requires expert design and construction supervision
 Requires repairs and removals of blockages more frequently than a Conventional Gravity
Sewer
 Effluent and sludge (from interceptors) requires secondary treatment and/or appropriate
discharge

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3.9.3 Conventional Gravity Sewer

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Conventional Gravity Sewers are large networks of underground pipes that convey blackwater,
greywater and stormwater from individual households to a centralized treatment facility using
gravity (and pumps where necessary).

The Conventional Gravity Sewer system is designed with many branches. Typically, the network
is subdivided into primary (main sewer lines along main roads), secondary, and tertiary networks
(network at the neighbourhood and household level). Conventional Gravity Sewers do not
require onsite pretreatment or storage of the wastewater.

Because the waste is not treated before it is discharged, the sewer must be designed to maintain
self-cleansing velocity (i.e. a flow that will not allow particles to accumulate). A self-cleansing
velocity is generally 0.6–0.75m/s. A constant downhill gradient must be guaranteed along the
length of the sewer to maintain self-cleaning flows.

When a downhill grade cannot be maintained, a pump station must be installed. Primary sewers
are laid beneath roads, and must be laid at depths of 1.5 to 3m to avoid damages caused by traffic
loads.

Access manholes are placed at set intervals along the sewer, at pipe intersections and at changes
in pipeline direction (vertically and horizontally). The primary network requires rigorous
engineering design to ensure that a self-cleansing velocity is maintained, that manholes are
placed as required and that the sewer line can support the traffic weight. As well, extensive
construction is required to remove and replace the road above.

Adequacy
Because they carry so much volume, Conventional Gravity sewers are only appropriate when
there is a centralized treatment facility that is able to receive the wastewater (i.e. smaller,
decentralized facilities could easily be overwhelmed).

Planning, construction, operation and maintenance require expert knowledge. Conventional

Gravity Sewers are expensive to build and, because the installation of a sewer line is disruptive
and requires extensive coordination between the authorities, construction companies and the
property owners, a professional management system must be in place.

When stormwater is also carried by the sewer (called a Combined Sewer), sewer overflows are
required. Sewer overflows are needed to avoid hydraulic surcharge of treatment plants during
rain events. Infiltration into the sewer in areas where there is a high water table may compromise
the performance of the Conventional Gravity Sewer. Conventional Gravity Sewers can be
constructed in cold climates as they are dug deep into the ground and the large and constant
water flow resists freezing. Sewer in areas where there is a high water table may compromise the
performance of the Conventional Gravity Sewer.

Health Aspects/Acceptance
This technology provides a high level of hygiene and comfort for the user at the point of use.
However, because the waste is conveyed to an offsite location for treatment, the ultimate health
and environmental impacts are determined by the treatment provided by the downstream facility.
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Maintenance
Manholes are installed wherever there is a change of grade or alignment and are used for
inspection and cleaning. Sewers can be dangerous and should only be maintained by
professionals although, in well-organised communities, the maintenance of tertiary networks
might be handed over to a well-trained group of community members.

Advantages
 Stormwater and greywater can be managed at the same time
 Construction can provide short-term employment to local labourers

Disadvantages

 A long time required to connect all homes

 Not all parts and materials may be available locally
 Difficult and costly to extend as a community changes and grows
 Requires expert design and construction supervision
 Effluent and sludge (from interceptors) requires secondary treatment and/or appropriate
discharge
 High capital and moderate operation cost

3.9.4 Septic tank,

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 75mm precast rc slabs

100mm dia clay

junction pipe Flexible joint

1370 mm average
150mm thick
215mm thick walls in conc base

depth
engineering bricks
and cement mortar

2485mm x 910mm

A Septic Tank is a watertight chamber made of concrete,masonry, fibreglass, PVC or plastic, for
the storage and treatment of blackwater and greywater from private properties or for small
communities of 100 persons not connected to the main public sewer line of the public authority.
Settling and anaerobic processes reduce solids and organics, but the treatment is only moderate.

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The septic tank should be of suitable depth and adequate size having in no case a capacity less
than 2700 litres for an average house, fenced in or covered, adequately ventilated and having
access for inspection, cleansing and emptying.

A Septic Tank should typically have at least two chambers. The first chamber should be at least
50% of the total length and when there are only two chambers, it should be 2/3 of the total
length. Most of the solids settle out in the first chamber. The baffle, or the separation between the
chambers, is to prevent scum and solids from escaping with the effluent. A T-shaped outlet pipe
will further reduce the scum and solids that are discharged.

Liquid sewage flows into the tank and 70% of the solids or heavy particles broken down and sink
by gasification to the bottom as sludge, while scum (oil and fat) floats to the top. With time, the
solids that settle to the bottom are degraded anaerobically by bacteria.

Maintenance

However, the rate of accumulation is faster than the rate of decomposition, and the accumulated
sludge must be removed at some point. To prevent odours from surfacing, a water seal must be
maintained but it may not completely prevent smells and the tank must be frequently desludged

Generally, septic tanks should be emptied every 2 to 5 years, although they should be checked
yearly or interval of six months to ensure proper functioning, leaving a small amount to restart
the bacterial action in the newly admitted sewage. The sludge should be removed annually using
a vacuum truck to ensure proper functioning of the Septic Tank or manual removal using Gulper
technology.

The effluent is discharged off or dispersed by soakaway drains (subsoil irrigation) or filtered off.
A septic tank should only receive foul water while waste and storm water should be drained off
separately too soakaways. Grease water should also be excluded from the septic tank since it
tends to clog drains, disposing of effluent and impairs decomposition of sewage thus
necessitating kitchen waste water being discharged through a grease trap and cleaned regularly.
Also excessive use of detergents and disinfectants should be minimised as the affect sewage
treatment.

The tank should also;

 Conveniently placed for access

 Not nearer than and downwind 15m from habitable buildings
 Be where it will not contaminate water supplies
 Approval from the water body authority must be obtained for effluent discharge to a
stream or water course

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The design of a Septic Tank depends on the number of users, the amount of water used per
capita, the average annual temperature, the pumping frequency and the characteristics of the
wastewater. The retention time should be designed for 48 hours to achieve moderate treatment.

Requirements for proper functioning of a septic tank:

 Capacity should not be less than 1818 litres

 For full advantage of total solid reduction, it should allow for 48 hours of storage of
liquid.
 Minimum capacity of 2700 litres (i.e. 1350 litres per day) equivalent to 225 litres per
person per day in a household of 6 persons with average water use per person of 180
litres per day

From the septic tank the effluent is either dispersed by subsoil irrigation or first delivered to a
filter bed and hence to a ditch or stream.

Advantages
 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
 Long service life
 No real problems with flies or odours if used correctly
 Low capital costs, moderate operating costs depending on water and emptying
 Small land area required
 No electrical energy required

Disadvantages

 Low reduction in pathogens, solids and organics

 Effluent and sludge require secondary treatment and/or appropriate discharge
 Requires constant source of water

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3.9.5 Filter Beds

3.9.5.1 Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetland

Unlike The Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland, the Free-Water Surface
Constructed Wetland allows water to flow above ground, exposed to the atmosphere and direct
sunlight. The channel or basin is lined with an impermeable barrier (clay or geotextile) covered
with rocks, gravel and soil and planted with native vegetation (e.g. cattails, reeds and/or rushes).
The wetland is flooded with wastewater to a depth of 10 to 45cm above ground level. As the
water slowly flows through the wetland, simultaneous physical, chemical and biological
processes filter solids, degrade organics and remove nutrients from the wastewater.

