The Chemical Level of Organization
CHAPTER 2
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Atoms – are the smallest units of matter, they
consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
 An element consists entirely of atoms
with the same number of protons.
 Within an atom, an electron cloud
surround the nucleus.
 The atom is mass of an Atom is equal to
the total number of protons and
neutron in its nucleus.
 Isotopes are atoms of the same
element whose nuclei contain different
number of neutrons.
 The atomic weight of an element takes
time into account the abundance of its
various isotopes.
 Electrons occupy a series of electron
shells around the nucleus.
 The number of electrons in the outer
shell determine an atom’s chemical
properties.


CHEMICAL BONDS AND CHEMICAL
COMPOUNDS
 An ionic bond results from the
attraction between ions: atoms that
have gained or lost electrons.
 Cations are positively charged
 Anions are negatively charged
 Atoms can combine to form a molecule
 Combinations of atoms of different
elements form a compound
 Some atoms share electrons to form a
molecule held together by covalent
bonds.
COVALENT BOND
 Sharing one pair of electron creates a
single covalent bond
 Sharing two pairs forms a double
covalent bond.
 Unequal sharing of electrons creates a
polar covalent bond.

HYDROGEN BOND
 A hydrogen bond is the attractions
between a hydrogen atom with slight
positive charge and a negatively
charged atom in another molecule or
within the same molecule
 Hydrogen bond can affect the shape
and properties of molecules
 Chemical notation allows us to describe
reactions between reactant that
generate between reactant that
generate one or more products.
CHEMICAL
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
NOTATION
 Metabolisms refers to all the chemical
reaction in the body. Our cells capture,
store and use energy to maintain
homeostasis and support essential
functions.
BASIC ENERGY CONCEPTS
 Work involves movement of an object
or a change in its physical structure.
Energy – is the capacity to perform work.
Two major types of energy:
1. Kinetic Energy
2. Potential Energy
Kinetic energy – is the energy of motion.
Potential energy – is stored energy that results
from the position or structure of an object.
 Conversations from potential to kinetic
energy are not 100 % efficient.
 Every energy exchange produces heat.
TYPES OF REACTIONS
 A chemical reaction may be classified
as :
 Decomposition
 Synthesis
 Exchange
Exergonic reaction release heat
Endergonic reactions absorb heat
 Cells gain energy to power their
functions by catabolism : the
breakdown of complex molecules
 Much of this energy supports
anabolism,the synthesis of new organic
molecules.
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
 Reversible reactions consist of
simultaneous synthesis and
decomposition reactions.
 At equilibrium the rates of these two
opposing reactions are in balance.
ACIDS AND BASES
 A acid releases hydrogen ions
 A base removes hydrogen ions from a
solution
pH

 The pH of a solution indicates the
concentration of hydrogen ions it
contains.
 Solutions can be classified as neutral
( pH of <7 ) acidic ( > 7 ) on the basis of
pH
 Buffers maintain pH within normal
limits ( 7.35-7.45 in most body fluids )by
releasing or absorbing hydrogen ions.
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Nutrients and metabolites can be
broadly classified as organic or
inorganic compounds
 Living cells in the body generate carbon
dioxide and consume oxygen.
WATER AND IT PROPERTIES
 Inorganic acids found in the body
include hydrochloric acid acid and
phosphoric acid.
 Sodium hydroxide is an inorganic base
that may form within the body.
SALTS
Salt – is an ionic compound whose cation is not
H+ and whose anion is not OH+
 Salts are electrolytes , compound that
dissociate in water and conduct an
electrical current.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Organic compounds contain carbon and
hydrogen , and usually oxygen as well.
 Large and complex organic molecules

 Water is the most important inorganic

include carbohydrates , lipids proteins

and nucleic acids.

CARBOHYDRATES

component of the body  Carbohydrates are most important as

 Water is an excellent solvent , has a an energy source for metabolic process
high heat capacity , and participates in Three major types are monosaccharides
the metabolic reactions of the body. ( simple sugars ) disaccharides and
 Many organic compounds will undergo polysaccharides
ionization , or dissociation in water to
form ion A . the straight
chain formula for
glucose

B. The ring form

that is most
common in nature

An abbreviated
diagram of the ring
form,

INORGANIC ACIDS AND BASES

 PROTEINS
LIPIDS  Proteins perform a great variety of
function in the body.
 Important types of protein include
structural proteins , contractile
proteins ,transport proteins , enzymes ,
hormones and antibodies.
 Proteins are chains of amino acids
 Lipids are water – insoluble molecules linked by peptide bonds.
that  The sequence of amino acids and the
include interactions of their R groups influence
fats, oils , the final shape of the protein
and waxes. molecules.

Four important  The shape of the protein determines its

classes of lipids: function.
1. fatty acids  Each function works best at an optimal
2. fats combination of temperature and pH
3. steroids
4.
phospholipids.
Activation energy - is the amount of energy
 Triglycerides ( fats ) consists of three required to start a reaction.
fatty acid molecules attached to a Proteins called enzymes control many chemical
molecule of glycerol reaction within our bodies.
Cholesterol – is a precursor of steroid Enzymes are catalysis --- substances that
hormones and is a component of cell accelerate chemical reaction without
membranes themselves being permanently changed.

Phospholipids are
the most abundant
components of cell
membranes.
  Nucleic acids store and process
information at the molecular level.
Two kinds of nucleic acids
1. DNA
2. RNA
 The reactants in an enzymatic reaction ,
called substrates , interact to form a  Nucleic acids are chains of nucleotides
product by bonding to the enzyme at  Each nucleotide contains a sugar, a
the phosphate group and a nitrogen base.
active
site.

