International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Transportation

Science and Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijtst

Ride-hailing app use for same-day delivery services of foods

and groceries during the implementation of social activity
restrictions in Indonesia
Muhammad Zudhy Irawan a,⇑, Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawan b
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
b
School of Business and Management, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung 40132, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigates e-shopping behavior change through ride-hailing applications
Received 4 November 2021 (RHAs) for grocery and food as an alternative way to minimize out-of-home activities dur-
Received in revised form 16 January 2022 ing the pandemic. Exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were
Accepted 15 March 2022
applied, which utilized data collected from a web-based questionnaire survey during the
Available online xxxx
implementation of social activity restrictions in August 2021. The modeling results show
a complementary effect between food and grocery delivery services, where an increase
Keywords:
in food delivery is followed by an increase in grocery delivery, but not vice versa.
Ride-hailing
Grocery
Meanwhile, grocery delivery could substitute in-store grocery shopping. The frequency
Food of food delivery before the pandemic also significantly affects food and grocery deliveries
Delivery during the pandemic. The more individuals avail food delivery services before the pan-
COVID-19 demic, the more they avail grocery delivery services during the pandemic. In contrast,
the less likely people are to avail food delivery services before the pandemic, the more
likely they are to avail food delivery services during the pandemic. The study also found
that RHA use for food delivery is influenced by the latent variable of e-shopping enjoyment,
whereas the latent variable of e-shopping benefits affects RHA use for grocery delivery.
Regarding the socio-demographic effect, females and well-educated people tend to
increase RHA use for grocery delivery, and millennials are more likely to participate in gro-
cery shopping and dining out. The findings provide valuable insights into the suppression
of virus spread in the short term and travel demand management in the medium term.
Ó 2022 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has changed the lifestyle of millions worldwide. Online activities have substan-
tially increased as a substitute for out-of-home activities (Anwari et al., 2021; Fatmi et al., 2021; de Haas et al., 2020; Irawan
et al., 2021b). Such an increase is a result of governments’ implementation of mobilitys restriction policies to suppress the
spread of the virus. Since the advent of COVID-19 in Indonesia on March 2, 2020, the government has implemented various
activity restriction policies (AHK Indonesien, 2021). As shown in Table 1, eight policies were implemented in response to

Peer review under responsibility of Tongji University and Tongji University Press.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zudhyirawan@ugm.ac.id (M.Z. Irawan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2022.03.004
2046-0430/Ó 2022 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Muhammad Zudhy Irawan and Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawan, Ride-hailing app use for same-day delivery ser-
vices of foods and groceries during the implementation of social activity restrictions in Indonesia, International Journal of Transportation
Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtst.2022.03.004
Muhammad Zudhy Irawan and Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawan International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1
Policy implementation in response to COVID-19 in Indonesia.

Policy Period Mandatory activities Shopping activities Social

activities
Large-scale social April 10– 100% work and school from home Shopping centers are closed; supermarkets are open Fully
restriction June 4, 2020 with limited visitors. stopped
(LSSR)
LSSR – Transition June 5– 50% work from home and 100% school Shopping centers are open from 10:00 to 21:00 with Allowed with
September from home 50% of the total capacity; supermarkets are open 50% of the
10, 2020 with limited visitors. total
capacity
Strict LSSR September 75% work from home and 100% school Shopping centers are closed; supermarkets are open Fully
14–October from home with limited visitors, allowing food vendors to open stopped
11, 2020 but for takeaways only.
LSSR – Transition October 12, 50% work from home and 100% school Shopping centers are open from 10:00 to 21:00 with Allowed with
2020– from home 50% of the total capacity; supermarkets are open 50% of the
January 11, with limited visitors. total
2021 capacity
Implementation of January 26– 75% work from home and 100% school Shopping centers and supermarkets are open from Allowed,
restriction on February 8, from home 10:00 to 19:00, and food vendors are allowed to open except from
social activity 2021 with 25% of the total capacity. 21:00 to
(IRSA) 05:00
Micro IRSA February 9– 50% work from home and 100% school Shopping centers and supermarkets are open from Restricted
June 28, from home 10:00 to 21:00 and food vendors are allowed to open
2021 with 50% of the total capacity.
Emergency IRSA July 3–25, 50% work from home for essential Shopping centers are closed, supermarkets are open Restricted
2021 sectors and 100% school from home and from 10:00 to 20:00 with 50% of the total capacity,
work from home for nonessential and food vendors are allowed to open but for
sectors takeaways only.
IRSA July–August 50% work from home for essential Shopping centers are closed, supermarkets are open, Restricted
26, 2021 sectors and 100% school from home and and food vendors are allowed to open for takeaways
work from home for nonessential and indoor dining (but with no more than 20 min
sectors eating inside)

Source: AHK Indonesien (2021).