Raw blackwater should be pretreated to prevent the excess accumulation of solids and garbage.
Once in the pond, the heavier sediment particles settle out, also removing nutrients that are
attached to particles.
Plants, and the communities of microorganisms that they support (on the stems and roots), take
up nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. Chemical reactions may cause other elements to
precipitate out of the wastewater. Pathogens are removed from the water by natural decay,
predation from higher organisms, sedimentation and UV irradiation.

Although the soil layer below the water is anaerobic, the plant roots exude (release) oxygen into
the area immediately surrounding the root hairs, thus creating an environment for complex
biological and chemical activity. The efficiency of the Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetland
also depends on how well the water is distributed at the inlet. Wastewater can be input to the
wetland using weirs or by drilling holes in a distribution pipe to allow it to enter in even spaced
intervals.

Adequacy
Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetlands can achieve high removals of suspended solids and
moderate removal of pathogens, nutrients and other pollutants such as heavy metals. Shade from
plants and protection from wind mixing limit the dissolved oxygen in the water, therefore, this
technology is only appropriate for low strength wastewater. Usually this requires that Free-Water

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Surface Constructed Wetlands are only appropriate when they follow some type of primary
treatment to lower the BOD.

Depending on the volume of water, and therefore the size, wetlands can be appropriate for small
sections of urban areas or more appropriate for peri-urban and rural communities. This is a good
treatment technology for communities that have a primary treatment facility (e.g. Septic). Where
land is cheap and available, it is a good option as long as the community is organized enough to
thoroughly plan and maintain the wetland for the duration of its life.

This technology is best suited to warm climates but can be designed to tolerate some freezing
and periods of low biological activity.

Health Aspects/Acceptance
 The open surface can act as a potential breeding ground for mosquitoes. However, good
design and maintenance can prevent this.
 The Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetlands are generally aesthetically pleasing,
especially when they are integrated into pre-existing natural areas.
 Care should be taken to prevent people from coming in contact with the effluent because
of the potential for disease transmission and the risk of drowning in deeper waters.

Maintenance
 Regular maintenance should ensure that water is not short-circuiting, or backing up
because of fallen branches, garbage, or beaver dams blocking the wetland outlet.
 Vegetation may have to be cut back or thinned out periodically.

Advantages
 Aesthetically pleasing and provides animal habitat
 High reduction in BOD and solids; moderate pathogen removal
 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
 Construction can provide short-term employment to local labourers
 No electrical energy required
 No real problems with flies or odours if used correctly

Disadvantages
 May facilitate mosquito breeding
 Long start up time to work at full capacity
 Requires large land area
 Requires expert design and supervision
 Moderate capital cost depending on land, liner, etc.; low operating costs

3.9.5.2 Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland

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A Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland is a large gravel and sand-filled
channel that is planted with aquatic vegetation. As wastewater flows horizontally through
the channel, the filter material filters out particles and microorganisms degrade organics.

The water level in a Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland is maintained at 5 to

15cm below the surface to ensure subsurface flow. The bed should be wide and shallow so that
the flow path of the water is maximized. A wide inlet zone should be used to evenly distribute
the flow. Pre-treatment is essential to prevent clogging and ensure efficient treatment.

The bed should be lined with an impermeable liner (clay or geotextile) to prevent leaching.
Small, round, evenly sized gravel (3–32mm in diameter) is most commonly used to fill the bed to
a depth of 0.5 to 1m. To limit clogging, the gravel should be clean and free of fines. Sand is also
acceptable, but is more prone to clogging. In recent years, alternative filter materials such as PET
have been successfully used.

The removal efficiency of the wetland is a function of the surface area (length multiplied by
width), while the cross-sectional area (width multiplied by depth) determines the maximum
possible flow. A well-designed inlet that allows for even distribution is important to prevent
short-circuiting. The outlet should be variable so that the water surface can be adjusted to
optimize treatment performance.

The filter media acts as both a filter for removing solids, a fixed surface upon which bacteria can
attach, and a base for the vegetation. Although facultative and anaerobic bacteria degrade most
organics, the vegetation transfers a small amount of oxygen to the root zone so that aerobic
bacteria can colonize the area and degrade organics as well. The plant roots play an important
role in maintaining the permeability of the filter.

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Any plant with deep, wide roots that can grow in the wet, nutrient-rich environment is
appropriate. Phragmites australis (reed) is a common choice because it forms horizontal
rhizomes that penetrate the entire filter depth. Pathogen removal is accomplished by natural
decay, predation by higher organisms, and sedimentation.

Adequacy
 Clogging is a common problem and therefore the influent should be well settled with
primary treatment before flowing into the wetland. This technology is not appropriate for
untreated domestic waste water (i.e. blackwater).

 This is a good treatment for communities that have primary treatment (e.g. Septic Tanks
or WSPs) but are looking to achieve a higher quality effluent. This is a good option
where land is cheap and available, although the wetland will require maintenance for the
duration of its life.

 Depending on the volume of water, and therefore the size, this type of wetland can be
appropriate for small sections of urban areas, peri-urban and rural communities. They can
also be designed for single households.

 Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands are best suited for warm climates but
they can be designed to tolerate some freezing and periods of low biological activity.

Health Aspects/Acceptance
 The risk of mosquito breeding is reduced since there is no standing water compared to the
risk associated with Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetlands.
 The wetland is aesthetically pleasing and can be integrated into wild areas or parklands.

Maintenance
 With time, the gravel will clog with accumulated solids and bacterial film. The filter
material will require replacement every 8 to 15 or more years.
 Maintenance activities should focus on ensuring that primary treatment is effective at
reducing the concentration of solids in the wastewater before it enters the wetland.
 Maintenance should also ensure that trees do not grow in the area as the roots can harm
the liner.

Advantages
 Requires less space than a Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetland
 High reduction in BOD, suspended solids and pathogens
 Does not have the mosquito problems of the Free- Water Surface Constructed Wetland
 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
 Construction can provide short-term employment to local labourers
 No electrical energy required

Disadvantages

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 Requires expert design and supervision
 Moderate capital cost depending on land, liner, fill, etc.; low operating costs
 Pre-treatment is required to prevent clogging

3.9.5.3 (Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland)

Septic tank effluent which is not treated by subsoil irrigation must be delivered to a filter bed
before being discharged to a ditch or stream.

Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland is one of the filter beds that is planted with aquatic
plants. Wastewater is poured or dosed onto the wetland surface from above using a
mechanical dosing system. The water flows vertically down through the filter matrix. The
important difference between a vertical and horizontal wetland is not simply the direction
of the flow path, but rather the aerobic conditions.

The wetland is dosed intermittently (four to ten times a day), as the filter goes through stages of
being saturated and unsaturated, and accordingly, different phases of aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. The frequency of dosing should be timed such that the previous dose of wastewater
has time to percolate through the filter bed so that oxygen has time to diffuse through the media
and fill the void spaces.

The Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland can be designed as a shallow excavation or as an above
ground construction. Each filter should have an impermeable liner and an effluent collection
system. Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands are most commonly designed to treat wastewater
that has undergone primary treatment. Structurally, there is a layer of gravel for drainage (a
minimum of 20cm), followed by layers of either sand and gravel (for settled effluent) or sand
and fine gravel (for raw wastewater).

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The filter media acts as both a filter for removing solids, a fixed surface upon which bacteria can
attach and a base for the vegetation. The top layer is planted and the vegetation is allowed to
develop deep, wide roots which permeate the filter media.

The filter media acts as both a filter for removing solids, a fixed surface upon which bacteria can
attach and a base for the vegetation. The top layer is planted and the vegetation is allowed to
develop deep, wide roots which permeate the filter media.

Depending on the climate, Phragmites australis, Typha cattails or Echinochloa Pyramidalis are
common options. The vegetation transfers a small amount of oxygen to the root zone so that
aerobic bacteria can colonize the area and degrade organics. However, the primary role of
vegetation is to maintain permeability in the filter and provide habitat for microorganisms.

During a flush phase, the wastewater percolates down through the unsaturated bed and is filtered
by the sand/gravel matrix. Nutrients and organic material are absorbed and degraded by the
dense microbial populations attached to the surface of the filter media and the roots. By forcing
the organisms into a starvation phase between dosing phases, excessive biomass growth can be
decreased and porosity increased. A drainage network at the base collects the effluent. The
design and size of the wetland is dependent on hydraulic and organic loads.

Pathogen removal is accomplished by natural decay, predation by higher organisms, and

sedimentation.

Adequacy:
 Clogging is a common problem. Therefore, the influent should be well settled with
primary treatment before flowing into the wetland. This technology is not appropriate for
untreated domestic wastewater (i.e. blackwater).

 This is a good treatment for communities that have primary treatment (e.g. Septic Tanks
or WSPs) but are looking to achieve a higher quality effluent. This is a good option
where land is cheap and available, although the wetland will require maintenance for the
duration of its life.

 There are many complex processes at work, and accordingly, there is a significant
reduction in BOD, solids and pathogens. In many cases, the effluent will be adequate for
discharge without further treatment.

 Because of the mechanical dosing system, this technology is most appropriate for
communities with trained maintenance staff, constant power supply, and spare parts.

 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetlands are best suited to warm climates but can be designed
to tolerate some freezing and periods of low biological activity.

Health Aspects/Acceptance:

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The risk of mosquito breeding is low since there is no standing water. The system is generally
aesthetic and can be integrated into wild areas or parklands. Care should be taken to ensure that
people do not come in contact with the influent because of the risk of infection.

Maintenance:
 With time, the gravel will become clogged with accumulated solids and bacterial film.
The material may have to be replaced every 8 to 15 or more years.
 Maintenance activities should focus on ensuring that primary treatment effectively lowers
organics and solids concentrations before entering the wetland.
 Testing may be required to determine the suitability of locally available plants with the
specific wastewater.
 The vertical system requires more maintenance and technical expertise than other
wetland technologies.

Advantages
 Does not have the mosquito problems of the Free- Water Surface Constructed Wetland
 Less clogging than in a Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland
 Requires less space than a Free-Water Surface Constructed Wetland
 High reduction in BOD, suspended solids and pathogens
 Construction can provide short-term employment to local labourers
 Constant source of electrical energy required

Disadvantages
 Not all parts and materials may be available locally
 Requires expert design and supervision
 Moderate capital cost depending on land, liner, fill, etc.; low operating costs
 Pre-treatment is required to prevent clogging
 Dosing system requires more complex engineering

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3.9.6 Lagoons (waste water stabilisation ponds); types, design, facilities

Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are large, manmade water bodies. The ponds are filled with
wastewater that is then treated by naturally occurring processes. The ponds can be used
individually, or linked in a series for improved treatment. There are three types of ponds, (1)
anaerobic, (2) facultative and (3) aerobic (maturation), each with different treatment and design
characteristics.

Anaerobic

For the most effective treatment, WSPs should be linked in a series of three of more with effluent
being transferred from the anaerobic pond to the facultative pond and finally the aerobic pond.
The anaerobic pond reduces solids and BOD as a pre-treatment stage. The pond is a fairly deep
man-made lake where the entire depth of the pond is anaerobic. Anaerobic ponds are built to a
depth of 2 to 5m and have a relatively short detention time of 1 to 7 days. The actual design will
depend on the wastewater characteristics and the loading; a comprehensive design manual should
be consulted for all types of WSPs. Anaerobic bacteria convert organic carbon into methane and
in the process, remove up to 60% of the BOD. Anaerobic ponds are capable of treating strong
wastewaters.

Facultative
In a series of WSPs the effluent from the anaerobic pond is transferred to the facultative pond,
where further BOD is removed. A facultative pond is shallower than an anaerobic pond and both

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aerobic and anaerobic processes occur within the pond. The top layer of the pond receives
oxygen from natural diffusion, wind mixing and algae driven photosynthesis. The lower layer is
deprived of oxygen and becomes anoxic or anaerobic. Settleable solids accumulate and are
digested on the bottom of the pond. The aerobic and anaerobic organisms work together to
achieve BOD reductions of up to 75%. The pond should be constructed to a depth of 1 to 2.5m
and have a detention time between 5 to 30 days.

Aerobic (maturation)
Following the anaerobic and the facultative ponds can be any number of aerobic (maturation)
ponds to achieve a highly polished effluent. An aerobic pond is commonly referred to as a
maturation, polishing, or finishing pond because it is usually the last step in a series of ponds and
provides the final level of treatment. It is the shallowest of the ponds, usually constructed to a
depth between 0.5 to 1.5m deep to ensure that the sunlight penetrates the full depth for
photosynthesis. Because photosynthesis is driven by sunlight, the dissolved oxygen levels are
highest during the day and drop off at night. Whereas anaerobic and facultative ponds are
designed for BOD removal, maturation ponds are designed for pathogen removal. Dissolved
oxygen in the lake is provided by natural wind mixing and by photosynthetic algae that release
oxygen into the water. If used in combination with algae and/or fish harvesting, this type of pond
is effective at removing the majority of nitrogen and phosphorus from the effluent.

To prevent leaching, the ponds should have a liner. The liner can be clay, asphalt, compacted
earth, or another impervious material. To protect the pond from runoff and erosion, a protective
berm should be constructed around the pond using the excavated material.

Adequacy
WSPs are among the most common and efficient methods of wastewater treatment around the
world. They are especially appropriate for rural communities that have large, open unused lands,
away from homes and public spaces. They are not appropriate for very dense or urban areas.
WSPs work in most climates, but are most efficient in warm, sunny climates. In the case of cold
climates, the retention times and loading rates can be adjusted so that efficient treatment can be
achieved.
Health Aspects/Acceptance
Although effluent from aerobic ponds is generally low in pathogens, the ponds should in no way
be used for recreation or as a direct source of water for consumption or domestic use.
Ideally, several aerobic ponds can be built in series to provide a high level of pathogen removal.
A final aquaculture pond can be used to generate income and supply a locally grown food
source.
Maintenance
 To prevent scum formation, excess solids and garbage from entering the ponds, pre-
treatment (with grease traps) is essential to maintain the ponds. The pond must be
desludged once every 10 to 20 years.
 A fence should be installed to ensure that people and animals stay out of the area and
excess garbage does not enter the ponds. Rodents may invade the berm and cause damage
to the liner. Raising the water level should prompt rodents to evacuate the berm.