 The sugar is always ribose or

NUCLEIC ACIDS
deoxyribose
 The nitrogenous bases found in DNA
are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
thymine. In RNA uracil replaces
thymine.

 Cells store energy in high – energy

compounds.
 The most important high- energy
compound is ATP
 When energy is available , cells make
ATP by adding a phosphate group to
ADP

The Cellular Level of O

CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION

Cell - is the basic, living, structural, and

functional unit of the body.
Cytology - is the study of cell structure
Cell Physiology - is the study of cell function.

PARTS OF THE CELL

 A generalized view of the cell is a

composite of many different cells in the
body (Figure 3.1.)
  No single cell includes all of the features
seen in the generalized cell.
The cell can be divided into three principal
parts for ease of study.
1. Plasma (cell) membrane
2. Cytoplasm
o Cytosol
o Organelles (except for the
nucleus)
3. Nucleus
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
 The plasma membrane is a flexible,
sturdy barrier that surrounds and
contains the cytoplasm of the cell.
 The fluid mosaic model describes its
structure (Figure 3.2).
---- The membrane consists of
proteins in a sea of lipids.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Flexible but sturdy barrier that
surround cytoplasm of cell
 Fluid mosaic model describes its
structure
- “sea of lipids in which
proteins float like icebergs”
- membrane is 50 % lipid & 50
% protein
held together by hydrogen
bonds
- lipid is barrier to entry or exit
of polar substances
- proteins are “gatekeepers” --
regulate traffic
 50 lipid molecules for each protein
molecule
The Lipid Bilayer
The lipid bilayer is the basic framework of the
plasma membrane and is made up of three
types of lipid molecules: phospholipids,
cholesterol, and glycolipids.
Lipid Bilayer of the Cell Membrane
• Two back-to-back layers of 3 types of
lipid molecules
• Cholesterol and glycolipids scattered
among a double row of phospholipid
molecules
The bilayer arrangement occurs because
the lipids are amphipathic molecules. They have
both polar (charged) and nonpolar (uncharged)
parts with the polar “head” of the phospholipid
pointing out and the nonpolar “tail” pointing
toward the center of the membrane.
Cholesterol molecules are weakly
amphiphotic and are interspersed among other
lipids.
 Glycolipids appear only in the
membrane layer which faces the extracellular
fluid.
Phospholipids
• Comprises 75% of lipids
• Phospholipid bilayer = 2 parallel layers
of molecules
• Each molecule is amphipathic (has both
a polar & nonpolar region)
– polar parts (heads) are
hydophilic and face on both
surfaces a watery environment
– nonpolar parts (tails) are
hydrophobic and line up next to
each other in the interior
Cholesterol within the Cell Membrane
• Comprises 20% of cell membrane lipids
• Interspersed among the other lipids in
both layers
• Stiff steroid rings & hydrocarbon tail are
nonpolar and hide in the middle of the
cell membrane
Glycolipids within the Cell Membrane
• Comprises 5% of the lipids of the cell
membrane
• Carbohydrate groups form a polar head
only on the side of the membrane
facing the extracellular fluid
Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
• The membrane proteins are divided
into integral and peripheral proteins.
• Integral proteins extend into or across
the entire lipid bilayer among the fatty
acid tails of the phospholipid molecules.
• Peripheral proteins are found at the
inner or outer surface of the membrane
and can be stripped away from the
membrane without disturbing
membrane integrity.
Membrane Proteins
INTEGRAL PROTEINS
• Integral membrane proteins are
amphipathic.
• Those that stretch across the entire
bilayer and project on both sides of the
membrane are termed transmembrane
proteins.
• Many integral proteins are
glycoproteins.
• The combined glycoproteins and
glycolipids form the glycocalyx which
helps cells recognize one another,
adhere to one another, and be
protected from digestion by enzymes in
the extracellular fluid.
Integral versus Peripheral Proteins

Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Membrane proteins vary in different
cells and functions as channels (pores),
transporters, receptors, enzymes, cell-
identity markers, and linkers (Figure
3.3).
• The different proteins help to
determine many of the functions of the
plasma membrane.
• Formation of Channel
- passageway to allow specific
substance to pass through
• Transporter Proteins
- bind a specific substance,
change their shape & move it
across membrane
• Receptor Proteins
- cellular recognition site -- bind
to substance
• Cell Identity Marker
- allow cell to recognize other
similar cells
• Linker
- anchor proteins in cell
membrane or to other cells
- allow cell movement
- cell shape & structure
• Act as Enzyme
• speed up reactions
INTEGRAL FLUIDITY
• Membranes are fluid structures, rather
like cooking oil, because most of the
membrane lipids and many of the
membrane proteins easily move in the
bilayer.
• Membrane lipids and proteins are
mobile in their own half of the bilayer.
• Cholesterol serves to stabilize the
membrane and reduce membrane
fluidity.
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
• Plasma membranes are selectively
permeable.
– Some things can pass through
and others cannot.
• The lipid bilayer portion of the
membrane is permeable to small,
nonpolar, uncharged molecules but
impermeable to ions and charged or
polar molecules.
• The membrane is also permeable to
water.
• Transmembrane proteins that act as
channels or transporters increase the
permeability of the membrane to
molecules that cannot cross the lipid
bilayer.
• Macromolecules are unable to pass
through the plasma membrane except
by vesicular transport.
Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane
• A concentration gradient is the
difference in the concentration of a
 chemical between one side of the
plasma membrane and the other.
• Oxygen and sodium ions are more
concentrated outside the cell
membrane with carbon dioxide and
potassium ions more concentrated
inside the cell membrane (Figure 3.4a).
GRADIENTS ACROSS MEMBRANE
• Concentration gradient
• Electrical gradient
GRADIENTS ACROSS THE MEMBRANE
• The inner surface of the membrane is
more negatively charged and the outer
surface is more positively charged
(Figure 3.4b). This sets up an electrical
gradient, also called the membrane
potential.
• Maintaining the concentration and
electrical gradients are important to the
life of the cell.
• The combined concentration and
electrical gradients are called the
electrochemical gradient.
TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
• Processes to move substances across
the cell
membrane are essential to the life of
the cell.
• Some substances cross the lipid bilayer
while others cross through ion
channels.
• Transport processes that mover
substances across the cell membrane
are either active or passive.
• Three types of passive processes are
• diffusion through the lipid
bilayer
• diffusion through ion channels
• facilitated diffusion
• Active transport requires cellular
energy.
• Materials can also enter or leave the
cell through vesicle transport.
Substances cross membranes by a variety
of processes:
• mediated transport moves
materials with the help of a
transporter protein
• nonmediated transport does
not use a transporter protein
• active transport uses ATP to
drive substances against their
concentration gradients
• passive transport moves
substances down their
concentration gradient with
only their kinetic energy
• vesicular transport move
materials across membranes in
 small vesicles -- either by ammonia can diffuse across the lipid
exocytosis or endocytosis bilayer.
• It is important for gas exchange,
PRINCIPLES OF DIFFUSION