COVID-19. Large-scale social restriction (LSRR) policies from April 2020 to January 2021 were mainly applied in Greater
Jakarta, the epicenter of COVID-19 in Indonesia. However, the implementation of LSRR policies did not effectively minimize
new COVID-19 cases in Indonesia (Khoirunurrofik et al., 2022; Ritchie et al., 2021). Therefore, since January 26, 2021, the
government expanded its coverage area by implementing activity restriction policies, such as the implementation of restric-
tions on social activities (IRSA), in all Java and Bali island cities.
As shown in Table 1, minimizing in-store grocery shopping and outdoor dining activities are important concerns for the
Indonesian government in its effort to suppress the spread of COVID-19. Irawan et al. (2021b) found that shopping trips and
outdoor dining had the first and third highest trip frequencies respectively, during the beginning of COVID-19 in Indonesia.
Irawan et al. (2020) also found that once the government relaxes the large-scale social activity restriction, 52% and 33% of
people will engage in grocery shopping and outdoor dining activities again respectively, similar to before the advent of
COVID-19. Furthermore, the shopping behavior changes during the pandemic are worthy of investigation due to the
advancement in e-commerce worldwide over the last few decades (Cao et al., 2012; Ding and Lu, 2017; Joewono et al.,
2019; Zhou et al., 2017). Before the advent of COVID-19, studies show that the advancement in e-commerce has substituted
in-store shopping activities for e-shopping. For instance, Shi et al. (2019) found that e-shopping for foods and drinks substi-
tuted shopping trips in Chengdu, China. Consistent with this, Suel et al. (2015) also found that in the United Kingdom, in-
store and online shopping have substitution effects in terms of grocery shopping. However, Xi et al. (2020) found that the
same-day delivery service in Nanjing, China, complements in-store shopping for meals, daily goods, packaged foods, and
fruits and vegetables.
During the pandemic, few studies have investigated the online shopping behavior of groceries and meals (Beck and
Hensher, 2020; Figliozzi and Unnikrishnan, 2021; Habib and Hamadneh, 2021; Silva et al., 2021). However, these studies
did not report whether a shopping behavior change exists from offline to online. Furthermore, although Georgiadou et al.
(2021) reported changes in shopping behavior during the lockdown in Germany, they did not explore the effect of the change
in in-store shopping behavior during the pandemic on online shopping behavior change. They also did not differentiate
between the types of shopping products. Previous studies have shown that online shopping behavior is highly influenced
by product types, such as daily goods, groceries, meals, electronics, and vegetables and fruits (Dias et al., 2020; Figliozzi
and Unnikrishnan, 2021; Xi et al., 2020). Accordingly, this study aims to fill the existing research gap by exploring the factors
influencing the change in online shopping behavior for groceries and foods during the pandemic due to the mobility restric-
tion policy. More importantly, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study on online shopping during the

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pandemic that explores the interconnection between online meals and groceries orders: substitution, complement, or
nothing.
The use of ride-hailing applications (RHAs) for online shopping with same-day delivery services is also a novel contribu-
tion of this study. In Indonesia, ride-hailing not only transports people but also delivers goods and documents (Irawan et al.,
2021a). Choudhury (2019) stated that ride-hailing companies’ profit from delivery services is higher than ride-hailing use as
a means of transport. By using a motorcycle, ride-hailing drivers receive orders from customers through a smartphone appli-
cation and deliver the requested goods, such as groceries and foods, directly to the customer’s doorstep, as soon as possible.
This paper is structured as follows: Section 1 presents an introduction explaining the background and research gaps cov-
ered within this study. Section 2 is a literature review on previous studies on online shopping behaviors during and before
the pandemic. Section 3 introduces a research method that consists of a conceptual framework, survey design, and data col-
lection. Section 4 discusses the results and discussion, describes the sample, analyzes the study findings, and specifies the
study’s contribution to the existing literature. Section 5 presents the conclusions of the results of this study and the proposed
policy implementation, study limitations, and proposals for the next research agenda.

