NORMAL ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Upper respiratory System

a. Nasal cavity- It is divided into two sections called nasal
passages. Air moves through these passages during breathing. The nasal passages filter and warm the air, and
make it moist before it goes into the lungs.
b. Pharynx- is a concave shaped musculofascial passage connecting the oral and nasal cavities in the head
to the larynx and esophagus in the neck. The pharyngeal cavity is a common pathway for air and food. 
c. Larynx- is the area that connects the throat to the windpipe (trachea). It also keeps food and drink out of the
windpipe

2. Lower Respiratory System

a.Trachea- Also known as the windpipe It constitutes the
main airway for the body and comprises hard cartilage
which stiffens and prevents the pipe from collapsing in on
itself.
b. Bronchi and Bronchioles-Each bronchus is divided
into smaller branches that further divide into smaller
branches that in turn split into tunnels called the
bronchioles. The bronchioles repeatedly branch before it
concludes as small air pockets which contain the alveoli.
Bronchioles are conducting airways (diameter ranges
from 3 to less than a millimetre)

c. Lungs- The lungs are a pair of cone-shaped organs made up of spongy, pinkish-gray tissue. The main
function of the lungs is the process of gas exchange called respiration (or breathing). In respiration, oxygen
from incoming air enters the blood, and carbon dioxide, a waste gas from the metabolism, leaves the blood. A
reduced lung function means that the ability of lungs to exchange gases is reduced.
d. Diaphragm- it contracts during inhalation and pulls down. At the time of exhalation, the diaphragm and the
intercostals relax. The diaphragm moves upward and the ribs move in and down, forcing air out of the lungs.
One full cycle of inhalation and exhalation is one breath.

e. alveoli – is responsible for the spongy nature of the lung. The alveoli are surrounded by tiny blood vessels
referred to as capillaries. Oxygen in the inhaled air moves through the fine alveolar walls into the capillaries.
The blood vessels then distribute the oxygen to the body.

NORMAL ANATOMY OF THE HEART

3. Heart
a. Heart walls- are the muscles that contract (squeeze) and relax to send blood throughout your body. A
layer of muscular tissue called the septum and divides the heart walls into the left and right sides. The
heart walls have three layers which are the following

 Endocardium- inner layer

 Myocardium- muscular middle layer
 Epicardium- protective outer layer

The epicardium is one layer of the pericardium.

The pericardium is a protective sac that covers
the entire heart. It produces fluid to lubricate the
heart and keep it from rubbing against other organs.

b. Heart chambers- the heart is divided into four chambers. There are two chambers on the top (atrium and
plural atria) and two on the bottom (ventricles) one on each side of the heart.
 Right atrium- two large veins deliver oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium. The superior vena cava
carries blood from the upper body. The inferior vena cava brings blood from the lower body. Then
the right atrium pumps the blood to the right ventricle.
 Right ventricle- the lowlefter right chamber pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through
pulmonary artery. The lungs reload blood with oxygen.
 Left atrium- after the lungs fill blood with oxygen, the pulmonary veins carry the blood to the left
atrium. This upper chamber pumps the blood to the left ventricle.
 Left ventricle- the left ventricle is slightly larger than the right. It pumps oxygen-rich blood to the
rest of the body.

c. Heart valves- the heart valves are like doors between the heart chambers. They open and close to allow
blood flow through. The atrioventricular (AV) valves open between the upper and lower heart chambers.
They include the following:
 Tricuspid valve- door between the right atrium and right ventricle
 Mitral valve- door between the left atrium and left ventricle
Semilunar (SL) valves open when blood flows out of the ventricles. They include the following:
 Aortic valve- opens when blood flows out of the left ventricle to the aorta (artery that carries
oxygen-rich blood to the body)
 Pulmonary valve- opens when blood flows from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries (the
only arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood to the lungs)

d. Blood vessels- the heart pumps blood through three types of blood vessels:
 Arteries- carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the body tissues. The exception is the
pulmonary arteries which goes to the lungs.
 Veins- carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
 Capillaries- small blood vessels where the body exchanges oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.
The heart receives nutrients through a network of coronary arteries. These arteries run along the hearts
surface. They serve the heart itself.
 Left coronary artery- divides into two branches (the circumflex artery and the left anterior
descending artery)
 Circumflex artery- supplies blood to the left atrium and the side and back of the left ventricle.
 Left anterior descending artery (LAD)- supplies blood to the front and bottom of the left
ventricle and the front of the septum.
 Right coronary artery (RCA)- supplies blood to the right atrium, right ventricle, bottom portion
of the left ventricle and back of the septum.

NORMAL ANATOMY OF THE GI TRACT

4. Upper GI tract
a. Mouth- mechanical breakdown, mixing with
salivary secretions
b. Salivary glands- secretion of lubricating fluid
that contains enzymes that initiate digestion
c. Pharynx- propel food into esophagus
d. Esophagus- transport of food into the stomach
e. Stomach- chemical breakdown of food by acid and
enzymes; mechanical breakdown via
muscular contractions.
f. Liver- secretion of bile (which is important for lipid digestion),
storage of nutrients, production of cellular fuels,
plasma proteins, clotting factors and detoxification and phagocytosis.
g. Pancreas- secretion of buffers and digestive enzymes by
exocrine cells; secretion of hormones by endocrine
cells to regulate digestion
h. Gallbladder- storage and concentration of bile
i. Small intestine- the muscles of the small intestine mix food with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver and intestine and push the mixture forward for further digestion. The walls of the
small intestine absorb water and the digested nutrients into the bloodstream. As peristalsis
continues, the waste products of the digestive process move into the large intestine.
5. Lower GI tract
a. Large intestine- waste products from the digestive process include undigested parts of food,
fluid, and older cells from the lining of the GI tract. The large intestine absorbs water and
changes the waste from liquid into stool. Peristalsis helps move the stool into the rectum.
b. Rectum/anus- the lower end of the large intestine, the rectum, stores stool until it pushes stool
out of the anus during bowel movement.