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  Care should be taken to ensure that plant material does not fall into the ponds. Vegetation
or macrophytes that are present in the pond should be removed as it may provide a
breeding habitat for mosquitoes and prevent light from penetrating the water column.

Advantages
 High reduction in pathogens
 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
 Construction can provide short-term employment to local labourers
 Low operating cost
 No electrical energy required
 No real problems with flies or odours if designed correctly

Disadvantages
 Requires expert design and supervision
 Variable capital cost depending on the price of land
 Requires large land area
 Effluent/sludge requires secondary treatment and/or appropriate discharge

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3.9.7 Sewage pumps

3.9.7.1 Pneumatic pump

The pneumatic ejector consists of one or two steel or cast iron pots, which receive wastewater by
gravity. When the pots become full, air is introduced into the top of the pots, displacing the
sewage. The ejector is operated together with the liquid pots, checks valves which control the
direction of flow during filling and discharging, controls which are electric or mechanical to
sense the level of liquid in pots and air supplied by compressor.

OPERATION SEQUENCE

The operation of the ejector is relatively simple and involves three basic steps–filling, filled and
discharge.
Filling
During the filling stage, the discharge check valve is held closed by a downstream head above
the valve. The inlet valve is forced open by incoming sewage. Air in the pot is vented to the
upstream manhole through the air inlet line.

Full
When the tank becomes full, the air control valve shuts off the vent line and allows air into the
pot.

Discharging
As the air pressure in the pot increases, the inlet check valve is closed and the sewage is forced
out past the discharge valve.

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3.9.7.2 Submersible and Drywell suction

The two most commonly used types of pump stations are the dry-pit or dry-well and submersible
pump stations. In dry-well pump stations the pumps and valves are housed in a pump room (dry
pit or dry-well), that can be easily accessed. The wet well is a separate isolated chamber attached
or located adjacent to the dry-well (pump room) structure.

The submersible pump stations do not have a separate pump room, however, the pump station
header piping, associated valves, and flow meters are located in a separate dry vault on the
surface for easy access. Submersible pump stations include sealed pumps that operate submerged
in the wet well. These submerged pumps are not intended for frequent inspection, but can be
removed periodically to the surface and re-installed using guide rails and a hoist.
Key advantages of the drywell pump stations are;
• that they allow an easy access for routine visual inspection and maintenance, and
• in general they are easier to repair than submersible pumps.
Key advantages of the submersible pump station include;
• lower costs than the dry-well stations and
• an ability to operate without frequent pump maintenance.
• In addition, submersible pump stations usually do not require large aboveground
structures and are easier to blend-in with the surrounding environment in residential
areas.
• They require less space and typically are easier and less expensive to construct for
wastewater flow capacities of 38,000 lpm (10,000 gpm) or less

Figure 1 and 2 illustrate the two types of pumps

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Figure 1: Dry well pump

Figure 2: Wet well pump

Based on the type of construction, two types of pump stations are most common: custom-
designed and pre-fabricated (factory-built) pump stations. Custom-designed stations are widely
used for large flow applications because they can be designed to accommodate practically any
set of flows, heads, footprint, and special features. In addition, custom-designed and pre-
fabricated (factory-built) pump stations. Custom-designed stations are widely used for large flow

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applications because they can be designed to accommodate practically any set of flows, heads,
footprint, and special features.

In well configurations, the wet well usually is constructed of pre-cast concrete. Pre-fabricated
submersible stations are typically constructed of pre-cast concrete or steel and can accommodate
one or two submersible pumps. For pre-cast concrete stations, the pump manufacturer may
provide a complete package of equipment, including submersible pumps, discharge elbows,
check valves, access hatches, and level controls. For steel stations, the equipment is typically
pre-packaged at the factory. Fiberglass tanks are typically used for smaller pump stations.

APPLICABILITY

In-plant pump stations are used to move wastewater from lower to higher elevation, particularly
where the elevation of the source is not sufficient for gravity flow and/or the use of gravity
conveyance will result in excessive excavation depths and high plant construction costs. In-plant
pump stations are used to pump flow from areas too low to drain by gravity into nearby sewer
lines.

DESIGN CRITERIA

Cost effective pump stations are designed to:

1. match pump capacity, type and configuration with wastewater quantity;

2. provide reliable and interruptible operation;
3. allow for easy operation and maintenance of the installed equipment;
4. accommodate future capacity expansion;
5. avoid septic conditions and excessive release of odors in the collection system and at the
pump station; and
6. avoid flooding of the pump station and the surrounding areas.

Wet Well

Wet-well design is dependent on the type of pump station configuration (submersible or dry-
well) and the type of pump controls (constant or variable speed). Wet-wells are typically
designed large enough to prevent rapid pump cycling, but small enough to prevent a long
detention time and associated odor release.

Wet-well maximum detention time in constant speed pumps is typically 20 to 30 minutes. Use of
variable frequency drives for pump speed control allows wet-well detention time reduction to 5
to 15 minutes. Wet-well bottom slope should be designed to allow self-cleaning and minimum
deposition of debris. Bar screens are often installed in or upstream of the wet well to minimize
pump clogging problems; however, screens are not typically required for in-plant stations
because course material is generally removed at head works in the plant.

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Wastewater Pumps

The number of wastewater pumps and associated capacity should be selected to provide head
capacity characteristics (elevation of a free surface of water) that correspond, as closely as
possible, to the wastewater quantity fluctuations. This can be accomplished by the preparation of
pump/pipeline system head-capacity curves showing all conditions of head and capacity under
which the pumps will be required to operate.

The number of pumps to be installed in the pump station depends largely on the station capacity
and range of flow. In small stations, with maximum flows of less than 2580 lpm (680 gpm), two
pumps are customarily installed, with each unit having capacity to meet the maximum influent
rate. For larger pump stations, the size and the number pumps should be selected so that the flow
range can be met without frequent starting and stopping of pumps and without requiring
excessive wet-well storage.

The pumps are designed to run alternately in an effort to keep wear and tear even, as well as
keeping all of the parts are lubricated. Additional pumps may be needed to provide intermediate
capacities that are better matched to typical daily flows. Another option is to provide flow
flexibility with variable-speed pumps. Usually, the single pump peak flow approach is most
suitable for stations that have relatively rapid flow increase or high head losses. For such
stations, parallel pumping is not as effective, because two pumps operating together yield only
slightly higher flows than one pump. If the peak flow is to be achieved with multiple pumps in
parallel, the pump station will need to be equipped with at least three pumps: two duty pumps
that together provide peak flow and one standby pump for emergency backup. Parallel peak
pumping is typically used for large pump stations with relatively flat system head curves. Such
operation allow multiple pumps to deliver substantially more flow than a single pump. In
addition, use of multiple pumps in parallel provides more flexibility.

Several types of centrifugal pumps are frequently used at in-plant pump stations. In straight-flow
centrifugal pumps the wastewater does not change direction of flow as it passes through the
pumps and into the discharge pipe. These pumps are suitable for low-flow/high head conditions.
In angle-flow pumps, the wastewater enters the impeller axially and passes through the volute
casing at 90 degrees to its original direction (Figure 3). This type of pump is appropriate for
pumping against low or moderate heads. Most viable for pumping large quantities of wastewater
at low head are the mixed flow pumps. In these pumps, the outside diameter of the impeller is
less than that of an ordinary centrifugal pump, hence the flow speed is greater.