2. Literature review

Several studies have reported the effect of COVID-19 on online grocery and meal shopping. They compared the frequency
of online and offline shopping before and during the pandemic. In European countries such as Germany, the number of
online shopping activities increased during the lockdown (Kolarova et al., 2021; Profeta et al., 2021). For instance, Profeta
et al. (2021) studied the lockdown effect on food consumption, shopping behavior, and eating habits in Germany. They found
that during the lockdown, more food was consumed, and more packaged food was purchased. However, they did not explore
changes in food shopping behavior from offline to online. In contrast, Georgiadou et al. (2021) found that 46.8% of people in
Germany shopped less during the pandemic, and 35% of them had no change in their shopping behavior during the 2020
spring lockdown (April–May 2020). Only 18.2% of them shopped more during the lockdown, especially for food and drug-
store products. They also found that gender played a significant role in shopping frequency during the pandemic. In Zurich,
Switzerland, Li et al. (2021) studied micromobility before and during the lockdown period in 2020. They collected data from
two bike-sharing companies in Zurich to explore the changing patterns due to lockdowns. They also found that the number
of grocery shopping activities increased during the lockdown period.
For the case of the United States during the lockdown period, Figliozzi and Unnikrishnan (2021) examined the impact of
e-commerce attitudes and socioeconomic variables in the greater Portland metropolitan region in May and June 2020. The
variables collected were related to socio-demographic details and home delivery frequency before and during the lockdown.
The findings indicated that the health factor was substantial in deciding the shift from offline to online shopping. Addition-
ally, Hong et al. (2021) studied factors influencing the decision to use online food delivery services in response to the COVID-
19 pandemic in the United States. The first data collection was conducted before the pandemic (June 2019), and the second
was performed in July 2020. One of the variables was the frequency of using food delivery applications (FDAs). Using the
independent t-test, they found a significant difference in FDA usage before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, where
the latter has a higher usage frequency. At the same time, Silva et al. (2021) conducted a study on state-funded university
students in Texas. One of the variables tested was whether the COVID-19 pandemic affected grocery shopping or food-
buying behavior. Of the 502 participants, 474 reported a shift in their shopping behavior. Shopping changes were related
to frequency, shopping time, stores, and food type. Some students reported a decrease in eating outside, whereas others
reported shopping less or a decrease in time spent on grocery shopping. Furthermore, Ferreira Rodrigues et al. (2021) exam-
ined food consumption habits and perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. They found that approximately
56.65% of respondents had reduced offline food-buying behavior, whereas 30.80% frequently ordered food online.
In Asia, Ben Hassen et al. (2020) explored consumer behaviors related to food consumption during the early lockdown
caused by COVID-19 from May to June 2020 in Qatar. The results showed that 35.35% of respondents performed more online
grocery shopping, whereas 29.14% stated that they never order online. Regarding online food delivery, 33.79% of respondents
said that they order fast food online, whereas 29.30% of respondents reported that they order less fast food online. Further-
more, Chen et al. (2021) explored the effect of an indoor dining ban on restaurant avoidance behavior during the pandemic in
Taiwan. The survey was administered online from May to June 2021, when the government had banned restaurant dining.
Although they did not explain any change from restaurant dining to online food delivery, they found that banning dining
indoors positively influenced restaurant avoidance behavior. Additionally, Kumar and Shah (2021) examined the role of
the FDA’s aesthetic factors in evoking emotions to continue using FDAs during the pandemic in India. They found that the
emotions evoked by the applications’ aesthetic factors influenced the continuation of FDA usage during the pandemic.
In Southeast Asian regions, Muangmee et al. (2021) utilized the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology
(UTAUT) model to determine the factors influencing people’s intentions in Bangkok to use FDAs during the pandemic. They
found that the UTAUT factors, including safety, trust, social influence, timeliness, effort expectancy, performance expectancy,
and task technology fit, significantly influenced FDA usage during the pandemic. Meanwhile, Abdullah et al. (2021) examined
the perceptions of food security during the pandemic in Malaysia in May and June 2020. The variables were food security
before and during the implementation of the Movement Control Order (MCO). They found that during the implementation
of the MCO, approximately 80% of respondents bought food through online platforms. However, whether the food they
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ordered was ready-to-eat food or whether the ingredients were purchased from grocery stores was unclear. Interestingly,
some respondents were more attracted to purchasing food via online shopping in the post-COVID period. In Indonesia,
Iriani and Andjarwati (2020) surveyed 100 homemakers in East Java regarding their online shopping decisions during the
early COVID-19 period. The variables used were from technology acceptance model (TAM) proposed by Davis (1989). The
study showed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use significantly influenced online shopping decisions. How-
ever, this study did not present changes in behavior during or before the COVID-19 pandemic.
To the best of our knowledge, studies linking the interrelationship between food and grocery online shopping during the
pandemic remain scarce. Studies investigating online shopping behavior after the pandemic hit more than one and a half
years ago are still limited. Thus, the present study attempts to fill these identified research gaps.

