Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Effects of sugarcane bagasse ash and nano eggshell powder on

high-strength concrete properties
Mohamed Amin a, Mohammed M. Attia a, Ibrahim Saad Agwa a, b, *, Yara Elsakhawy c,
Khaled Abu el-hassan c, Bassam Abdelsalam Abdelsalam a
a
Civil & Architectural Construction Dept., Faculty of Technology and Education, Suez University, Suez, Egypt
b
Department of Civil Engineering, El-Arish High Institute for Engineering and Technology, El-Arish, North Sinai, Egypt
c
Civil Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Delta University for Science and Technology, Gamasa, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: There are many problems due to the cement industry around the world besides the air pollution
High-strength concrete by greenhouse gas emissions. The problem arises when a dense quantity of CO2 is emitted through
Mechanical properties the conversion of calcium carbonate lime (CaCO3) into calcium oxide lime (CaO), the main
Microstructure
ingredient in cement. This transformation is made in an oven-dry by burning fossil fuels, in a
Nano eggshell powder
Sugarcane bagasse ash
process that releases more carbon dioxide. In this study, sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) and nano
Physical properties eggshell powder (NEP) are considered cementitious materials and were added to the cement at
different percentages to reduce the cement contents in the concrete industry. Sixteen high-
strength concrete (HSC) mixtures experimented with in this investigation contain SCBA and
NEP other than the control mix. The SCBA and NEP were added to cement content by 5 %, 10 %,
15 %, and 20 % for SCBA, and 2.5 %, 5 %, and 7.5 % for NEP. This study evaluates the fresh and
hardened properties of HSC. Also, EDX and SEM analyses were conducted on the SCBA, NEP, and
HSC concrete to analyze the microstructure. The experimental results exhibited that the setting
time of HSC is delayed by increasing the SCBA ratio by 25 % of the control mix. Adding NEP
accelerates the HSC setting time compared with the control mix. The best mixture result includes
5 % NEP with 15 % SCBA, which exhibited a dense form, no pores, and no cracks, as analyzed in
the microstructure.

1. Introduction

Cement production is increasing at a 2.5 % annual rate, rising from 2300 million tons in 2005–3500 million tons in 2020, and is
expected to reach 3700–4400 million tons by 2050 [1]. Cement production causes significant air emissions of greenhouse gases like
CO2, which play a significant role in climate change [2]. Cement production produces 1350 million tons of greenhouse gases annually
[3]. Carbon dioxide is produced during the fuel combustion process in the furnace, decarbonization of limestone, and electricity with

Abbreviations: SCBA, Sugarcane bagasse ash; NPE, Nano eggshell powder; HSC, High-strength concrete; EDX, Energy dispersive X-ray; SEM,
Scanning electron microscopy; SCMs, Supplementary cementitious materials; SCB, Sugarcane bagasse; TBA, Treated bagasse ash; AASBC, Alkali-
activated slag/SCBA concrete; RAC, Recycled aggregate concrete; ESC, Eggshell concrete; EP, Eggshell powder; SP, Superplasticizer; w/b, Water/
binder; ITZ, Interfacial transition zone; SSA/V, Specific surface area to volume.
* Corresponding author at: Civil & Architectural Construction Dept., Faculty of Technology and Education, Suez University, Suez, Egypt.
E-mail address: ibrahim.agwa@suezuniv.edu.eg (I.S. Agwa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01528
Received 6 August 2022; Received in revised form 20 September 2022; Accepted 30 September 2022
Available online 1 October 2022
2214-5095/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