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Figure 3: Centrifugal angle-flow pump

Odor Control

Odor control is frequently required for pump stations. A relatively simple and widely used odor
control alternative includes minimizing wet-well turbulence. More effective options include
collection of odors generated at the pump station and their treatment in scrubbers or biofilters, or
the addition of odor control chemicals to the sewer upstream of the pump station. Chemicals
typically used for odor control include chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, metal salts (ferrous chloride
and ferric sulfate); oxygen, air and potassium permanganate.

Operation and maintenance

Pump station operation is usually automated and does not require continuous on-site operator
presence. However, frequent inspections are recommended to assure normal functioning of pump
station equipment and to identify potential problems early. Weekly pump station inspection
typically includes observation of pumps, motors and drives for unusual noise, vibration, heating
or leakage; check of pump suction and discharge lines for valving arrangement and leakage;
check of control panel switches for proper position; monitoring of discharge pump rates and
pump speed; and monitoring of pump suction and discharge pressure. If a pump station is
equipped with bar screens to remove coarse materials from the wastewater, these materials are
collected automatically or manually in containers and disposed to a sanitary landfill site once a
week or as needed. If the pump station has a scrubber system for odor control, chemicals for this
system are supplied and replenished typically once every one to three months. If chemicals are

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added for odor control ahead of the pump station, the chemical feed stations should be inspected
weekly and chemical supplies replenished as needed.

The most labor-intensive task for pump stations is routine preventive maintenance. A well-
planned maintenance program for pump station pumps prevents unnecessary equipment wear
and downtime. Regardless of the excellence of servicing programs, equipment use causes wear
and, ultimately, failure or breakage of parts. Pump station operators must have an inventory of
critical spare parts available. The number of spare parts in the inventory depends on the critical
needs of the unit, the rate at which the part would normally fail, and the availability of the part.
The operator of the pump station needs to tabulate each pumping element in the system and its
recommended spare parts. This information is typically available from the manufacturer’s
operation and maintenance manuals provided with the pump station.

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4.0 Sub-module 4: Ventilation, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

4.1 Definitions
TEMPERATURE
Temperature can be thought of as a description of the level of heat and also may be referred to as
heat intensity.
CONDUCTION
Heat transfer by conduction can be explained as the energy actually traveling from one molecule
to another.
CONVECTION
Heat transfer by convection is used to move heat from one location to another by means of
currents set up in a fluid medium.
RADIATION
Heat transfer by radiation can best be explained by using the sun as an example of the heat
source. Heat level or heat intensity can readily be measured when it changes the temperature of a
substance. This change in the heat level can be measured with a thermometer. When a change of
temperature can be registered, we know that the level of heat or heat intensity has changed; this
is called sensible heat.
LATENT HEAT
Another type of heat is called latent or hidden heat. Heat is added in this process, but no
temperature rise occurs.
There are three other terms that are important to understand when referring to latent heat
transfers: latent heat of vaporization, latent heat of condensation, and latent heat of fusion. Latent
heat of vaporization is the amount of heat energy, in required to change a substance into a vapor.
Latent heat of condensation is the amount of heat energy, required to change a vapor into a
liquid.
SPECIFIC HEAT
When 1 unit of heat energy is added to 1 unit of water, it changes the temperature by 1 unit. This
difference in heat rise is known as specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to
raise the temperature of 1 unit of a substance by 1 unit of temperature.

4.2 Natural ventilation

Natural ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air through an indoor space by
natural means, meaning without the use of a fan or other mechanical system. It uses outdoor air
flow caused by pressure differences between the building and its surrounding to provide
ventilation and space cooling.

4.2.1 Benefits of Natural Ventilation

The use of natural ventilation is definitely an advantage with the raising concerns regarding the
cost and environmental impact of energy use. Not only does natural ventilation provide

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ventilation (outdoor air) to ensure safe healthy and comfortable conditions for building occupants
without the use of fans, it also provides free cooling without the use of mechanical systems.

When carefully designed, natural ventilation can reduce building construction costs and
operation costs and reduce the energy consumption for air-conditioning and circulating fans. An
additional bonus is that no longer will any noisy fan be of your concern.

4.2.2 Types of Natural Ventilation and their Design Considerations.

There are basically two types of natural ventilation that can be employed in a building:

 wind driven ventilation

 and stack ventilation.

Both of which are caused by naturally occurring pressure differences. However, the pressure
differences that cause wind driven ventilation uses the natural forces of the wind whereas stack
ventilation is caused by pressures generated by buoyancy as a result in the differences in
temperature and humidity. Hence, there are different strategies in the optimization of the two
types of natural ventilation.

4.2.2.1 Wind Driven Ventilation

As naturally occurring wind blows across a building, the wind hits the windward wall causing a
direct positive pressure. The wind moves around the building and leaves the leeward wall with a
negative pressure, also known as a sucking effect. If there are any openings on the windward and
leeward walls of the building, fresh air will rush in the windward wall opening and exit the
leeward wall opening to balance and relieve the pressures on the windward and leeward walls.

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To capture the wind and bring ventilation to the building, the building shape becomes a crucial
factor. The building shape can create wind pressures that can effectively drive the air flow
through the openings of the building.

There are of course many other factors that play into place. Recommendations from design
guidelines from various building regulations also suggest the following:

 Building orientation and location. (Choosing a location with a lot of wind, building
should be oriented so that the windward wall is perpendicular to the summer wind. This
is when you want to maximize the ventilation);
 Building form and dimensions. (Naturally ventilated buildings should not be too deep
because it will be more difficult to distribute fresh air to all portions of the building);
 Window typologies and operations;
 Types, shape and size of openings;
 Construction methods and detailing;
 External elements
 Urban planning consideration

4.2.2.2 Stack Ventilation

Buoyancy ventilation can be induced by temperature (known as stack ventilation) or by humidity
(known as cool tower). Most commonly used is the stack driven ventilation.

For stack ventilation to work properly there must be a temperature difference. As the warm air
(usually given off by the occupants and their computers), which is less dense, in the building
rises, the cooler air is sucked from the openings below. This is shown in the picture below.

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 4.2.3 Design considerations for stack ventilation
 Inlets should supply air low in the room. Outlets should be located across the room and at
high level.
 The vertical distance between the inlet and exhaust openings should take advantage of the
stack effect.
 Use skylights or ridge vents.
 The function as fire exits of enclosed staircases should not be compromised if stack
ventilation is incorporated into the design.

With stack ventilation, it does not rely on the wind. On hot summer days with no wind, the
naturally occurring stack effect can take place with relatively stable air flow. Moreover, because
it does not rely on the pressure and direction of the wind, there is a greater control on locating the
air intake.

However, stack driven ventilation is limited to a lower magnitude than wind driven ventilation. It
is also very dependent on the inside and outside temperature differences.

4.2.4 Design Strategies for Natural Ventilation

The design for natural ventilation should incorporate maximizing both the wind and stack driven
ventilation design concepts as mentioned above.