3. Research method

3.1. Conceptual framework

The structural equation model (SEM) was used to analyze the factors affecting the change in RHA use for grocery and food
deliveries during the pandemic and explore the interrelationship between grocery and food deliveries through RHAs. As
shown in Fig. 1, the conceptual framework in this study consists of seven endogenous variables and four exogenous variables
related to socio-demographic factors (gender, age, income, and education). There was also a latent variable of e-shopping
attitudes, which was constructed from the following observed variables: ‘‘e-shopping is fun,” ‘‘e-shopping helps fulfill the
daily needs,” ‘‘the price of grocery goods and foods with e-shopping has not much changed,” ‘‘the delivery cost is affordable,”
‘‘the delivery time of e-shopping is tolerable,” ‘‘e-shopping protects me from disease spread,” ‘‘e-shopping makes it easier for
me to obtain high-quality products,” ‘‘e-shopping is interesting in searching discount vouchers,” and ‘‘e-shopping could help
me choose product variations more.”.
Both endogenous and exogenous variables were chosen by referring to previous studies investigating the factors influenc-
ing groceries, food delivery, and ride-hailing use. For example, the socio-demographic characteristics of age, gender, income,
and education were considered as exogenous variables in the proposed model because a study in the United States shows
that those variables have a significant impact on grocery shopping either online or offline (Saphores and Xu, 2021). Another
example is a study in New York City showing that age and income significantly affect grocery and food delivery (Kim and
Wang, 2021). Meanwhile, the involvement of the variable of activity frequency before the pandemic in the proposed model
considered a study conducted by Irawan et al. (2021b), which revealed that the frequency of shopping and eating outside
activity engagement before the pandemic significantly influence participation in these activities during the pandemic in
Indonesian cities.
All endogenous and exogenous variables of income and education were treated as categorical variables, while the exoge-
nous variables of gender and age were treated as binary variables. The variable categorization was based on previous studies.

Fig. 1. Proposed modeling framework.

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For example, the age categorization referred to a study on ride-hailing use in California (Alemi et al., 2018) and e-grocery
shopping in the United States (Saphores and Xu, 2021) defining the age structures into Generation Z and millennials. In-
store and e-shopping change categorization referred to a study on in-store shopping changes after adopting same-day deliv-
ery online in Nanjing, China, defining the change level into five scales from substantially reduced to substantially increased
(Xi et al., 2020). Moreover, income is a categorical variable with the lowest level of 1.5 million IDR per month, referring to the
minimum wage in Yogyakarta (Yogyakarta Central Statistics Agency, 2020).
Concerning the myriad relationships among the endogenous variables, the model framework was proposed as follows:
For the first hypothesis, we assumed that the endogenous variables of the change in grocery shopping activities during
the pandemic influence RHA use for grocery delivery (H1.a). Moreover, the change in outdoor dining activities influences
the use of RHAs for food delivery (H1.b). In the second hypothesis, we assumed that a reciprocal relationship exists between
the change in RHA use for grocery and food deliveries during the pandemic (H2.a and H2.b). We then argued in the third
hypothesis that all online activity changes (i.e., food and grocery deliveries) during the pandemic are influenced by all online
activity engagement frequencies before the pandemic (H3.a to H3.d). We also argued that all online activity changes during
the pandemic are affected by the latent variable of e-shopping attitudes in the following hypothesis (H4.a and H4.b). Finally,
we assumed that the exogenous variables of socio-demographic influence all endogenous variables in the last hypothesis
(H5.a to H5.d).