about 325, 525, and 50 kg/ton, respectively. These three principal sources of CO2 emissions are all involved in cement production
[4–6]. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are used in concrete to reduce CO2 emissions [7]. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA),
olive oil ash, rice husk ash, and palm oil are currently used as SCMs in various applications [8]. The cement industries negatively affect
the human health who lives close to the industries [9]. Also, SCBA extracts from sugar and alcohol. To reduce environmental pollution,
the cementitious materials SCBA was recycled in concrete production as a partial replacement or in addition to cement content [10].
Some research proved that SCBA contains a higher ratio of silicon dioxide (SiO2) than cement [11–13]. In addition, SCBA constituents
include quartz according to X-ray diffraction [11,13–15]. According to EDX analysis, SCBA includes SiO2 and has crystalline than
amorphous, which led to a little pozzolanic reaction. Also, SCBA has a quartz form and was used as supplementary material, which
refers to containing inactive material. SCBA interacts with Ca(OH)₂ due to the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) solution that indicates
the residue pozzolanic activity inside SCBA [16]. Some researchers studied the pozzolanic reaction effects on the hardened concrete
properties using SCBA [17–21]. The studies [17–20] represent the compliance of the SCBA chemical compositions with pozzolanic
material requirements ASTM C618 [22]. In SCBA, The SiO2 percentage is higher than in other oxides [17–21]. The SCBA includes a
pozzolanic material passed from a 150 µm sieve [23]. To enhance the high-performance concrete properties [24–34], the SCB is
exposed to burning under 600 ◦ C and then grounded for 2 h [35]. Neto et al. [36] Reported that the SCB was maintained at ambient
temperature for one day and then calcined at oven-dry temperature. For eight hours, the SCBA was dried at 600 ◦ C before being cooled
to ambient temperature (25 ◦ C). Based on research [14,15], the calcination temperature was established. There are monitored that the
SCBA obtained after being heated in oven-dry under conditions mentioned previously has possessed the highest pozzolanic activity.
The SCBA can be replaced with up to 20 % from cement content to develop the physical properties with maintaining the concrete
strength. The alkali-silica reactivity was balanced with the pozzolanic reaction of SCBA, consequently controls of the concrete volume
change [37]. For producing HSC, it is recommended that the optimum substitute ratio of SCBA is 10 % up to 30 % of cement [38].
Treated bagasse ash improved the material’s workability, compressive strength, and resistance to chloride-ion penetration (TBA).
Likewise, increasing the TBA altered ratio decreases the water absorption without concern with curing time. Normal curing of concrete
contained TBA is the best curing status compared to steam and heat curing. Normal curing reduces the concrete sorptivity with
increasing SCBA up to 20 % altered from cement [39]. The SCBA and steel slag was included in producing alkali-activated slag/SCBA
concrete (AASBC). Cement was replaced with 0 %, 25 %, and 50 % SCBA, and natural coarse aggregate was altered with 0 %, 50 %, and
100 % of steel slag. Based on a multi-criteria optimization technique, 25 % SCBA with 100 % steel slag in the AASBC mix shows better
results under elevated temperature conditions [40]. SCBA and recycled coarse aggregate were used to produce recycled aggregate
concrete (RAC). Partial replacement of SCBA was utilized to enhance durability and mechanical properties of RAC mixes. The 20 %
SCBA is a good replacement ratio by binder weight to improve the properties of RAC (compressive strength, chloride-ion resistance,
and water permeability) [41]. Isothermal titration calorimetry, thermogravimetry, chemical shrinkage, and the strength pozzolanic
index were among the tests performed on the pastes. The paste incorporating different fineness of SCBA presents an evident change in
the portlandite content and hydration kinetics [42]. A comprehensive review of the concrete properties containing SCBA, fly ash, and
slag reported that the optimum alternative ratio is 20 %, 30 %, and 50 % for SCBA, fly ash, and slag, respectively. The SCBA keeps the
concrete strength higher than fly ash/slag blended. On the other hand, SCBA reduces workability and delays the initial setting time of
fresh concrete [43]. On the other hand, eggshells are discarded in landfills in large amounts worldwide [44], and there will be an
increase in global egg output of around 90 million tons by 2030. European Union regulations classify eggshells as hazardous waste, so
finding alternate methods to transform eggshells into components for other applications is essential [45]. The main component in the
eggshell is CaCO3, which contains 93.7 % CaCO3, 4.20 % organic matter, 1.30 % MgCO3, and 0.8 % CaPO4 [46]. Many researchers
investigated the possibility of replacing eggshells with cement [47]. Compressive strength of eggshell concrete (ESC) is greater than
that of standard Portland cement concrete, despite its inferior workability [47]. Parkash and Singh [48] found that the optimal eggshell
concentration for ESC was 13 %, after testing concentrations of 0 %, 6 %, 12 %, 18 %, and 24 %. Twenty percent eggshell mixed with
twenty percent glass powder, as determined by Chandrasekaran et al. [49] had the maximum compressive strength up to 28 days.
This research aims to dispose of the sugarcane bagasse and eggshell wastes by reusing them as cementitious material for concrete
production. Also, reduce the concrete industry based on cement. This paper provides an experimental investigation of using SCBA and
nano eggshell powder (NEP) in HSC. The adding ratio was 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % for SCBA and 2.5 %, 5 %, and 7.5 % for NEP.
Then, studying its effects on the fresh and hardened states of HSC mixtures. Also, microstructure analysis of each cementitious material
and HSC. Setting time, workability, and air content are all characteristics of fresh concrete. This study looked on the mechanical and
physical qualities.

2. Significance of study

Climate change is one of the disasters facing the world. It was necessary to reduce the environmental risks surrounding various
industries, especially the cement industry, and the resulting carbon emissions and consumption of raw materials by using environ­
mentally friendly materials that can add to or improve the properties of the concrete produced.

3. Experimental details

3.1. Materials

3.1.1. Cementitious materials

In this study, ordinary Portland cement CEM I 52.5 has been used in HSC preparation. Cement tests were confirmed to [50,51].

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Cement’s characteristics are shown in Table 1.

Method of preparing SCBA obtained from the sugar processing sector in Upper Egypt is shown in Fig. 1. Initially, SCB is washed
with water to remove impurities to enhance reactivity [16,52]. The SCB was then dried in an oven-dry at 110 ◦ C for 24 h to remove
excess moisture [23]. The oven-dry heating and cooling rate were 10 ◦ C/min. To become ash, SCB was heated at 600 ◦ C for two hours
and then maintained at room temperature [36]. The heating process mentioned previously is the optimum method to obtain ash and
contained high pozzolanic activity [14,15]. The SCBA was filtered through a sieve with a mesh size of 150 µm to keep out any cold
particles. Specific surface area is 5450 cm2/g, and its density is 2.14 g/cm3.
The eggshell waste is extracted from poultry farms, bakeries, and restaurants [53]. Eggshell is gathered from Cairo, Egypt, and
consists of numerous layers of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which gained use as an additive in concrete production [46,54]. The
eggshell waste washes with water to clean from the dust and other organic materials, then subjected to the sun’s rays for one day. For
nano-powder, the eggshell was dried in an oven-dry at 110 ± 5 ◦ C for 24 h [55], then heated at 800 ◦ C for six hours, as shown in Fig. 2
[56,57].
The SEM analysis was conducted on SCBA and NEP, as shown in Figs. 3a and 4a, respectively. As can be shown in Figs. 3a and 4a,
the average diameter of NEP is less than that of SCBA powder. According to several studies, particle size (surface area) significantly
influences the material’s activity and effectiveness. Consequently, more action ensues as the surface area grows [58–63]. The chemical
compositions of SCBA and NEP are shown in Figs. 3b and 4b. obtained from EDX analysis. The SCBA comprised 63.87 %, 15.81 %,
4.29 %, 2.01 %, 3.16 %, 4.56 %, and 6.31 % of SiO2, K2O, CaO, MgO, Na2O, Cl and C, respectively. Meanwhile, the NEP comprised
71.71 %, 3.01 %, 2.44 %, 2.05 %, and 20.79 % of CaO, P2O5, MgO, SiO2, and C, respectively.