• Diffusion - is the random mixing of

particles that occurs in a solution as a

absorption of some nutrients, and

excretion of some wastes.
Diffusion Through Membrane Channels
result of the kinetic energy of the • Most membrane channels are ion
particles. (Figure 3.6) channels, allowing passage of small,
• Diffusion rate across plasma inorganic ions which are hydrophilic.
membranes is influenced by several • Ion channels are selective and specific
factors: and may be gated or open all the time
– Steepness of the concentration (Figure 3.6).
gradient
– Temperature
– Size or mass of the diffusing
substance
– Surface area
– Diffusion distance.

DIFFUSION

• Crystal of dye placed in a cylinder of

water
• Net diffusion from the higher dye
concentration to the region of lower
dye
• Equilibrium has been reached in the far
right cylinder
OSMOSIS
DIFFUSION THROUGH THE LIPID BILAYER

• Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules such

as respiratory
gases, some
lipids, small
alcohols, and

Osmosis - is the net movement of a solvent
through a selectively permeable membrane, or
in living systems, the movement of water (the
solute) from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration across the
membrane (Figure 3.7).
• In a hypotonic solution, red blood cells
undergo hemolysis (Figure 3.8b).
• In a hypertonic solution, red blood cells
undergo cremation (Figure 3.8c).
• There are important medical uses of
isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic
solutions.

• Water molecules penetrate the

membrane by diffusion through the
lipid bilayer or through aquaporins,
transmembrane proteins that function
as water channels.
• Water moves from an area of lower
solute concentration to an area of
higher solute concentration.
• Osmosis occurs only when the
membrane is permeable to water but
not to certain solutes.
Osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional
to the concentration of the solute particles that Facilitated Diffusion
cannot cross the membrane (Figure 3.7c).
• In facilitated diffusion, a solute binds to
a specific transporter on one side of
the membrane and is released on the
other side after the transporter
undergoes a conformational change.
• Solutes that move across membranes
by facilitated diffusion include glucose,
urea, fructose, galactose, and some
vitamins (Figure 3.6a).
• Rate of movement depends upon
– steepness of concentration
gradient
– number of transporter proteins
TONICITY (transport maximum)

Tonicity - is a measure of a solution’s ability to

change the volume of cells by altering their
water concentration.
• In an isotonic solution, red blood cells
maintain their normal shape (Figure
3.8a).
 substance across a plasma membrane
against its concentration gradient.

Primary Active Transport

The most prevalent primary active transport
mechanism is the sodium ion/potassium ion
• Transport maximum is the upper limit pump (Figure 3.10).
on the rate at which facilitated diffusion – requires 40% of cellular ATP
can occur. If all the transporters are – all cells have 1000s of them
occupied, then the rate of facilitated – maintains low concentration of
diffusion does not increase. Na+
• Glucose enters the cell by facilitated and a high concentration of K+
diffusion (Figure 3.9.) in the cytosol
– operates continually
Facilitated Diffusion of Glucose
Clinical Application:
• Glucose binds to transport Cystic fibrosis - is caused by a defective
protein gene that produces an abnormal chloride
• Transport protein changes ion transported. The disease affects the
shape
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
• Glucose moves across cell
reproductive systems
membrane (but only down
the concentration gradient)
Secondary Active Transport
• Kinase enzyme reduces
glucose concentration inside In secondary active transport, the energy
the cell by transforming stored in the form of a sodium or hydrogen ion
glucose into glucose-6-phosphate concentration gradient is used to drive other
• Transporter proteins always bring substances against their own concentration
glucose into cell gradients.
• Plasma membranes contain several
antiporters and symporters powered by
Active Transport
the sodium ion gradient (Figure 3.11a).
Active transport - is an energy-requiring Digitalis
process that moves solutes such as ions, amino
acids, and monosaccharides against a Digitalis slows the sodium ion-calcium ion
concentration gradient. antiporters, allowing more calcium to stay
• In primary active transport, energy inside heart muscle cells, which increases the
derived from ATP changes the shape of force of their contraction and thus strengthens
a transporter protein, which pumps a the heartbeat.