3.2. Survey design and data collection

This study focused on Generation Z individuals aged 19–24 years and millennials aged 25–40 years. This is because peo-
ple of those ages dominate RHA use in Indonesian cities such as the Jakarta metropolitan area (Irawan et al., 2020) and Ban-
dung (Rizki et al., 2021). Additionally, recorded data show that RHA use for food delivery in Indonesian cities is dominated by
millennials and Generation Z, with 61.4% and 21% using RHAs, respectively (Statista, 2021). Yogyakarta was selected as a case
study for two main reasons. First, millennials and Generation Z slightly dominate this city, making up 23.42% and 22.76% of
the population, respectively. Yogyakarta has approximately 373,589 people spread over nearly 32.5 km2 of its land area
(Statistics Indonesia, 2021). Second, during the study period, Yogyakarta was among the four cities with the highest spread
of COVID-19 in Indonesia (World Health Organization, 2021).
The online survey in this study was conducted during the implementation of IRSA in August 2021. It considers govern-
ment policies that rapidly change in dealing with COVID-19, which are predicted to affect online shopping behavior for gro-
ceries and foods. We distributed the questionnaire randomly via WhatsApp, Facebook, and emails. We asked our friends and
colleagues to help spread the online questionnaire. This data collection method is the dominant approach for studies con-
ducted during the pandemic. The data collection was limited to respondents aged between 19 and 40 years. We also asked
four trap questions (Liu and Wronski, 2018) to ensure that the respondents paid attention to the questionnaire. One question
was related to the number of wheels that motorcycle-based ride-hailing vehicles used. Those who did not answer ‘‘two-
wheel” were removed as respondents.
Of the 544 participants, 412 valid responses were obtained. In the first section of the survey, we asked questions on the
changes in grocery shopping behavior at stores and dining-out activities during the pandemic on a five-point scale from 2
for substantially reduced to 2 for substantially increased. Using the same scale, we asked the respondents to identify their
change in RHA use for food and grocery deliveries during the pandemic. In the second section, we asked respondents to state
how often they used RHAs for food and grocery deliveries before the pandemic on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to
5 (frequently). Next, the respondents were asked about their agreement on e-shopping attitudes during the pandemic, con-
sisting of nine statements on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The survey was
closed with a list of questions regarding socio-demographics, such as gender, age, income, and education.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Descriptive data analysis

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of the respondents in this study. Nearly 60% of the respondents are men. Mean-
while, 57.8% of respondents are between 25 and 40 years old (i.e., millennials). The sample distribution of respondents
related to gender and age differs from the Yogyakarta population. The Yogyakarta Central Statistics Agency (2020) shows
that 50.07% of people aged 19–40 years are male and 70.13% are millennials. However, given that the study’s objective is
to explore the effect of in-store shopping on online shopping and to find the interrelationship between online groceries
and meals during the pandemic, the skew in the sample could be negligible.
The majority of the respondents are from low-income groups, with 43.2% of the respondents having an income of less
than 1.5 million IDR per month and 21.1% with an average income of 1.5–3 million IDR per month. Furthermore, there is
a significant difference between the frequency of RHA use for food and grocery deliveries before the pandemic. Approxi-
mately 55.3% of respondents frequently order food through RHAs. In contrast, only 0.5% of them frequently order groceries
through RHAs. Most respondents (58.3%) have never used RHAs for grocery delivery before the pandemic.
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Table 2
Descriptive statistics.

Variable Description Frequency Percent

Gender 0: Females 168 40.8%
1: Males 244 59.2%
Age 0: Gen Z (19–24 years old) 174 42.2%
1: Millennials (25–40 years old) 238 57.8%
Income (IDR*) 1: Less than 1.5 million IDR/month 178 43.2%
2: 1.5–3 million IDR/month 87 21.1%
3: 3–5 million IDR/month 67 16.3%
4: More than 5 million IDR/month 80 19.4%
Education 1: Under bachelor degree 144 35.0%
2: Bachelor degree 238 57.8%
3: Master degree or higher 30 7.2%
Frequency of RHA use for food delivery before the pandemic 1: Never 2 0.5%
2: Very rarely 4 1.0%
3: Rarely 54 13.1%
4: Occasionally 124 30.1%
5: Frequently 228 55.3%
Frequency of RHA use for grocery delivery before the pandemic 1: Never 240 58.3%
2: Very rarely 112 27.2%
3: Rarely 46 11.2%
4: Occasionally 12 2.9%
5: Frequently 2 0.5%
*
1 USD equals to IDR 14,318 (October, 2021).

Fig. 2. Change in shopping activities and RHA use for groceries and meals during the pandemic.

Fig. 2 shows the changes in grocery and meal shopping activities and RHA use for grocery and food deliveries during the
pandemic. Most respondents reduce their in-store groceries and meal shopping during the pandemic. The change in the in-
store shopping frequency for foods is higher than that for groceries. However, 25.24% and 20.63% of respondents do not
change their shopping frequency for groceries and meals during the pandemic, respectively. In contrast, the use of RHA
for online shopping on food increases by 62.38%. Meanwhile, although more than 40% of respondents have increased RHA
use for grocery delivery, 56.55% of respondents have not changed their shopping frequency for this product during the
pandemic.
Fig. 3 shows the percentage distribution of e-shopping attitudes. The majority of the respondents agree with the nine
questions related to e-shopping attitudes during the pandemic. More than 30% of the respondents strongly agree that e-
shopping helps fulfill their daily needs, and e-shopping is interesting in searching discount vouchers. In contrast, although
the majority of respondents agree that e-shopping is fun and product price has not changed much, 22.82% and 26.21% of the
respondents disagree with the two statements, respectively.