3.1.2. Aggregates
Aggregates comprised of coarsely crushed granite and finely sifted river sand. The largest granite particle was 19 mm in size. Both
[64,65] were used to perform the aggregate tests. The characteristics of both sand and granite are shown in Table 2. The findings of
measuring the particle size distribution of sand and granite are shown in Fig. 5.

3.1.3. Superplasticizer
All HSC compounds utilized binder materials including superplasticizer (SP). The SP has 1.09 specific gravity and clear liquid color.
SP satisfies all criteria for the standard [66].

3.2. Methodology

Table 3 displays the relative amounts of SCBA and NEP in the mixtures of seventeen HSCs with varying concentrations of each. Only
40 % sand, 60 % granite, and 450 kg/m3 of cement were used in the control mix (without mineral materials). Sixteen different HSC
mixes used SCBA at percentages of 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % in addition to cement. A total of 12 HSC formulations were made, with
the cement proportion varied by adding either 2.5 %, 5 %, or 7.5 % NEP. A water-to-binder (w/b) ratio of 0.23 was used uniformly
across all HSC blends. Here is the order of the mixes: First, for approximately 3 min, combine the cement and aggregates in a dry
mixture. Second, for 2 min, combine half of the water with the dry ingredients. To conclude, SCBA and NEP, both mineral ingredients,
were introduced and thoroughly combined for 3 min. At last, SP containing some remaining water was added and stirred for 3 min.
Next, the molds were filled with concrete mixture and compressed using a steel rod. The concrete samples were cured in fresh water
until the specified age as specified by [67].

Table 1
Properties of cement.
Properties

Physical
Specific gravity 3.14
Specific area cm2/g 3400
Color Grey

Chemical compositions (%)

SiO2 20.87
CaO 61.92
Al2O3 4.87
Fe2O3 3.95
SO3 2.73
MgO 2.64
K2O 0.72
Na2O 0.91
TiO2 0.13
Cr2O3 0.06
MnO 0.07
SrO 0.04
CI 0.05
LOI 1.05

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Fig. 1. Sugarcane bagasse ash preparation technique: a) Sugarcane, b) Bagasse, c) Heated at 600 ◦ C for 2 h, d) After milling.

Fig. 2. Nano eggshell powder preparation technique: a) Eggshell, b) Milling, c) Heated at 800 ◦ C for 6 hrs, d) Re-milling, e) Nano powder, f) SEM
of powder.

3.3. Test procedure

The setting time, workability, and air content were the measurements at the fresh state of HSC mixes. For determining the concrete
consistency, the slump test occurred following [68], while the air content test experimented according to [69]. The setting time test
was conducted according to [65]. The 100 × 100 × 100 mm cubes were used to observe the compressive strength at 1, 7, 28, and 91
days, according to [70]. The indirect tensile strength at the 28 days was determined on a 150 × 300 mm cylinder for the evaluation
following [71]. The flexural strength after 28 days was tested on a beam of 100 × 100 × 500 mm, which conforms to [72]. The
modulus of elasticity at the 28 days was determined on a 150 × 300 mm cylinder according to [73]. Also, chloride-ion penetration
resistance at 28 days was determined on a 100 × 50 mm cylinder using the test method in the [74]. Sorptivity test as the rate of water
absorption was done on 100 × 50 mm cylinder at 28 days as the test described in [75]. The water permeability test was determined on
a 150 × 150 mm cylinder at 28 days according to [76]. While the drying shrinkage strain test was measured according to [65,77] at 1,
7, 14, 21, 28, 56, and 91 days. The drying shrinkage sample was a 25 mm × 25 mm × 285 mm beam. Microstructure and cementitious
material composites in concrete are analyzed using SEM and EDX spectroscopy.

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Fig. 3. Sugarcane bagasse ash: a) SEM images; b) EDX.

Fig. 4. Nano eggshell powder: a) SEM images; b) EDX.

4. Results and discussions

4.1. Fresh properties

4.1.1. Setting time

Table 4 revealed the setting time results of HSC mixes. The SCBA without NEP delays the initial and final setting times of fresh HSC
mixtures. The retarder ratio was 4.5 %, 8.2 %, 12.7 %, and 18.2 % for 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % SCBA, respectively compared with
control mix. Once adding NEP to the cement and SCBA, the setting times were accelerated compared with the control mix. The ac­
celeration ratio was 20.8 %, 17.3 %, 13.6 %, and 10 % for 5SCBA-2.5NEP, 10SCBA-2.5NEP, 15SCBA-2.5NEP, and 20SCBA-2.5NEP,
respectively. The setting time of HSC mixes accelerated more than the control mix with an increasing NEP ratio. The maximum
accelerating ratio was up to about 58 % for mix 5SCBA-7.5NEP. Generally, Adding eggshell to cement may speed up the process and
shorten the setting time [78]. The effectiveness of eggshells as an accelerator was extensively studied by Mtallib and Rabiu [79].

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Table 2
Physical and mechanical properties of aggregates.
Properties Sand Granite

Specific gravity 2.65 2.71

Fineness modulus 2.54 5.98
Unit weight (kg/m3) 1665 1685
Water absorption (%) 0.72 0.19
Clay and fine materials (%) 0.54 0.23
Elongation index (%) – 16.8
Flakiness index (%) – 13.5
Impact value (%) – 10.3
Crushing value (%) – 10.9
Los Angles abrasion loss (%) – 11.6

Fig. 5. Grain size distribution of sand and granite.