Transport in Vesicles

A vesicle is a small membranous sac formed by

budding off from an existing membrane.
– endocytosis
 – exocytosis Pinocytosis is the ingestion of extracellular
Overview: Vesicular Transport of Particles fluid (Figure 3.14).

Endocytosis = bringing something into cell Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis

phagocytosis = cell eating by macrophages &
WBCs
• particle binds to • No pseudopods form
receptor protein • Nonselective drinking
• whole bacteria or of extracellular fluid
viruses are engulfed &
later digested • Pseudopods extend to form phagosome
pinocytosis = cell drinking • Lysosome joins it
• no receptor proteins
Exocytosis = release something from cell Exocytosis
• Vesicles form inside
cell, fuse to cell
membrane
• Release their contents
– digestive
enzymes,
hormones,
neurotransmitt
ers or waste
products
• replace cell membrane
lost by endocytosis

Endocytosis • In exocytosis, membrane-enclosed

In endocytosis, materials move into a cell in a
vesicle formed from the plasma membrane.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the selective
uptake of large molecules and particles by cells
(Figure 3.12).
structures called secretory vesicles that
form inside the cell fuse with the
plasma membrane and release their
contents into the extracellular fluid.
• Transcytosis may be used to move a
substance into, across and out of a cell.

• The steps of receptor-mediated CYTOPLASM

endocytosis includes binding, vesicle
formation, uncoating, fusion with Cytosol, the intracellular fluid, is the semifluid
endosome , recycling of receptors, and portion of cytoplasm that contains inclusions
degradation in lysosomes.. and dissolved solutes (Figure 3.1).
• Viruses can take advantage of this
mechanism to enter cells.
Phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid
particles (Figure 3.13).
 cytoplasm and provides a structural
framework for the cell.
• It consists of microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and
microtubules.

Cytosol is composed mostly of water, plus

proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and inorganic
substances.
• The chemicals in cytosol are either in
solution or in a colloidal (suspended)
form.
• Functionally, cytosol is the medium in
which many metabolic reactions occur.

Organelles

Organelles are specialized structures that have

characteristic shapes and perform specific
functions in cellular growth, maintenance, and Microfilaments
reproduction.
Most microfilaments are composed of actin
Cytoskeleton and function in movement and mechanical
support (Figure 3.15a).
• Network of protein filaments
throughout the cytosol
• Functions
– cell support and shape
– organization of chemical
reactions
– cell & organelle movement
• Continually reorganized
Intermediate Filaments
The Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is a network of Intermediate filaments are composed of several
several kinds of protein filaments different proteins and function in support and
that extend throughout the to help anchor organelles such as the nucleus
(Figure 3.15b).
 Cilia and Flagella

Cilia Flagella
Cilia are numerous, Flagella are similar to
short, hair-like cilia but are much
projections extending longer; usually
from the surface of a cell moving an entire cell.
Microtubules and functioning to move The only example of
materials across the a flagellum in the
surface of the cell human body is the
Microtubules are composed of a protein called sperm cell tail
tubulin and help determine cell shape and
function in the intracellular transport of Cilia and Flagella
organelles and the migration of chromosome • Structure
during cell division. (Figure 3.15c) – pairs of microtubules
(9+2 array)
– covered by cell membrane
– basal body is centriole
responsible for initiating
its assembly
• Differences
Centrosomes – cilia
• short and multiple
Centrosomes are dense areas of cytoplasm – flagella
containing the centrioles, which are paired • longer and single
cylinders arranged at right angles to one
another, and serve as centers for organizing
microtubules in interphase cells and the mitotic
spindle during cell division. (Figure 3.16a –
3.16c)

Movement of Cilia and Flagella

• Cilia
– stiff during power stroke but
flexible during recovery
– many coordinated together
– airways & uterine tube
 • Flagella
– single flagella wiggles in a
wavelike pattern
– propels sperm forward
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are tiny spheres consisting of
ribosomal RNA and several ribosomal proteins;
they occur free (singly or in clusters) or together
with endoplasmic reticulum (Fig 3.18).
• Functionally, ribosomes are the sites of
protein synthesis.
Ribosomes
• Composed of Ribosomal RNA & protein
• Free ribosomes are loose in cytosol
– synthesize proteins found
inside the cell
• Membrane-bound ribosomes
– attached to endoplasmic
reticulum or nuclear membrane
– synthesize proteins needed for
plasma membrane or for export
– 10 to 20 together form a
polyribosome
• Inside mitochondria, ribosomes
synthesize mitochondrial proteins
Ribosomal Subunits
• Large + small subunits
– made in the nucleolus
– assembled in the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of
membranes that form flattened sacs or tubules
called cisterns (Figure 3.19).
• Rough ER is continuous with the nuclear
membrane and has its outer surface
studded with ribosomes.
• Smooth ER extends from the rough ER
to form a network of membrane
tubules but does not contain ribosomes
on its membrane surface.
• The ER transports substances, stores
newly synthesized molecules,
synthesizes and packages molecules,
detoxifies chemicals, and releases
calcium ions involved in muscle
contraction.
Clinical Application:
One of the functions of smooth ER is to detoxify
drugs. Repeated exposure to certain drugs
produces changes to the smooth ER in the liver
which results in tolerance to the drug.
Golgi Complex
The Golgi complex consists of three to twenty
stacked, flattened membranous sacs (cisterns)
referred to as cis, medial, and trans (Figure
3.20).
The principal function of the Golgi complex is to
process, sort, and deliver proteins and lipids to
the plasma membrane, lysosomes, and
secretory vesicles (Figure 3.21).
Lysosomes
• membrane-enclosed vesicles that
contain powerful digestive enzymes
(Figure 3.22).
– internal pH reaches 5.0
• Functions
– digest foreign substances
– autophagy (autophagosome
forms)
• recycles own organelles
– autolysis
• lysosomal damage after
death
Tay-Sachs Disorder
• Affects children of eastern European-
Ashkenazi descent
– seizures, muscle rigidity, blind,
demented and dead before the
age of 5
• Genetic disorder caused by absence of
single lysosomal enzyme
– enzyme normally breaks down
glycolipid commonly found in
nerve cells
– as glycolipid accumulates, nerve
cells lose functionality
– chromosome testing now
available
Peroxisomes are similar in structure to
lysosomes, but are smaller.
• They contain enzymes (e.g.,
catalase) that use molecular oxygen
to oxidize various organic
substances.
– part of normal metabolic
breakdown of amino acids
and fatty acids
– oxidizes toxic substances
such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
– contains catalase which
decomposes H2O2
Proteosomes
• Proteosomes are structures that
destroy unneeded, damaged, or
faulty proteins.
• They contain proteases which cut
proteins into small peptides.
• Proteosomes are thought to be a
factor in several diseases.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is bound by a double
membrane.
• The outer membrane is smooth with
the inner membrane arranged in folds
called cristae (Figure 3.23).
– surface area for chemical
reactions of cellular respiration
– central cavity known as matrix
• Mitochondria are the site of ATP
production in the cell by the catabolism
of nutrient molecules.
• Mitochondria self-replicate using their
own DNA.
– increases with need for ATP
– circular DNA with 37 genes