4.2. Exploratory factor analysis

We applied exploratory factor analysis (EFA) as the modeling framework of this study, shown in Fig. 1, involves a latent
variable of e-shopping attitudes during the pandemic. The purpose of the EFA was to construct the structure of the potential
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Fig. 3. Perceptions of food and grocery deliveries in RHAs.

underlying latent variables. EFA was performed using SPSS v.15.0. We used the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test to measure
data adequacy. In the initial model involving nine observed variables, the model results show that the three observed vari-
ables of e-shopping attitudes, i.e., ‘‘price of grocery goods and foods with e-shopping have not much changed,” ‘‘delivery cost
is affordable,” and ‘‘delivery time of e-shopping is tolerable,” had loading values less than 0.5. Hence, these three factors were
excluded from the analysis (Hair et al., 2010).
A second EFA analysis was then conducted on the remaining six observed variables. Accordingly, two latent variables
were obtained, with the loading values of all observed variables being higher than the cutoff values of 0.5. The first latent
variable was labeled as ‘‘enjoyment of e-shopping,” while the second latent variable was labeled as ‘‘the benefit of e-
shopping.” Each latent variable consisted of three observed variables. Table 3 presents the results of the second EFA model.
The second EFA model produced a KMO value of 0.791 (higher than the minimum acceptable value of 0.6), indicating that the
data are acceptable for EFA.

4.3. Structural model analysis

After constructing the latent variables, we used SEM to test the formulated hypotheses in Fig. 1. Table 4 presents the SEM
model results. Based on the goodness of fit of the SEM output, the model performed reasonably well. The chi-square value/df
was 2.612, which was less than 3, indicating that it met the fit criteria requirements. The root mean square error of approx-
imation was 0.063, where a value between 0.05 and 0.08 indicates a reasonable fit. The goodness-of-fit index was 0.937,
which is higher than the cutoff value of 0.9 and represents a good fit. Hoelter’s critical N was 215, which indicates a
satisfactory fit, where a value under 75 is unacceptable.

Table 3
Model results of EFA.

During the pandemic. . . Enjoyment of e-shopping Benefits of e-shopping

E-shopping is fun. 0.776
E-shopping helps fulfill daily needs. 0.601
E-shopping protects me from disease spread. 0.818
E-shopping makes it easier for me to obtain high-quality products. 0.849
E-shopping is interesting in searching discount vouchers. 0.648
E-shopping could help me to choose product variations more. 0.747

Extraction method: principal component analysis; rotation method: varimax with Kaiser normalization; loadings less than 0.5 were excluded.

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Table 4
SEM results.

Change in RHA use Change in RHA use Change in Change in grocery Freq. of RHA use Freq. of RHA use for e-shopping e-
for food delivery* for grocery delivery* dining-out shopping activities* for food delivery** grocery delivery** enjoyment shopping
activities* benefits
Endogenous variables
Change in RHA use for food delivery* 1.39 (0.009)
Change in RHA use for grocery delivery* insig.
Change in dining-out activities* 0.119 (0.006)
Change in grocery shopping activities* 0.125 (0.028)
Freq. of RHA use for food delivery** 0.126 (0.009) 0.349 (0.002)
Freq. of RHA use for grocery delivery** insig. insig.
e-shopping enjoyment 0.111 (0.025) insig.
8

e-shopping benefits insig. 0.091 (0.095)

International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Exogenous variables
Gender (male) insig. 0.106 (0.033) insig. insig. 0.155 (0.002) 0.107 (0.024) 0.14 insig.
(0.017)
Age (millennial) insig. insig. 0.118 (0.016) 0.217 (0.000) insig. insig. insig. insig.
Income insig. insig. insig. insig. insig. insig. insig. 0.140
(0.015)
Education insig. 0.093 (0.045) insig. insig. insig. insig. insig. insig.