Table 3
Proportions of HSC mixtures (kg/m3).
Mixes Cement SCBA NEP Sand Granite SP w/b

CEM 450 0 0 795.7 1193.6 13.500 103.500

5SCBA-0NEP 450 22.5 0 778.2 1167.3 14.175 108.675
10SCBA-0NEP 450 45.0 0 760.7 1141.1 14.850 113.850
15SCBA-0NEP 450 67.5 0 743.2 1114.8 15.525 119.025
20SCBA-0NEP 450 90.0 0 725.6 1088.4 16.200 124.200
5SCBA-2.5NEP 450 22.5 11.25 770.1 1155.2 14.513 111.263
10SCBA-2.5NEP 450 45.0 11.25 752.6 1128.9 15.188 116.438
15SCBA-2.5NEP 450 67.5 11.25 735.1 1102.7 15.863 121.613
20SCBA-2.5NEP 450 90.0 11.25 717.5 1076.3 16.538 126.788
5SCBA-5NEP 450 22.5 22.50 762.0 1143.0 14.850 113.850
10SCBA-5NEP 450 45.0 22.50 744.5 1116.8 15.525 119.025
15SCBA-5NEP 450 67.5 22.50 727.0 1090.5 16.200 124.200
20SCBA-5NEP 450 90.0 22.50 709.4 1064.1 16.875 129.375
5SCBA-7.5NEP 450 22.5 33.75 753.9 1130.9 15.188 116.438
10SCBA-7.5NEP 450 45.0 33.75 736.4 1104.6 15.863 121.613
15SCBA-7.5NEP 450 67.5 33.75 718.8 1078.2 16.538 126.788
20SCBA-7.5NEP 450 90.0 33.75 701.3 1052.0 17.213 131.963

Because eggshell powder worked as a filler, the setting time could be shortened. It was determined by Moon et al. [80] that the impact
of eggshell powder on setting time is analogous to the limestone effect, in which the hydration process with tricalcium silicate (C3S)
was sped up.

4.1.2. Workability
The workability of freshly mixed concrete using various ratios of SCBA and NEP was evaluated and presented in Table 4. The w/b
ratio and superplasticizer dose were kept constant in all concrete mixes. The HSC workability was decreased linearly with increased

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Table 4
Fresh properties of HSC mixtures.
Mixes Setting time (min) Slump Air content
(mm) (%)
Initial Final

CEM 110 175 143 1.87

5SCBA-0NEP 115 184 138 1.73
10SCBA-0NEP 119 195 133 1.65
15SCBA-0NEP 124 207 127 1.57
20SCBA-0NEP 130 220 121 1.48
5SCBA-2.5NEP 87 140 133 1.60
10SCBA-2.5NEP 91 148 127 1.51
15SCBA-2.5NEP 95 157 121 1.44
20SCBA-2.5NEP 99 168 117 1.38
5SCBA-5NEP 63 102 130 1.50
10SCBA-5NEP 66 109 123 1.42
15SCBA-5NEP 70 115 117 1.36
20SCBA-5NEP 73 122 113 1.30
5SCBA-7.5NEP 47 75 125 1.43
10SCBA-7.5NEP 51 81 118 1.37
15SCBA-7.5NEP 54 86 111 1.29
20SCBA-7.5NEP 57 92 106 1.21

SCBA and NEP contents. The slump of CEM, 20SCBA-0NEP, and 20SCBA-7.5NEP mixtures were 143 mm, 121 mm, and 106 mm,
respectively. These conform with [12], which found that the milled SCBA particles had rough surfaces, high porosity (spongy), and
large surface areas. The SCBA maintains rough, porous surfaces and small shapes. The spongy particles formed caused exposed the
SCBA to 600 ◦ C, which is lower than the melting point of the SCBA. Spongy particles had high water absorption, which must be
considered in the mix design. On the other hand, Parkash and Singh [48] reported that the concrete workability was decreased by
increasing eggshell compared to Portland cement concrete. Also, the eggshell and rice husk decreased the concrete workability [81].

4.1.3. Air content

As presented in Table 4, the SCBA reduces the air contents of HSC mixtures by 7.5 %, 11.8 %, 16 %, and 20.9 % for mixes 5SCBA,
10SCBA, 15SCBA, and 20SCBA, respectively. The reduction in the air content percentage enhanced the workability, strength, sorp­
tivity, and water permeability. The concrete mix that includes SCBA with NEP has air contents lower than the other mix without NEP.
The maximal reduction in the air content was 35.3 % of 20SCBA-7.5NEP compared with the CEM mix. High pozzolanic activity forms
the basis of SCBA’s hydration process, and at advanced ages, amorphous silica and alumina react with cement hydration. In addition,
The C-S-H gel was formed through the hydration process, which compacted the pores into concrete. Furthermore, calcium carbonate
sped up the process by which calcium silicate hydrate, also known as C-S-H gel, was produced. So, by reducing the number of pores in
the concrete, this rapid production can diminish the concrete’s capacity to absorb water [82].

4.2. Mechanical properties

Table 5 and Figs. 6–12 show the mechanical properties (compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and
modulus of elasticity) of HSC mixes that present the average value and standard deviation.