Perioxosomes
 • Mitochondrial DNA (genes) are usually
inherited only from the mother.
Clinical Application:
Mitochondrial myopathies are inherited muscle
disorders resulting from fualty mitochondrial
genes. As a result muscles become weak and
fatigue easily.
NUCLEUS
The nucleus is usually the most prominent
feature of a cell (Figure 3.25).
• Most body cells have a single nucleus;
some (red blood cells) have none,
whereas others (skeletal muscle fibers)
have several.
• The parts of the nucleus include the
nuclear envelope which is perforated by
channels called nuclear pores, nucleoli,
and genetic material (DNA),
• Within the nucleus are the cell’s
hereditary units, called genes, which
are arranged in single file along
chromosomes.
Function of the Nucleus
• 46 human DNA molecules or
chromosomes
– genes found on chromosomes
– gene is directions for a specific
protein
• Non-dividing cells contain nuclear
chromatin
– loosely packed DNA
• Dividing cells contain chromosomes
– tightly packed DNA
– it doubled (copied itself) before
condensing
Chromosomes
• Each chromosome is a long molecule of
DNA that is coiled together with several
proteins (Figure 3.25).
• Human somatic cells have 46
chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
• The various levels of DNA packing are
represented by nucleosomes,
chromatin fibers, loops, chromatids,
and chromosomes.
GENOMICS
Genomics is the study of the relationships
between the genome and the biological
functions of an organism.
• At least half of the genome consists of
repeated sequences that do not code
for proteins.
• Genomic medicine hopes to design
drugs to treat genetic diseases.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• Much of the cellular machinery is
devoted to synthesizing large numbers
of diverse proeins.
• The proteins determine the physical
and chemical characteristics of cells.
• The instructions for protein synthesis is
found in the DNA in the nucleus.
• Protein synthesis involves transcription
and translation (Figure 3.26).
Transcription
Transcription is the process by which genetic
information encoded in DNA is copied onto a
strand of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA),
which directs protein synthesis (Figure 3.27a).

• DNA sense strand is template for the
creation of messenger RNA strand
• Transcription begins at promoter
sequence where RNA polymerase
attaches
• When RNA polymerase reaches the
terminator sequence it detaches and
transcription stops
• Pre-mRNA contains intron region that
are cut out by enzymes
• Exon regions of mRNA will code for
segments of the protein
• Besides serving as the template for the
synthesis of mRNA,DNA also
synthesizes two other kinds of RNA,
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer
RNA (tRNA).
• Transcription of DNA is catalyzed by
RNA polymerase.
• Antisense therapy shuts down gene
expression by blocking the action of
mRNA.
Protein Synthesis
• Instructions for making specific
proteins is found in the DNA
(your genes)
– transcribe that information
onto
messenger RNA molecule
• each sequence of 3
nucleotides in DNA
is called base triplet
• each base triplet is
transcribed as 3 RNA
nucleotides (codon)
– translate the “message” into a
sequence of amino acids in
order to build a protein
molecule
• each codon must be
matched by an
anticodon found on the
DRNA carrying a
specific amino acid
Translation
Translation is the process of reading the mRNA
nucleotide sequence to determine the amino
acid sequence of the protein (Figure 3.28).
– sequence of nucleotides on
mRNA is “read” by rRNA to
construct a protein (with its
specific sequence of amino
acid)
• 3 nucleotide sequences
on mRNA are called
codons
– specific tRNA molecule carry
specific amino acids
a – anticodons on tRNA are
matched to specific codons on
mRNA so proper amino acids
can be strung together to
create a protein molecule