Values in parentheses are the p-values; empty cells mean that the variables were not considered in the initial model; insig. means that the variables were included in the initial model but excluded from the final
model as their significance values are higher than 10%; * and ** indicate that activities were carried out during and before the pandemic, respectively.
Muhammad Zudhy Irawan and Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawan International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

For the first hypothesis (i.e., the effect of the change in shopping activities during the pandemic on RHA use for delivery
services), the model results show a negative impact of the change in grocery shopping activities on the change in RHA use for
grocery delivery (H1.a). Hence, individuals who reduce their in-store shopping activities tend to increase RHA use for grocery
delivery. Accordingly, it could also be said that RHA use for grocery delivery could replace grocery shopping activities during
the pandemic. The substitution effect between online and offline grocery shopping also occurred outside the pandemic, as
discussed in previous studies (Dias et al., 2020; Suel et al., 2015). In contrast, a significant effect of the changes in outdoor
dining activities on RHA use for food delivery during the pandemic was positive (H1.b). The results show that individuals
who reduce their activities for eating outside are more likely to decrease their frequency of ordering foods through RHAs.
This finding makes sense because individuals look for other kinds of satisfaction when they decide to eat outside. A study
by Kim and Wang (2021) also revealed that food delivery did not replace but complemented trips to restaurants in New York
City. They found that the more individuals go to restaurants, the more likely they are to avail food delivery.
The following hypothesis reveals that during the pandemic, the change in RHA use for food delivery positively affected
the change in RHA use for grocery delivery (H2.b). This implies that the more people use RHA for food delivery, the more
they use RHA for grocery delivery. This finding is consistent with the findings of Dias et al. (2020), who showed that increas-
ing online groceries could increase online meals among people living in the Puget Sound region. However, this study also
found that the change in RHA use for grocery delivery did not significantly influence the change in RHA use for food delivery
(H2.a).
Interesting findings are also shown in the third and fourth hypotheses. The use of RHA for food delivery during the pan-
demic has increased among people who are less likely to order food via RHAs before the pandemic, as the model results
showed a negative value of the effect of the frequency of RHA use for food before the pandemic on the change in RHA
use for food delivery during the pandemic (H3.a). By contrast, indicated by a positive sign, those who are more likely to
use RHAs to order foods before the pandemic are more likely to use RHAs for grocery delivery during the pandemic (H3.
b). Meanwhile, the frequency of RHA use for grocery delivery before the pandemic did not significantly correlate with
RHA use for food and grocery deliveries (H3.c and H3.d). Additionally, e-shopping attitudes affected changes in RHA use dur-
ing the pandemic in the next hypothesis. For the path diagram of H4.a, individuals who perceive enjoyment of e-shopping are
more likely to increase RHA use for food delivery, but not for grocery delivery. In contrast, the path diagram of H4.b reveals
that individuals who perceive the benefits of e-shopping as an alternative way of in-store shopping activities are more likely
to increase RHA use for grocery delivery, but not for food delivery. The above findings are reasonable because ordering gro-
ceries during the pandemic has become an immediate need, including fulfilling daily needs and finding the quality of the
desired product. Meanwhile, ordering food tends to be more enjoyable, including fun, searching for a discount, and when
individuals want a variety of ready-to-eat foods.
For the last hypothesis, the exogenous socio-demographic variables were also significantly correlated with some endoge-
nous variables. For gender (H5.a), the model result shows that this factor negatively affected the change in RHA use for gro-
cery delivery. This finding indicates that women are more likely to increase their RHA use for grocery delivery during the
pandemic. Saphores and Xu (2021) also found a similar result, showing that outside the pandemic, women in the United
States are more likely to participate in e-grocery delivery. Meanwhile, although gender has no impact on changes in RHA
use for food delivery during the pandemic, the model results show that women are also more likely to use RHA for food
and grocery deliveries than men before the pandemic. Additionally, considering the influence of gender on the latent vari-
ables of e-shopping attitudes during the pandemic, it has a significant and negative interaction with the latent variables of
enjoyment of e-shopping. This indicates that women enjoyed e-shopping more during the pandemic than men. This finding
is in line with a study on e-grocery shopping using autonomous delivery vehicles in Germany, where women feel more fun
engaging in grocery e-shopping during the pandemic (Kapser et al., 2021).
With regards to the age factor (H5.b), herein expressed by a positive sign, the model results reveal that millennials tended
to increase their grocery shopping and outdoor dining activities more than Generation Z during the pandemic. However, the
change in RHA use for food and grocery deliveries during the pandemic was not significantly influenced by age. Meanwhile,
the income factor (H5.c) has no significant impact on any endogenous variables, except for e-shopping benefits. This finding
is different from a study conducted by Figliozzi and Unnikrishnan (2021), revealing that wealthier people living in the
greater Portland metropolitan region are more likely to engage in food and grocery e-shopping during the lockdown period
of COVID-19. The significant effect of income on e-shopping benefits, shown by a negative sign, implies that wealthier people
are less likely to perceive more benefits from e-shopping during the pandemic. Furthermore, education (H5.d) significantly
affected the changes in RHA use for grocery delivery during the pandemic. A positive sign indicates that well-educated peo-
ple are more likely to increase RHA use for grocery delivery services. This finding is different from a study conducted outside
the pandemic, which found that education level did not affect e-grocery shopping activity engagement in the United States
(Saphores and Xu, 2021).