4.2.1. Compressive strength

From day 1 to day 91, the results of HSC combinations with SCBA and NEP in terms of compressive strength are shown in Figs. 6–9.
HSC mixtures containing SCBA without NEP had greater compressive strength than the reference mix on all test days (69.5 MPa).
Additions of SCBA at 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % of the cement content result in a 28-day improvement in compressive strength
compared to the control mix CEM. Compressive strength increases of 6.8 %, 11.9 %, 18.1 %, and 14.1 % for the combinations over the
CEM mix at 28 days are in line with the literature [11,36,83,84], and the same mixtures exhibit improvements of around 7.3 %,
12.9 %, 19.7 %, and 16.1 % after 91 days. The reactivity of SCBA with CaO and C-S-H gel enhances the early compressive strength and
hardening process of HSC mixes [85]. It is the component that provides strength due to the binding effect. Thus, the optimum value of
compressive strengths was obtained for 15 % SCBA (82.1 MPa). Similarly, the compressive strength was raised with increasing SCBA
ratio up to 15 % (15SCBA-0NEP = 82.1 MPa), then decreased with increasing SCBA up to 20 % (20SCBA-0NEP = 79.3 MPa). Results
for compressive strength were measured at 1, 7, 28, and 91 days for a total of twelve HSC blends comprising SCBA (5 %, 10 %, 15 %,
and 20 %) and NEP (2.5 %, 5 %, and 7.5 %), as shown in Figs. 6–9. At 28 days, the 15SCBA-2.5NEP, 15SCBA-5NEP, and 15SCBA-7.5­
NEP mixes had a compressive strength of 83.7 MPa, 84.9 MPa, and 84.2 MPa, respectively. As compared to the CEM control mix, these
outcomes improved by 20.4 %, 23.6 %, and 21.2 %, respectively. The compressive strength of mixtures incorporating 5 %, 10 %,
15 %, and 20 % SCBA with 5 % NEP are the optimum values designed for all days of testing. So, the compressive strength at 28 days
reached 77.2, 80.5, 85.9, and 81.8 MPa for mixes 5SCBA-5NEP, 10SCBA-5NEP, 15SCBA-5NEP, and 20SCBA-5NEP, respectively, with
an improvement of about 11.1 %, 15.8 %, 23.6 %, and 17.7 %. Results reveal that the HSC mixture with 15 % SCBA + 5 % NEP as an
addition from cement content improved the compressive strength by 21.7 %, 24.0 %, 23.6 %, and 24.8 % higher than the control

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 Table 5
Mechanical properties of high strength concrete mixtures.

M. Amin et al.
Mixture ID Compressive strength (MPa) Splitting tensile strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa) Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
28 days 28 days 28 days 28 days

Values Average Standard Values Average Standard Values Average Standard Values Average Standard
deviation deviation deviation deviation

CEM 69.9 69.5 0.497 6.29 6.26 0.042 9.22 9.18 0.057 37.21 36.95 0.306
69.8 6.29 9.22 37.12
68.8 6.20 9.10 36.52
5SBA-0NEP 74.7 74.2 0.572 6.60 6.55 0.046 9.71 9.65 0.059 38.28 38.02 0.313
74.5 6.56 9.67 38.20
73.4 6.49 9.57 37.58
10SBA-0NEP 78.4 77.8 0.648 6.75 6.71 0.050 10.02 9.96 0.065 39.20 38.93 0.334
78.1 6.74 9.99 39.13
76.9 6.64 9.87 38.46
15SBA-0NEP 82.7 82.1 0.779 6.98 6.92 0.059 10.43 10.35 0.075 40.29 40.01 0.341
82.6 6.94 10.37 40.21
81.0 6.84 10.25 39.53
20SBA-0NEP 79.8 79.3 0.707 6.65 6.60 0.051 9.91 9.84 0.062 39.60 39.34 0.340
79.8 6.62 9.85 39.56
78.3 6.53 9.76 38.86
5SBA-2.5NEP 76.1 75.5 0.589 6.78 6.72 0.054 9.94 9.89 0.064 38.70 38.46 0.339
75.7 6.73 9.93 38.70
74.7 6.65 9.80 37.98
10SBA-2.5NEP 79.5 78.8 0.668 6.91 6.86 0.057 10.25 10.17 0.070 39.55 39.25 0.343
79.0 6.89 10.18 39.43
77.9 6.78 10.08 38.77
15SBA-2.5NEP 84.4 83.7 0.787 7.26 7.20 0.071 10.70 10.63 0.079 40.73 40.46 0.347
8

84.1 7.24 10.67 40.68

82.6 7.10 10.52 39.97
20SBA-2.5NEP 80.6 80.0 0.712 6.77 6.73 0.056 10.08 10.01 0.067 39.85 39.54 0.344
80.4 6.77 10.03 39.71
79.0 6.65 9.92 39.06
5SBA-5.0NEP 77.7 77.2 0.638 7.00 6.95 0.064 10.24 10.19 0.071 39.13 38.87 0.347
77.6 6.99 10.24 39.10
76.3 6.86 10.09 38.38
10SBA-5.0NEP 81.2 80.5 0.726 7.18 7.13 0.071 10.53 10.47 0.078 39.96 39.68 0.348
80.8 7.18 10.52 39.89

Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

79.5 7.03 10.36 39.19
15SBA-5.0NEP 86.8 85.9 0.829 7.56 7.48 0.075 11.09 11.00 0.083 41.27 40.98 0.355
86.1 7.50 11.02 41.19
84.8 7.38 10.89 40.48
20SBA-5.0NEP 82.7 81.8 0.778 7.07 7.00 0.067 10.37 10.31 0.072 40.32 40.01 0.351
81.9 7.02 10.35 40.19
80.8 6.91 10.21 39.52
5SBA-7.5NEP 76.6 75.9 0.616 6.98 6.91 0.062 10.22 10.17 0.071 38.88 38.63 0.346
76.0 6.92 10.22 38.87
75.1 6.83 10.07 38.14
10SBA-7.5NEP 80.1 79.3 0.698 7.18 7.10 0.070 10.54 10.46 0.078 39.75 39.48 0.347
79.4 7.11 10.47 39.70
78.4 7.01 10.36 38.99
15SBA-7.5NEP 85.0 84.2 0.804 7.48 7.41 0.073 11.04 10.94 0.080 40.99 40.67 0.352
84.5 7.44 10.97 40.84
83.1 7.31 10.83 40.18
20SBA-7.5NEP 81.3 80.5 0.748 7.03 6.97 0.065 10.37 10.30 0.073 40.08 39.78 0.349
80.7 7.00 10.33 39.97
79.5 6.88 10.20 39.29
M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of mixes using sugarcane bagasse ash ratios without nano eggshell powder.