The sequence of translation is as follows
(Figure 3.29).
• Initiator tRNA
• Start codon on mRNA
• Functional ribosome is formed
– initiator tRNA fits into P site on
rRNA
• Anticodon of tRNA match codons of
mRNA
• Stop codon on mRNA
The sequence of translation
» Messenger RNA associates with
ribosomes, which consist of tRNA and
proteins.
» Specific amino acids attach to molecules
of tRNA. Another portion of the tRNA
has a triplet of nitrogenous bases called
an anticodon, a codon is a segment of
three bases of mRNA
» Transfer RNA delivers a specific amino
acid to the codon; the ribosome moves
along an mRNA strand as amino acids
are joined to form a growing
polypeptide.
Cell division - is the process by which cells
reproduce themselves. It consists of nuclear
division (mitosis and meiosis) and cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis).
• Cell division that results in an increase
in body cells is called somatic cell
division and involves a nuclear division
called mitosis, plus cytokinesis.
• Cell division that results in the
production of sperm and eggs is called
reproductive cell division and consists of
a nuclear division called meiosis plus
cytokinesis.
The Cell Cycle in Somatic Cells
The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events
by which a cell duplicates its contents and
divides in two.
• It consists of interphase and the mitotic
phase
• Human somatic cells contain 46
chromosomes or 23 pairs of
chromosomes
• The two chromosomes that make up a
chromosome pair are called
homologous chromosomes or
homologs.
• A cell with a full set of chromosomes is
called a diploid cell (2N).
• A cell with only one chromosome from
each pair is termed haploid (N).
Interphase Stage of
Chromosome Cell Cycle
number
• During interphase the cell carries on
every life process except division.
(Figure 3.30).
• Doubling of DNA and centrosome
• Phases of interphase stage -- G1, S, and » A cell in interphase shows a distinct
G2 nucleus and the absence of
– G1 = cytoplasmic increase chromosomes (Figure 3.32a).
(Called G0 if cell is never divide
again)
– S = replication of chromosomes
– G2 = cytoplasmic growth
Replication of Chromosomes
Mitotic Phase The mitotic phase consists
• Doubling of genetic material during
of mitosis (or nuclear division) and
interphase. (S phase)
• DNA molecules unzip cytokinesis (or cytoplasmic division).
• Mirror copy is formed along Mitosis - is the distribution of two sets of
each old strand. chromosomes, one set into each of two
• Nitrogenous bases pick up separate nuclei.
complementary base • Stages of mitosis are
• 2 complete identical DNA molecules – Prophase
formed – Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase

Prophase

During prophase, the chromatin condenses and

shortens into chromosomes (Figure 3.32b).
• Chromatin condenses into visible

Interphase
chromosomes
– pair of identical chromatids
held together by a centromere
• Nucleolus & nuclear envelope disappear
• Each centrosome moves to opposite
ends of cell
– forms a mitotic spindle with 3
types of microtubules
 • those that bind to
kinetochore protein on
centromere
• those that radiate
outward
• those that extend
between the 2
centrosomes
– spindle is responsible for the
separation of chromatids to
each new daughter cell
Metaphase
During metaphase, the centromeres line up at
the exact center of the mitotic spindle, a region
called the metaphase plate or equatorial plane
region (Figure 3.32c).
Anaphase
Anaphase - is characterized by the splitting and
separation of centromeres and the movement
of the two sister chromatids of each pair toward
opposite poles of the cell
• Sister chromatids move toward
opposite poles of cell
– now called daughter
chromosomes
– movement is due to shortening
of microtubules
• Chromosomes appear V-shaped as they
are dragged towards the poles of the
cell
– pull is at centromere region
Telophase
Telophase begins as soon as chromatid
movement stops; the identical sets of
chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell
uncoil and revert to their threadlike chromatin
form, microtubules disappear or change form, a
new nuclear envelope forms, new nucleoli
appear, and the new mitotic spindle eventually
breaks up
Cytoplasmic Division: Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis - is the division of a parent cell’s
cytoplasm and organelles. The process begins in
late anaphase or early telophase with the
formation of a cleavage furrow
• When cytokinesis is complete,
interphase begins (Figure 3.32f).
• Cancer is an uncontrolled cell division.
Some anticancer drugs stop this cell
division by inhibiting spindle formation
Control of Cell Destiny
• The three possible destinies of a cell are
to remain alive and functioning without
dividing, to grow and divide, or to die.
• Maturation promoting factor (MPF)
induces cell division.
 • Cell death, a process called apoptosis, is
triggered either from outside the cell or
from inside the cell due to a “cell-
suicide” gene.
Necrosis - is a pathological cell death due
to injury.
• Tumor-suppressor genes can produce
proteins that normally inhibit cell
division resulting in the uncontrollable
cell growth known as cancer.
Metaphase I
Reproductive Cell Division During metaphase I, the homologous pairs of
• Meiosis results in the production of chromosomes line up along the metaphase
haploid cells that contain only 23 plate of the cell, with the homologous
chromosomes.
• Meiosis occurs in two successive stages:
meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I

chromosomes side by side

Anaphase I
• During anaphase I, the members of
each homologous pair separate, with
one member of each pair moving to an
opposite pole of the cell.
• Telophase I and cytokinesis are similar
to telophase and cytokinesis of mitosis.
• The net effect of meiosis I is that each
Meiosis I consists of four phases: prophase I, resulting cell contains only one member
metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I of each pair of homologous
chromosomes. It is now haploid in
Prophase I
During prophase I, the chromosomes become
arranged in homologous pairs through a
process called synapsis (Figure 3.33b). The
resulting four chromatids form a structure
called a tetrad. The tetrads may exchange
genetic material between non-sister chromatids
through a process known as crossing over.
number