General design considerations include:

 Increase air supply intake by ensuring no outside obstruction (such as vegetation or site
objects) nor inside obstruction (such as furniture and interior partition) obstruct inlet
openings;
 Rooms should have inlet and outlet openings located in opposing pressure zones. This
can include openings on the windward and leeward walls or on the windward wall and
roof;
 All occupied spaces should have an inlet and outlet opening in which at least a minimum
of one opening should be an operable window to control flow;
 Inlets should supply air at a location low in the room. Outlets should be located across the
room and at a higher level;
 The long facade of the building and the majority of the openings should be should be
directed so that the windward wall is perpendicular to the summer wind;
 Use skylights or ridge vents. They are very desirable for night time thermal comfort in
houses to vent heated/warm air that rises, and allow heat to be radiated into the cold. It is
also can be a good outlet for wind driven ventilation;
 At least 3m allowance for the floor to ceiling.
 window areas should not be excessive and be protected by exterior shading devices;
 Design for high thermal capacity and exposed ceilings for night cooling.

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  Reduce the possibility of wall warming by the sun through use of light-coloured building
exteriors, trees/shrubs to provide shading and evaporative cooling, grass and other
groundcover to keep ground temperatures low, and ponds and fountains to enhance
evaporative cooling; and
 Internal loading should be kept low.

Many of the considerations taken above is to either increase the air flow or lower the heat gain so
that the natural ventilation can effective cool the spaces in the building.

Mechanical cooling and ventilation systems will be used to supplement the natural ventilation.
By lowering the heat gains, the less air flow will be required to remove the heat, thus there will
be less a need of a mechanical cooling system.

4.2.5 Designing a Ventilation System

In order to build a more reliable and also cost and energy efficient ventilation system, one must
identify the constraints of the building and utilize various design strategies such as those
mentioned above and integrate it into the building design.

The constraints may include, but is not limited, to the following:

 Building type;
 Local environment;
 Climate; and
 Building regulations/guidelines.

4.3 Natural ventilation by law requirements

1. All fixed mechanical ventilation systems, where they can be tested and adjusted, shall be
commissioned and a commissioning given to the building control body.
2. For mechanical ventilation systems installed in new dwellings, air flow rates shall be
measured on site and notice given to the Building Control Body. This shall apply to
intermittently used extract fans and cooker hoods as well as continuously running
systems
3. The owner shall be given sufficient information about the ventilation system and its
maintenance requirements so that the ventilation system can be operated to provide
adequate air flow.

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4.4 Mechanical ventilation: types of fans, propeller, centrifugal, axial flow, ducts,
extraction through lighting system

4.4.1 Mechanical Ventilation

Without mechanical ventilation to provide fresh air, moisture, odors, and other pollutants can
build up inside a home. Mechanical ventilation systems circulate fresh air using ducts and fans,
rather than relying on airflow through small holes or cracks in a home’s walls, roof, or windows.
Homeowners can breathe easier knowing their home has good ventilation.

4.4.2 BENEFITS OF MECHANICAL VENTILATION

 Better Indoor Air Quality. Indoor air can be many times more polluted than outdoor air,
and the average American spends 90 percent of the day inside. Ventilation systems can
significantly improve a home’s air quality by removing allergens, pollutants, and
moisture that can cause mold problems.
• More Control. When homes rely on air flow through walls, roofs, and windows for
ventilation, there is no control over the source or amount of air that comes into the house.
In fact, air leaking into the house may come from undesirable areas such as the garage,
attic, or crawl space. Mechanical ventilation systems, however, provide proper fresh air
flow along with appropriate locations for intake and exhaust.
• Improved Comfort. Mechanical ventilation systems allow a constant flow of outside air
into the home and can also provide filtration, dehumidification, and conditioning of the
incoming outside air.

4.4.3 HOW VENTILATION SYSTEMS WORK

A variety of mechanical ventilation systems are available to select from, based on local climate
and the home’s heating and cooling system. In addition to one of the primary systems described
below, “spot” ventilation fans should also be provided for kitchens and baths to remove the
concentrated moisture and odors that can occur in these rooms. The typical systems and
recommended climates are described below:

Supply Ventilation Systems—Hot or Mixed Climates. Fresh air is drawn in through an air
“intake” vent and distributed to many rooms by a fan and duct system. A fan and set of ducts
dedicated solely to ventilation can be used, or an outside air intake can be connected to the main
return air duct, allowing the heating and cooling system’s fan and ducts to distribute the fresh air.
The benefit of connecting to the return air duct is that outdoor air can be air conditioned or
dehumidified before it is introduced into the home. Because supply systems continually
introduce outdoor air, a home can become slightly pressurized. As a result, these systems are
typically not appropriate for cold climates.

Supply Ventilation Systems — Hot or Mixed Climates. Fresh air is drawn in through an air
“intake” vent and distributed to many rooms by a fan and duct system. A fan and set of ducts
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dedicated solely to ventilation can be used, or an outside air intake can be connected to the main
return air duct, allowing the heating and cooling system’s fan and ducts to distribute the fresh air.
The benefit of connecting to the return air duct is that outdoor air can be air conditioned or
dehumidified before it is introduced into the home. Because supply systems continually
introduce outdoor air, a home can become slightly pressurized. As a result, these systems are
typically not appropriate for cold climates where there is a risk of heated indoor air being pushed
through any remaining holes and cracks in the construction assembly where it could reach cold
exterior surfaces, condense, and cause moisture problems.

Exhaust Ventilation Systems—Cold Climates. Indoor air is continuously exhausted to the

outdoors with one or more fans often located in bathrooms. Because indoor air is continually
drawn out, the home becomes slightly depressurized. As a result, these systems are typically not
appropriate for hot, humid climates where there is a risk of drawing hot outdoor air into
remaining holes and cracks in the construction assembly where it could reach cool interior
surfaces, condense, and cause moisture problems.

Balanced Ventilation Systems—All Climates. With these systems, equal quantities of air are
brought into and sent out of the home. This is usually achieved using two fans—one to bring
fresh air in and another to send indoor air out. The two most common systems are “heat
recovery” ventilation (commonly referred to as HRV) and “energy recovery” ventilation
(commonly referred to as ERV). HRVs transfer heat from exhaust air to incoming air during the
heating season and from incoming air to exhaust air in the air conditioning season to reduce the
heating and cooling load and improve comfort. ERVs transfer heat and moisture between the
exhaust air and incoming air. This provides additional savings in the summer by reducing the
moisture content of the incoming air that would otherwise have to be dehumidified with the
cooling equipment or a dehumidifier. ERVs also provide additional comfort in the winter by
adding moisture from the outgoing air to the incoming air to help avoid excessively dry indoor
conditions

Types of Fans

Fans are used in industrial and commercial applications such as;

 ventilation
 material handling
 boilers
 refrigeration
 dust collection
 cooling

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There are two types of fans:

 Centrifugal fans
 Axial fans

These types are characterised by the path of the airflow through the fan.

Centrifugal fans

These use a rotating impeller to move air first radially outwards by centrifugal action, and then
tangentially away from the blade tips.