Fig. 7. Compressive strength of mixes using sugarcane bagasse ash ratios with 2.5 % nano eggshell powder.

Fig. 8. Compressive strength of mixes using sugarcane bagasse ash ratios with 5 % nano eggshell powder.

mixture at 1, 7, 28, and 91 days, respectively. The early compressive strength of the mixture with NEP was high due to the high specific
surface areas moreover the pozzolanic reaction of SCBA. The SCBA contributes to filling the pores in the matrix, consequently
improving the compressive strength [55,86–88]. Compressive strength of HSC is found to be improved by the NEP in the early curing
stage and by the SCBA at the late age owing to its secondary response (evident by the higher silica contents of SCBA). The findings are

9
M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Fig. 9. Compressive strength of mixes using sugarcane bagasse ash ratios with 7.5 % nano eggshell powder.

Fig. 10. Splitting tensile strength of all mixes at 28 days.

Fig. 11. Flexural strength of all mixes at 28 days.

consistent with [47,89–91].

4.2.2. Splitting tensile strength

Splitting tensile strength results at 28 days of SCBA and NEP blended HSC are shown in Fig. 10. For the mixtures using 5 %, 10 %,
15 %, and 20 % of SCBA, the splitting tensile strength at the 28 days increased by 4.6 %, 7.2 %, 10.5 %, and 5.4% compared to the CEM
mix, respectively. Thus, the maximum splitting tensile strength was at 15 % SCBA. The effective bond between the SCBA matrix and
the aggregate can improve the tensile strength of concrete [56]. Improving high-performance concrete’s tensile strength relies mostly

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Fig. 12. Modulus of elasticity of all mixes at 28 days.

on creating a dense interfacial transition zone (ITZ). With the addition of SCBA micro filler, the HSC becomes denser, which boosts its
tensile strength [83]. It can be observed that the splitting tensile strength at the 28 days increases gradually from 7.4 % to 19.5 % for all
addition ratios of SCBA and NEP from the cement content. The mixture incorporating 15 % SCBA + 5 % NEP has the highest splitting
tensile strength among all the mixes. The increasing ratio was 19.5 % higher than the CEM mix, acceptable with [90,92]. The NEP
develops the tensile strength of HSC mixes due to transferring from matrix to filler material [93]. The nanoparticles increase the bond
between the matrix and aggregate due to the high specific surface area [94]. Also, the average tensile strength/compressive strength
was about 8.74% of the same HSC mixes.

4.2.3. Flexural strength

Flexural strength at 28 days of HSC with SCBA and NEP has presented in Fig. 11. The flexural strength of the CEM mixture was
9.18 MPa, whereas flexural strength increases by 5.1 %, 8.5 %, 12.8 %, and 7.2 % for mixes using 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % SCBA,
respectively compared to HSC control mixture. The mix containing 15 % SCBA without NEP shows the optimum flexural strength than
others, such as compressive strength [95,96]. The improvement in the flexural strength based on the C-S-H resulted in a hydration
process due to the large silica amount of SCBA developing the ITZ between aggregate and paste [23]. Consistent with the trend shown
in the compressive strength, the flexural strength of HSC mixes with SCBA and NEP ratios increases in the same direction. The flexural
strength results of HSC mixes using 2.5 % NEP were increased by 7.7 %, 10.8 %, 15.8 %, and 9 % for mixes contained 5 %, 10 %, 15 %,
and 20 % SCBA, respectively. For HSC mixes including 5 % NEP, the increment ratios were 11 %, 14.1 %, 19.8 %, and 12.3 % for HSC
with 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % SCBA. The mixes 5SCBA-7.5NEP, 10SCBA-7.5NEP, 15SCBA-7.5NEP, and 20SCBA-7.5NEP have higher
flexural strength by 10.8 %, 13.9 %, 19.2 %, and 12.2 %, respectively, compared with CEM mix. So, from the results obtained the
optimum flexural strength for 15 % SCBA with 5 % NEP (11.0 MPa). When SCBA and NEP are added together, they have a profound
influence on the flexural strength of HSC. It has been discovered that flexural strength was created during the hydration reaction of
cement with high silica in SCBA. The increased flexural strength of HSC may be attributable to the finer particle composition of NEP
[23,96–98]. At 28 days, the mean flexural/compressive strength of the HSC mixes was about 12.9 %.

4.2.4. Modulus of elasticity

Fig. 12 exhibits the modulus of elasticity at 28 days for SCBA and NEP concrete mixtures. Generally, the elastic modulus is related to
compressive strength and corresponding compressive strain. The elastic modulus of the HSC mixture with 15 % SCBA is 8.3 %
(40.01 GPa) higher than the control mixture (36.95 GPa), which complied with [95,99,100]. The cementitious materials are decreased
the pore size and develop the elastic modulus of concrete [101,102]. The modulus of elasticity of concrete may also be enhanced by
increasing the ITZ between the mortar and aggregate filler material used in the concrete mix [20]. The modulus of elasticity at the 28
days of HSC mixtures using SCBA and NEP ranged from 38.46 GPa (5SCBA-2.5NEP) to 40.98 GPa (15SCBA-5NEP). The findings
showed that a combination of 15 % SCBA and 5 % NEP produced the highest modulus of elasticity, 40.98 GPa, which was 10.9 %
greater than the control mixture. The increase in compressive strength of HSC mixtures is proportional to their increase in modulus of
elasticity, which is consistent with the literature [83,95,103].