Meiosis II
• Meiosis II consists of prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, and
telophase II (Figure3.33d)).
• These phases are similar to those in
mitosis, but result in four haploid cells.
CELLULAR DIVERSITY
• Not all cells look alike, nor do they
perform identical functional roles in the
body.
• The cells vary considerably
– 100 trillion cells in the body --
200 different types
– Vary in size and shape related
to their function (Figure 3.35).
CELLS AND AGING
Aging - is a normal process accompanied by a
progressive alteration of the body’s
homeostatic adaptive responses; the specialized
branch of medicine that deals with the medical
problems and care of elderly persons is called
geriatrics.
• The physiological signs of aging are
gradual deterioration in function and
capacity to respond to environmental
stresses.
• These signs are related to a net
decrease in the number of cells in the
body and to the dysfunctioning of the
cells that remain.
• The extracellular components of tissues
(e.g., collagen fibers and elastin) also
change with age.
• Many theories of aging have been
• proposed, including genetically
programmed cessation of cell division,
glucose addition to proteins, free
radical reactions, and excessive immune
responses
• The effects of aging on the various body
systems are discussed in their
respective chapters.
Progeria and Wener’s Syndrome
Progeria - is caused by a genetic deficit in
which telomeres are very short..
Werner’s Syndrome - is an inherited disease
which causes premature aging. The gene has
recently been identified.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC
IMBALANCES
Cancer - is a group of diseases characterized by
uncontrolled cell proliferation.
• Cells that divide without control
develop into a tumor or neoplasm.
• A cancerous neoplasm is called a
malignant tumor or malignancy. It has
the ability to undergo metastasis, the
spread of cancerous cells to other parts
of the body. A benign tumor is a
noncancerous growth.
Cancer = out of control cell division
• Hyperplasia = increased number of cell
divisions
– benign tumor does not
metastasize or spread
 – malignant---spreads due to cells suppressing genes. These genes may
that detach from tumor and produce proteins that normally oppose
enter blood or lymph the action of an oncogene or inhibit cell
division.
• Causes -- carcinogens, x-rays, viruses
• Carcinogenesis - is a multistep process
– every cell has genes that involving mutation of oncogenes and
regulate growth & development anti-oncogenes; as many as 10 distinct
mutations may have to accumulate in a
– mutation in those genes due to cell before it becomes cancerous.
radiation or chemical agents
causes excess production of
Treatment of Cancer
growth factors
Treatment of cancer is difficult because it is
• Carcinogenesis not a single disease and because all the cells
– multistep process that takes in a tumor do not behave in the same way.
years and many different • Various treatments include
mutations that need to occur – Surgery
– Chemotherapy
Types of Cancer
– radiation therapy
• Carcinomas arise from epithelial cells.
• Melanomas are cancerous growths of
melanocytes.
• Sarcomas arise from muscle cells or
connective tissues.
• Leukemia is a cancer of blood-forming
organs.
• Lymphoma is a cancer of lymphatic
tissue.
• Growth and Spread of Cancer
• Cancer cells divide rapidly and
continuously.
• They trigger angiogenesis, the growths
of new networks of blood vessels.
• Cancer cells can leave their site of origin
and travel to other tissues or organs, a
process called metastasis.
Causes of Cancer
• The normal counterparts of oncogenes
are called proto-oncogenes; these are
found in every cell and carry out normal
cellular functions until a malignant
change occurs via a mutation.
• Some cancers may also be caused by
genes called anti-oncogenes or tumor-
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS - occurs primarily at

ribosome
Gene: section of DNA that cades for a specific
protein.
Proteins: order + #of amino acids specific to
each protein.
 Protein examples: antibodies,
hormones, enzymes, cell structures,
cell membrane.

THE GENITIC CODE

 Proteins are made by joining amino

acids into polypeptides.
 The amino acid sequence influences
the shape of the protein , which determines its
function.
 Genetic code is read in groups of 3
consecutive bases, termed as codon
 There are 64 different codons that code
for amino acids (4 bases=4^ * 3)
AUG is the start codon (AKA Methionine )
UAA, UGA, UAG are the stop codon
 Use genetic code tables to decode
codons ( next slide )
 The genetic code is universal for all
organisms evidence that all organisms
may have a common origin ancestor . *DNA does NOT leave nucleus.

TRANSCRIPTION

 inside nuclues mRNA - is transcribed from DNA and

DNA used as template to assemble contains the genetic blueprint to make
messenger proteins.
RNA (mRNA) complimentary strand.
mRNA used as a messenger for DNA code
to get sent to ribosome. TYPE OF RNA
tRNA - are RNA molecules that translate
mRNA into proteins.
rRNA forms ribosomes, which are essential
in protein synthesis.
TRANSLATION

-mRNA exit nucleus through pores + travels

to ribosome to be read by tRNA + build
protein.
 *each tRNA carries ONE aa.
 *tRNA has anticodon
 *mRNA has start+stop codon

Pairing Rules
mRNA tRNA
A U
U A
G C
C G
 • Each daughter cell is exactly like the
parent cell – same kind and number of
chromosomes as the original cell
• Many organisms, especially unicellular
organisms, reproduce by means of cell
division – called asexual reproduction –
Ex: bacteria

Cell Division—Mitosis
DNA

Cell Division

Cell Division — process by which a cell

Chr
divides into 2 new cells

Why do cells need to divide?