Mode of operation

 Incoming air moves parallel to the impeller hub and it turns radially outwards towards the
perimeter of the impeller and blade tips.
 As the air moves from the impeller hub to the blade tips, it gains kinetic energy. This
kinetic energy is then converted to a static pressure increase as the air slows before
entering the tangential discharge path.
 Central fans are capable of generating relatively high pressures. They are frequently used
in dirty airstreams (high moisture and particulate content), in operated at higher
temperatures.

Centrifugal fans are rugged, are capable of generating high pressures with high efficiencies and
can accommodate harsh operating conditions. These are the most commonly used types of
industrial fans.

Central fans have several types of blade shapes including;

 Backward - inclined curved blade

Applications:
o suitable for forced - draft service. (Fan is exposed to the relatively clean airstream
on the upstream side of the process).
o because of its non-overloading motor characteristic, this fan type is often selected
when system behaviour at high airflow rates is uncertain.

 Backward - inclined, airfoil blade

Applications
o Suitable for forced- draft service. (Fan is exposed to exposed to the relatively
clean airstream on the upstream side of the process.)
o because of its non -overloading motor characteristic, this fan type is often selected
when system behaviour at high airflow rates is uncertain.

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  Backward - inclined, flat blade
Applications
o Suitable for forced draft service. (Fan is exposed to the relatively clean airstream
on the upstream side of the process)
o Unsuitable for airstreams with airborne particulates
o Safe choice because of its non overloading motor characteristics.
o Often selected when system behaviour at high airflow rates is uncertain

Forward curved;

Applications:
o Applications that require low to medium air volumes at low pressure
o Well suited for residential heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
applications
o careful drive selection is required to avoid overloading the fan motor
o The dip in the performance curve represents a potential stall region that can
create operating problems at low airflow rates.

 Radial - blade;

Applications;

o many rugged industrial applications

o workhorse of industry

 Radial - tip.
Applications
o Used in airborne solids handling services because they have large running
clearances

Axial Fans

As the name implies, these fans move the airstream along the axis or shaft of the fan.

Mode of operation

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  The air is pressurised by the aerodynamic lift generated by the fan blades, much like a
propeller or an airplane wing.
 Although they can sometimes be used interchangeably with the centrifugal fans, axial
fans are commonly used in clean air, low pressure, high volume applications.
 Axial fans have less rotating mass and are more compact than centrifugal fans of
comparable capacity.
 Additionally, axial fans tend to require higher rotational speeds and are somewhat noisier
than in - line centrifugal fans of similar capacity.

Radial blade centrifugal fans are capable of serving widely varying operating conditions, which
can be a significant advantage in industry.

Axial airflow fans have a number of advantages over other types including types including:

 Compactness
 Light weight
 Low cost
 Direct - drive units operating near the synchronous
 Belt - drive units offering flexibility in fan speed selection

Usual applications for axial fans are:

 Exhausting contaminated air or supplying fresh air;

 Unidirectional or reversible air - flow applications;
 Exhaust applications where airborne particulate size is small, such as dust streams, smoke
and steam.

Disadvantages

 Axial fans have undesirable characteristics that cause problems in situations where the air
flow must vary considerably, these fans have a stall region in the lower airflow range that
makes them unsuitable for systems operating under widely varying air flow conditions.
 There are anti - stall devices available that can be installed to alter the airflow patterns
around the fan blades and virtually eliminate the problem of stall.
 The problem of stall can be avoided by selecting a fan type with a stable fan operation
over the entire range of airflow and pressure.
 To achieve the same airflow capacity as centrifugal fans, axial fans must rotate at a
higher reason, axial fans are generally noisier than comparable centrifugal fans
 Access to the motor is restricted by the location of the blades and supports.

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There are three types of axial fans;

 Propeller Fans
Applications
o Often used in roof tap ventilation applications

 Tube axial (Duct) fans

Applications
o well - suited for ducted HVAC installations
o ventilation applications

 Vane axial fans

Applications
o typically used in medium to high pressure - to high pressure applications, such as
induced draft service for a boiler exhaust
o low rotating mass, which allows then to achieve operating speed relatively
quickly
o emergency ventilation
o reversal of air flow direction

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Draft

Draft is defined as the difference between atmospheric pressure and the static pressure of
combustion gases in a furnace, gas passage, flue or stack.

Draft Applications

Draft is classified into natural and mechanical fans. Mechanical draft is partially created by the
use of mechanical fans. They may push the air and combustion gases through the boiler, in which
case they are called forced draft fans (F.D. fans).

They may also pull the air and gases through the boiler, in which case they are called induced
draft fans (ID. fans).

When furnace draft is maintained at atmospheric pressure (or just below), by use of a
combination of forced and induced draft fans, the draft is referred to as balanced draft system.

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Forced Draft

One or more fans, creates mechanical draft. The fans are driven by a steam turbine or an electric
motor. An example of a common type of forced draft is one in which a fan delivers air along an
air duct to an enclosed furnace front. To prevent the escape of gases the furnace openings must
be carefully sealed against outward leakage. The casing must be strong enough to withstand the
internal pressure.

Induced Draft

Another method of producing mechanical draft is the induced draft system. This consists of a fan
installed in the flue gas duct between the boiler and stack. This fan pulls the gases through the
boiler and pushes them up the stack. A pressure slightly lower than atmospheric is created in the
boiler. It is important that the boiler casing and openings are sealed to prevent air leaking into the
boiler, which would rapidly lower the capacity and efficiency of the fans. The boiler casings
must be made strong enough to withstand the external pressure of the atmosphere.

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The induced draft fan which is required to provide the same volume of air, is larger than a forced
draft fan due to the following:

• The I.D fan must move a larger mass because the flue gases consist of the mass of fuel as
well as mass of air (one kg of fuel that uses 15 kg of air, for complete combustion,
produces 16 kg of gases)
• The I.D fan must be able to handle any air leakage into the boiler setting.
• The I.D fan must deal with a greater volume of gases since the temperature of the flue gas
is the higher than the air moved by an F.D fan.

4.5 Air Conditioning: introduction to air conditioning; air conditioning units and systems;
installation and maintenance

Air-Conditioning

Air-conditioning is a process that simultaneously conditions air; distributes it combined with the
outdoor air to the conditioned space; and at the same time controls and maintains the required
space’s temperature, humidity, air movement, air cleanliness, sound level, and pressure
differential within predetermined limits for the health and comfort of the occupants, for product
processing, or both. The acronym HVAC&R stands for heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, and
refrigerating. The combination of these processes is equivalent to the functions performed by air-
conditioning

Air-Conditioning Systems

An air-conditioning or HVAC&R system consists of components and equipment arranged in

sequential order to heat or cool, humidify or dehumidify, clean and purify, attenuate
objectionable equipment noise, transport the conditioned outdoor air and recirculate air to the
conditioned space, and control and maintain an indoor or enclosed environment at optimum
energy use.

The types of buildings which the air-conditioning system serves can be classified as:

• Institutional buildings, such as hospitals and nursing homes

• Commercial buildings, such as offices, stores, and shopping centers
• Residential buildings, including single-family and multifamily low-rise buildings of three
or fewer stories above grade
• Manufacturing buildings, which manufacture and store products

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4.5.1 Types of Air-Conditioning Systems
In institutional, commercial, and residential buildings, air-conditioning systems are mainly
for the occupants’ health and comfort. They are often called comfort air-conditioning systems.
In manufacturing buildings, air-conditioning systems are provided for product processing, or
for the health and comfort of workers as well as processing, and are called processing air-
conditioning systems.