4.3. Physical properties

4.3.1. Chloride-ion penetration resistance

Fig. 13 presents the results of chloride-ion penetration of all specimens for different HSC mixes. An experimental evaluation using
electrical conductance was executed to appear the HSC resistance of chloride-ion penetration. The very low penetrability means the
concrete recording from 100 to 1000 coulombs. While the concrete names low penetrability ranging between 1000 and 2000 coulombs
[104]. Gradually diminishing chloride-ion penetrability was found when SCBA and NEP percentages increased. In terms of chloride ion
permeability, all HSC combinations are characterized as having a "low" level. The chloride-ion penetrability was about 1743, 1309, and
1202 coulombs for CEM, 20SCBA, and 20SCBA-7.5NEP mixes. The 20 % SCBA and 20 % SCBA with 7.5 % NEP decrease the

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Fig. 13. Chloride-ion penetration of all mixes at 28 days.

chloride-ion penetrability by 25 % and 32 %, compared with the CEM mixture. However, this refers to the high resistance of HSC to
chloride-ion penetrability of all samples containing SCBA and NEP, unlike CEM mixtures which are similar to results obtained by [74,
105]. Also, the better resistance may be due to the lowest porosity that does not allow the migration of chloride-ions into the concrete.
It can be concluded that the SCBA and NEP are more effective materials for resisting chloride-ion penetrability. This conclusion
complies with other studies [106,107]. The decreases in the coulombs of electrical conductance value of SCBA and NEP concrete
occurred at 20 % SCBA with 7.5 % NEP.

4.3.2. Sorptivity
Fig. 14 shows the effect of SCBA and NEP contents on the HSC sorptivity at 28 days. The sorptivity of HSC mixes is decreased with
increasing the SCBA and NEP ratios. The reduction percentage in sorptivity was 33 %, 41 %, 47 %, and 53 % for 5SCBA, 10SCBA,
15SCBA, and 20SCBA mixes; 39 %, 47 %, 53 %, and 60 % for 5SCBA-2.5NEP, 10SCBA-2.5NEP, 15SCBA-2.5NEP, and 20SCBA-2.5NEP
mixes; 46 %, 54 %, 60 %, and 67 % for 5SCBA-5NEP, 10SCBA-5NEP, 15SCBA-5NEP, and 20SCBA-5NEP mixes; 50 %, 58 %, 64 %, and
71 % for 5SCBA-7.5NEP, 10SCBA-7.5NEP, 15SCBA-7.5NEP, and 20SCBA-7.5NEP mixes, respectively compared with CEM mix. The
pozzolanic reaction of SCBA and NEP in HSC mixes resulted in superior performance compared to CEM mix. During the last stage of
cement’s hydration process, a C-S-H structure made of nano-silica fills the material’s pores [108]. The nano-materials and powders
produce impermeable concrete and considerably decrease the concrete sorptivity, compatible with an investigation conducted on HSC
with fly ash [109].

4.3.3. Water permeability

Fig. 15 depicts the water permeability of HSC mixtures after 28 days. As compatible with prior research [110,111] the water
permeability of the control concrete was 4.7 × 10− 11 m/s. HSC mixtures have less water permeability when SCBA and NEP con­
centrations are raised. There was a 27 % reduction in permeability for the 5SCBA mix compared to the reference mix, and a 44 %
reduction in permeability for the 20SCBA mix compared to the reference mix. Pozzolanic activity of SCBA aids concrete in reducing
pore size in concrete specimens, which in turn reduces water permeability. For 2.5 % NEP, the permeability of HSC was lower than the
CEM mix by 29 %, 36 %, 42 %, and 46 % for mixes involving SCBA with 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 %. For 20 % SCBA with 5 % NEP, a
high decrease in permeability of 48 % was observed. For 7.5 % NEP, significant enhancement was observed by a decrease in
permeability of 34 %, 40 %, 47 %, and 50 % for 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % SCBA compared to the control specimen. Concrete’s pores

Fig. 14. Sorptivity coefficient of all mixes at 28 days.

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

Fig. 15. Water permeability of all mixes at 28 days.

were filled with cementitious microparticles [112]. The pozzolanic activity reduces the calcium hydroxide and creates the hydrated
calcium silicates, which decrease the voids in the paste [113]. The more SCBA and NEP, the more concrete porosities were reduced due
to the increasing hydration of the cementitious materials. In a water penetration test, Doh and Chin [114] found that the value dropped
dramatically at 20 % eggshell.

4.3.4. Drying shrinkage

Table 6 shows the drying shrinkage variation of the mixture with various SCBA and NEP contents. The drying shrinkage increases
up to 91 days with increased SCBA content. The drying shrinkage at 91 days is turned into 447 µε in the mixture with a 20 % SCBA.
However, the shrinkage becomes 383 µε for CEM concrete mix without SCBA. The mix 20SCBA has the highest shrinkage at 91 days,
which is agreed with [115]. At the initial state, the shrinkage increased by about 70 % of the maximum drying shrinkage within 90
days. The development of drying shrinkage of the HSC matrix refers to the reactivity, which is based on the fineness degree and particle
size of cementitious materials. The autogenous shrinkage of HSC can occur using SCBA [116], which leads to few pores in HSC and the
hardness matrix with SCBA [52]. Once the SCBA is blended with cement, the concrete volume change is started incredibly due to
self-drying (self-desiccation) effects [117]. On the other hand, the drying shrinkage of concrete mixture with different NEP varied
between 265 µε and 358 µε, while the CEM mixture was 383 µε at 91 days. The NEP ratios decrease the drying shrinkage compared to
the CEM and SCAB mixtures.The NEP reduces the drying shrinkage of concrete caused by reducing the internal pores of cement paste.
Consequently, the shrinkage of HSC mixes containing NEP was lesser than the control sample. Nanoscale fillers, on the other hand,
have an exceptionally high specific surface area to volume (SSA/V) ratio and a strong interfacial tack zone (ITZ) connection between
the particles and the matrix. Also, a higher quantity of NEP particles may reduce the particles’ filler effect due to the phenomena of
aggregation. These results conformed with the report by [118,119]. From this point of view, these concretes are considered within the
high-performance category.