1. Living things grow by producing
more cells, NOT because each cell
increases in size
2. Repair of damaged tissue
3. If cell gets too big, it cannot get
enough nutrients into the cell and
wastes out of the cell
Consists of 2 parts:
DNA is located in the nucleus and
controls all cell activities including cell
division
• Long and thread-like DNA in a non-
dividing cell is called chromatin
• Doubled, coiled, short DNA in a
dividing cell is called chromosome
1. chromatid
2. centromere

2 identical “sister”
chromatids attached at
an area in the middle
called a centromere
Parent cell - original cell
When cells divide,
Daughter cells - 2 new cells
“sister” chromatids
separate and 1 goes to
• Before cell division occurs , the cell
each new cell
replicates (copies) all of its DNA, so
each daughter cell gets complete set of
genetic information from parent cell
 Cell Cycle

Cell Cycle -- series of events cells go through as

they grow and divide

Coils up into
chromosomes

Cell grows, prepares for division, then divides to Cytokinesis

form 2 daughter cells – each of which then
begins the cycle again
Interphase—period of cell growth and
development
 DNA replication (copying) occurs during
Interphase
 During Interphase the cell also grows,
carries out normal cell activities,
replicates all other organelles
 The cell spends most of its life cycle in
Interphase

Mitosis – division of the nucleus into 2 nuclei,

each with the same number of chromosomes
Mitosis occurs in all the somatic (body) cells

Why does mitosis occur?

 destroy healthy tissue in other parts of the
Benign tumors are not cancerous – these
cells do not spread to other parts of the
body
Malignant tumors are cancerous – these
cells break loose and can invade and

body (called metastasis)

 The Integumentary System
Integumentary System
2.Dermis
 Connective tissue that contains
glands, capillaries and nerves
Epidermis

Integumentary system The Stratums

Skin  Corneum
Nails  Lucidum
Hair  Granulosum
Glands  Spinosum
Nerve endings  Basale
Integumentary System: Functions
PROTECTION from:
College Life Gives
 Mechanical damage
Snoopy Brains
 Chemical damage
 Bacterial damage – antibacterial Stratum Basale

 These are
secretions the “stem
 UV radiation – melanin pigment cells” of skin
protects  As they mature, they climb the layers of
 Thermal damage – cold/pain epidermis
receptors  Melanocytes are here and make
 Dessication – keratin waterproofing melanin (keratinocytes gobble up the
Even more functions melanin)
 Helps with heat loss or heat Melanin Pigment
retention – sweat glands and
capillaries
 Helps excrete urea – perspiration
 Makes Vitamin D – sunlight
converts cholesterol molecules in
our skin
Skin Structure

2 Types of Skin Tissue

1.Epidermis
 Keratinocytes that can make the
protein keratin (become hard &
tough)
Melanin Pigment Protects Nucleus Stratum Granulosum

Stratum Spinosum

By this point, cells are full of keratin and

are dead

Stratum Corneum

 20 to 30 layers of dead skin cells filled

with keratin
 Waterproofing material
 This layer is thicker on palms and soles
 “Beauty is only skin deep”?!

Harlequin Ichthyosis

 Autosomal recessive
 Generate in 1 day the amount of skin a
normal person would generate in 14
days
 Constant care, moisturizing, bathing to
remove keratin layer
 Oldest living person is 24
 Blind from corneal abrasions
Dermabrasion
Salabrasion (rub with salt)
Cryosurgery
Excision
Latest: Q-switched lasers
Different lasers for different color
pigments
Black, purple, red easiest
Yellow, green hardest

Burns: 1st Degree

Dermis: Papillary and Reticular
 1st degree: only epidermis is damaged
 Heal in 2 to 3 days without a problem
 Sunburn without blistering

Burns: 2nd Degree

 Injury to the epidermis and part of
the dermis
 Characterized by pain, redness,
swelling, and blisters
 Still enough epithelial cells to
The Dermis – Home of the Tattoo regenerate
Burns: 3rd Degree
 Worst
 Entire epidermis and dermis is
destroyed
 No more stem cells, no blood supply
 No nerve endings (no pain, but only at
first)
 Must skin graft
Examples of Burns

Tattoo Removal
Rules of Nines

Skin Grafting 3 Main Types of

Skin Cancer
1.Basal cell carcinoma:
 most common
 least malignant
 sun-exposed areas
 99% cure rate with excision

2. Squamous cell carcinoma:

 Shallow ulcer that won’t heal

Albinism: Melanocytes, but no melanin
 Sun-exposed areas
 Can grow rapidly
 Metastasizes (travels to lymph
nodes and other parts of the body)
3. Malignant melanoma:

 Only about 5% of all skin cancers, but

incidence is on the rise
 Arises from accumulated damage to DNA
in a melanocyte
 Chance for survival: 50%
 ABCD rule
ABCD Rule of Malignant Melanomas  Lunula: white moon

 Asymmetry: 2 sides of the pigmented

spot do not match
 Border irregularity: borders are not
smooth but exhibit indentations
 Color: pigmented spot contains areas of
different colors (black, brown, tan, red)
 Diameter: spot is larger than 6 mm in
diameter (size of pencil eraser)
Skin Appendages
 Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
 Sweat Glands
 Hair and Hair Follicles
 Nails
Sebaceous Glands
 Everywhere except palms and soles
 Usually empty into hair follicle
 Makes “sebum”
o Keeps skin soft/moist
o Antibacterial
 Increased production during puberty
 When gland is blocked:
whiteheads/blackheads
Sweat Glands: 2 Types
 Eccrine glands: make “sweat”
o Clear secretion of water, salts,
urea, lactic acid
o Acidic, inhibits bacteria
 Apocrine glands: axilla (armpit) and
genital area
o Contain sweat plus
proteins/fats (not antibacterial)
Hair Follicles
 Hair follicle: makes the hair
 Hair root: alive
 Hair shaft: dead material; almost all
protein
 Arrector pili: tiniest muscles; goose
bumps
Nails
 Body: thickened keratin
 Root,nail fold and nail bed are alive