Based on their size, construction, and operating characteristics, air-conditioning systems can be
classified as the following:

4.5.1.1 Individual Room or Individual Systems.

An individual air-conditioning system normally employs either a single, self-contained,
packaged room air conditioner (installed in a window or through a wall) or separate indoor and
outdoor units to serve an individual room, as shown in Figure 1 below. “Self contained,
packaged” means factory assembled in one package and ready for use.

Figure 1

4.5.1.2 Space-Conditioning Systems or Space Systems.

These systems have their air-conditioning — cooling, heating and filtration—performed

predominantly in or above the conditioned space, as shown in Figure 2 below. Outdoor air is
supplied by a separate outdoor ventilation system.

4.5.1.3 Unitary Packaged Systems or Packaged Systems.

These systems are installed with either a single self-contained, factory-assembled packaged unit
(PU) or two split units: an indoor air handler, normally with duct work, and an outdoor
condensing unit with refrigeration compressor(s) and condenser, as shown in Figure 3. In a
packaged system, air is cooled mainly by direct expansion of refrigerant in coils called DX coils

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and heated by gas furnace, electric heating, or a heat pump effect, which is the reverse of a
refrigeration cycle.

4.5.1.4 Central Hydronic or Central Systems.

A central system uses chilled water or hot water from a central plant to cool and heat the air at
the coils in an air handling unit (AHU) as shown in Figure 4. For energy transport, the heat
capacity of water is about 3400 times greater than that of air. Central systems are built-up
systems assembled and installed on the site.

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Figure 2

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Figure 3

Packaged systems are comprised of only air system, refrigeration, heating, and control systems.
Both central and space-conditioning systems consist of the following:

4.5.1.4.1 Air Systems.

An air system is also called an air handling system or the air side of an air-conditioning or
HVAC&R system. Its function is to condition the air, distribute it, and control the indoor
environment according to requirements. The primary equipment in an air system is an AHU or
air handler; both of these include fan, coils, filters, dampers, humidifiers (optional), supply and
return ductwork, supply outlets and return inlets, and controls.

4.5.1.4.2 Water Systems.

These systems include chilled water, hot water, and condenser water systems. A water system
consists of pumps, piping work, and accessories. The water system is sometimes called the water
side of a central or space-conditioning system.

4.5.1.4.3 Central Plant Refrigeration and Heating Systems.

The refrigeration system in the central plant of a central system is usually in the form of a chiller
package with an outdoor condensing unit. The refrigeration system is also called the refrigeration
side of a central system. A boiler and accessories make up the heating system in a central plant
for a central system, and a direct-fired gas furnace is often the heating system in the air handler
of a rooftop packaged system.

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4.5.1.4.4 Control Systems.
Control systems usually consist of sensors, a microprocessor-based direct digital controller
(DDC), a control device, control elements, personal computer (PC), and communication
network.

Figure 4a

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Figure 4b

4.5.2 Refrigeration and Refrigeration Systems

Refrigeration is the cooling effect of the process of extracting heat from a lower temperature
heat source, a substance or cooling medium, and transferring it to a higher temperature heat sink,
probably atmospheric air and surface water, to maintain the temperature of the heat source below
that of the surroundings.

A refrigeration system is a combination of components, equipment, and piping, connected in a

sequential order to produce the refrigeration effect. Refrigeration systems that provide cooling
for air conditioning are classified mainly into the following categories:

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1. Vapor compression systems. In these systems, a compressor(s) compresses the refrigerant to
a higher pressure and temperature from an evaporated vapor at low pressure and temperature.
The compressed refrigerant is condensed into liquid form by releasing the latent heat of
condensation to the condenser water. Liquid refrigerant is then throttled to a low-pressure,
low-temperature vapor, producing the refrigeration effect during evaporation. Vapor
compression is often called mechanical refrigeration, that is, refrigeration by mechanical
compression.
2. Absorption systems. In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by means of
thermal energy input. After liquid refrigerant produces refrigeration during evaporation at
very low pressure, the vapor is absorbed by an aqueous absorbent. The solution is heated by a
direct fired gas furnace or waste heat, and the refrigerant is again vaporized and then
condensed into liquid form. The liquid refrigerant is throttled to a very low pressure and is
ready to produce the refrigeration effect again.
3. Gas expansion systems. In an air or other gas expansion system, air or gas is compressed to a
high pressure by compressors. It is then cooled by surface water or atmospheric air and
expanded to a low pressure. Because the temperature of air or gas decreases during
expansion, a refrigeration effect is produced.
Refrigerants, Cooling Mediums, and Absorbents
A refrigerant is a primary working fluid used to produce refrigeration in a refrigeration system.
All refrigerants extract heat at low temperature and low pressure during evaporation and reject
heat at high temperature and pressure during condensation.

A cooling medium is a working fluid cooled by the refrigerant during evaporation to transport
refrigeration from a central plant to remote cooling equipment and terminals. In a large,
centralized air conditioning system, it is more economical to pump the cooling medium to the
remote locations where cooling is required. Chilled water and brine are cooling media. They are
often called secondary refrigerants to distinguish them from the primary refrigerants.

A liquid absorbent is a working fluid used to absorb the vaporized refrigerant (water) after
evaporation in an absorption refrigeration system. The solution that contains the absorbed vapor
is then heated. The refrigerant vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its original concentration
to absorb water vapor again.

Required Properties of Refrigerants

A refrigerant should not cause ozone depletion. A low global warming potential is required.
Additional considerations for refrigerant selection are;

1. Safety, including toxicity and flammability.

2. Effectiveness of refrigeration cycle. High effectiveness of refrigeration cycle is a desired
property. The power consumed per ton of refrigeration produced, hp/ton or kW/ton, is an
index for this assessment.
3. Oil miscibility. Refrigerant should be miscible with mineral lubricant oil because a
mixture of refrigerant and oil helps to lubricate pistons and discharge valves, bearings,
and other moving parts of a compressor. Oil should also be returned from the condenser
and evaporator for continuous.

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 4. Compressor displacement. Compressor displacement per ton of refrigeration produced,
in cfm/ton, directly affects the size of the positive displacement compressor and therefore
its compactness.
5. Desired properties
• Evaporating pressure pev should be higher than atmospheric. Then non
condensable gas will not leak into the system.
• Lower condensing pressure for lighter construction of compressor, condenser,
piping, etc.
• A high thermal conductivity and therefore a high heat transfer coefficient in the
evaporator and condenser.
• Dielectric constant should be compatible with air when the refrigerant is in direct
contact with motor windings in hermetic compressors.
• An inert refrigerant that does not react chemically with material will avoid
corrosion, erosion, or damage to system components. Halocarbons are compatible
with all containment materials except magnesium alloys. Ammonia, in the
presence of moisture, is corrosive to copper and brass.
• Refrigerant leakage can be easily detected. Halide torch, electronic detector, and
bubble detection are often used.

Refrigeration Systems

Refrigeration systems used for air-conditioning can be classified mainly in the following
categories:
 Direct expansion (DX) systems and heat pumps
 Centrifugal chillers
 Screw chillers
 Absorption systems
Each can be either a single-stage or a multistage system.

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