Table 6
Drying shrinkage of HSC mixtures.
Mixes Drying Shrinkage (micro-strain (µε))

1 7 14 21 28 56 91
day days days days days days days

CEM 73 151 220 256 294 340 383

5SCBA-0NEP 78 158 228 265 306 354 398
10SCBA-0NEP 80 164 237 276 319 368 415
15SCBA-0NEP 83 170 248 287 332 382 431
20SCBA-0NEP 86 178 258 298 345 396 447
5SCBA-2.5NEP 67 142 205 237 275 315 358
10SCBA-2.5NEP 69 146 211 244 282 325 369
15SCBA-2.5NEP 73 150 218 253 290 336 382
20SCBA-2.5NEP 77 155 224 260 300 348 395
5SCBA-5NEP 57 124 177 208 240 277 312
10SCBA-5NEP 60 128 185 215 247 286 322
15SCBA-5NEP 62 132 193 222 255 296 333
20SCBA-5NEP 66 137 201 230 264 307 345
5SCBA-7.5NEP 49 105 151 180 201 233 265
10SCBA-7.5NEP 52 108 157 186 209 242 275
15SCBA-7.5NEP 54 113 163 193 218 251 285
20SCBA-7.5NEP 57 118 170 200 227 262 296

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

4.4. Microstructure

Fig. 16-d illustrate the morphology obtained by SEM of the HSC mixes with a 15 % replacement rate of SCBA and different ratios of
0 %, 2.5 %, 5 %, and 7.5 % of NEP in addition to the control mixture (SEM). Fig. 16b–d, micrographs of 15SCBA-0NEP, 15SCBA-
2.5NEP, 15SCBA-5NEP, and 15SCBA-7.5NEP exhibit denser structure than the reference mixture CEM, as presented in Fig. 16a. SEM
image of mix CEM shows the unreacted free Ca(OH)2 and internal hair cracks due to incomplete hydration reaction of cement paste.
The high specific surface area and fineness modulus of SCBA and NEP were enhancement the HSC microstructure. The internal pores of

Fig. 16. SEM of mixes: a) CEM b) 15SCBA-0NEP; c) 15SCBA-2.5NEP; d) 15SCBA-5.0NEP; e) 15SCBA-7.5NEP.

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M. Amin et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01528

concrete were filled by micro-particles SCBA and NEP. In addition, the pozzolanic material’s interaction with Ca(OH)2 resulted in the
formation of the C-S-H gel. The microstructure characteristics development was a related tool to the mechanical characteristics. As
shown in Fig. 16d, the microstructure of the 15SCBA-5NEP matrix is optimal, with dense and free holes and fractures. The SEM image
reveals the dense microstructure due to the pozzolanic material. The mix includes the pozzolanic material showing better micro­
structure than the control mix [120–123].

5. Conclusion

• The SCBA without NEP delays the initial and final setting times of fresh HSC mixtures. The retarder ratio was 4.5 %, 8.2 %, 12.7 %,
and 18.2 % for 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and 20 % SCBA, respectively compared with control mix. The setting time of HSC mixes accel­
erated more than the control mix with an increasing NEP ratio. The maximum accelerating ratio was up to about 58 % for mix
5SCBA-7.5NEP.
• The HSC workability was decreased linearly with increased SCBA and NEP contents. The slump of CEM, 20SCBA-0NEP, and
20SCBA-7.5NEP mixtures were 143 mm, 121 mm, and 106 mm, respectively.
• The SCBA reduces the air contents of HSC mixtures by 7.5 %, 11.8 %, 16 %, and 20.9 % for mixes 5SCBA, 10SCBA, 15SCBA, and
20SCBA, respectively. The reduction in the air content percentage enhanced the workability, strength, sorptivity, and water
permeability. The concrete mix that includes SCBA with NEP has air contents lower than the other mix without NEP. The maximal
reduction in the air content was 35.3% of 20SCBA-7.5NEP compared with the CEM mix.
• The compressive strength of HSC mixes containing SCBA without NEP was improved on all testing days compared to the control
mix (69.5 MPa). The HSC mixture with 15 % SCBA + 5 % NEP as an addition from cement content improved the compressive
strength by 21.7 %, 24.0 %, 23.6%, and 24.8 % higher than the control mixture at 1, 7, 28, and 91 days, respectively.
• The tensile strength at the point of fracture is greatest for the blend consisting of 15 % SCBA and 5 % NEP. The growing proportion
was 19.5 % greater than the CEM blend. The average splitting strength value is also around 8.74 % of the compressive strength
result for the identical HSC mixtures.
• The flexural strength of HSC mixtures with SCBA and NEP ratios shows the same direction of change as the compressive strength.
For HSC mixes including 5 % NEP, the increment ratios were 11 %, 14.1 %, 19.8 %, and 12.3 % for HSC with 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, and
20 % SCBA.
• The NEP reduces the drying shrinkage of concrete caused by reducing the internal pores of cement paste. Consequently, the
shrinkage of HSC mixes containing NEP was lesser than the control sample.
• For 20 % SCBA with 5 % NEP, a high decrease in permeability of 48 % was observed. The microparticles of SCBA and NEP can fill
the voids in the concrete structure.
• The decreases in the coulombs of electrical conductance value of SCBA and NEP concrete occurred at 20 % SCBA with 7.5 % NEP.

6. Recommendations

• Effect of SCBA and NEP as an addition to cement on the feasibility study of HSC.
• Structural behavior of reinforced concrete elements based on the volume change results of HSC using SCBA and NEP.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mohamed Amin: Visualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Mohammed M. Attia:
Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Ibrahim Saad Agwa: Methodology, Writing – review & editing.
Yara Elsakhawy: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Khaled Abu el-hassan: Methodology, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing. Bassam Abdelsalam Abdelsalam: Visualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

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