5. Conclusions

This study is the first to explore how the pandemic has changed the shopping pattern and RHA use for delivery services in
Yogyakarta, a city that witnessed explosive growth in COVID-19 cases in Indonesia. The study found that COVID-19 signif-
icantly reduced participation in outdoor dining and grocery shopping activities by 69.42% and 65.53%, respectively. Conse-
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Muhammad Zudhy Irawan and Prawira Fajarindra Belgiawan International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

quently, the use of RHA for food and groceries delivery increased by 62.38% and 41.75%, respectively. The model results
reveal that, during the pandemic, RHA use for grocery delivery could substitute grocery shopping activities. The results also
show that the increase in RHA use for food delivery affects the increase in RHA use for grocery delivery, but not vice versa.
Furthermore, the activity restriction policy due to COVID-19 has generated a new demand for RHA for food and grocery
deliveries, especially among individuals who have used RHA for food delivery before the pandemic. The model results reveal
that individuals who use RHA less often for food delivery before the pandemic are more likely to use RHA for food delivery
during the pandemic. Meanwhile, individuals who use RHA more often for food delivery before the pandemic are more likely
to use RHA for grocery delivery during the pandemic.
The study findings led to recommendations aimed at reducing outdoor dining and grocery shopping activity participation
as a means to suppress the virus spread and induce e-shopping through RHA as part of travel demand management.
Sutherland et al. (2021) suggest that to reduce the spread of COVID-19, people need to reduce the number and duration
of shopping visits and encourage delivery services. In addition, Deforche et al. (2021) revealed that individuals who spend
their time in densely populated indoor places with low air circulation, such as restaurants and malls, have a higher potential
for contracting COVID-19. Meanwhile, RHA drivers in Indonesian cities have implemented a full health protocol to deliver
goods and foods to reduce the spread of COVID-19 (Aprilianti and Amanta, 2020). First, because the study found that RHA
use for grocery delivery could replace the shopping activity participation during the IRSA, the government needs to support
the use of RHA for grocery delivery, especially during the relaxation of the IRSA policy. Although an increase in RHA use for
grocery delivery during the pandemic was not as high as food delivery, the model results also show that the IRSA has gen-
erated new customers of grocery e-shopping. The policy proposed in this paper is crucial because Irawan et al. (2020) found
that if the Indonesian government revokes the activity participation restriction policy, 52% and 18% of the society intend to
participate in grocery shopping activities at the same level and an increased level than before the advent of COVID-19,
respectively. The government can also help promote RHA as a safe and innovative delivery solution. Second, as the study
found that the latent variable of enjoyment e-shopping (consisting of the observed variable of e-shopping is fun, interesting
for discount vouchers, and helping to choose product variations more) positively influenced RHA use for food delivery, pro-
viding more food variations and discount vouchers could increase the use of RHAs for food delivery. Therefore, the govern-
ment needs to support the partnership between ride-hailing companies and food vendors and regulate the maximum charge
and delivery fees. Recently, besides the burden of the delivery fee, food sold online through RHA is 20% more expensive than
food sold in stores as a charge fee from food vendors to ride-hailing companies (Iskandar, 2021).
Although we obtained some interesting findings, some improvements are needed. First, the sample distribution was
insufficient to represent the current study population. Therefore, data collection for future research must consider demo-
graphic quotas, such as gender, age, and income. Second, the differences across various grocery products can be investigated
further to obtain a more realistic relationship between in-store and online shopping. Including other variables such as dura-
tion of smartphone Internet access and household shopping responsibility could also provide further insights into the factors
determining the shopping behavior change during the pandemic. Finally, the geographical context should be considered.
Future studies need to expand the study area to other Indonesian cities to investigate cultural variances in changing online
meals and grocery shopping during the pandemic.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
influenced the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada.

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