Material Merged Merged

Dental Biomaterial III
Course Description
This course provides information about dental

cements, direct and indirect restorative materials, the
new field of adhesive dentistry, denture base polymers
and all ceramic restorative materials. Furthermore, it
provides step-by-step information about the casting
metal alloys and wrought alloys. It augments the
casting procedure with ceramic materials.
Dental Cements
• Cements are generally hard, brittle materials
formed when the powder is mixed with a
liquid.
Powder + Liquid
Pastelike or flowable material
Hardens to a rigid solid

Luting
 Cementing agent for permanent

restorations.
 Temporary restorations.
 Liners and bases.
 Cementing agents for orthodontic
appliances.
 Periodontal dressing.
 Root canal fillers and sealers.
 Pulp capping agents.
 Anterior restorations.
2007/2008
Definitions
❑ Luting cements
• Material that acts as an adhesive to hold the indirect
restoration to tooth structure. Luting agents are designed to
be either permanent or temporary
i. Permanent cements
• For the long-term cementation of indirect restorations such
as inlays, crowns, bridges and laminate veneers
ii. Temporary cements
• Temporary cements are used when the restoration will have

to be removed. Most commonly, temporary cement is
selected for the placement of provisional coverage
General properties
▪ Non toxic, non irritant
▪ Insoluble in oral fluids
▪ Antibacterial effect
▪ Obtunding effect (relief of pain)
▪ Adhere chemically to tooth
As luting agent
▪ Low viscosity [low film thickness = 15-50 µm]
▪ Optical properties similar to tooth structure if used to
cement all-ceramic restorations (translucent)
As base or liner
▪ Thermal, electrical, and chemical insulation
▪ High mechanical properties to allow condensation of filling
without fracture
▪ High modulus of elasticity to resist fracture under
masticatory forces
As filling material
▪ Neither dissolve nor absorb oral fluids
▪ High mechanical properties
▪ Match teeth structure in color and translucency
Thermal properties
▪ Their coefficient of thermal expansion should match
that of tooth structure
▪ Low thermal diffusivity
N.B. No single material can fulfill all of these

requirements
Bases and liners
• Materials placed between dentin and the restoration to
provide pulp protection.
1. Chemical protection
2. Electrical protection
3. Thermal protection
4. Pulp medication
• These functions differ as the depth of the restoration,

and the type of restorative material
Cavity Liners
• Thin layers of material (≤0.5 mm) used primarily as

chemical barrier between the restoration and the
remaining dentine following cavity preparation.
Cavity bases
• Those cements commonly used in thicker dimensions
beneath permanent
Electrical
restorations to provide for
mechanical, chemical, and thermal protection of the
pulp.
Cavity base Cavity liner
- used in moderate cavity - used in deep cavity &
to act as thermal and act as chemical insulator
electrical insulator ( its - used in deep cavity with
thickness 1-2mm) thickness 0.2-1mm
Classification of Dental Cements
Conventional cement
• Zinc oxide-eugenol cement
• Calcium hydroxide cement
• Zinc phosphate cement
• Polycarboxylate cement
• Glass ionomer cement
Resin-base cement
• Resin modified glass ionomer cement
• Resin cement
Types of Dental Cements:
 1- Cements based on Zinc Oxide.

 2- Cements based on Alumino Silicate Glasses
( Ion leachable glasses ).
 3- Other cements:
 Resin cements.
 Calcium – Hydroxide cements.
 Cavity liners and Varnishes.
Zinc Oxide
Eugenol Phosphoric acid Polyacrylic acid
Zinc oxide eugenol cement Zinc polycarboxylate

cement
Zinc phosphate cement
Alumino-Slicate Glass
Phosphoric acid Polyacrylic acid
Slicate cements Glass-ionomer cements

The clinical use of Zinc oxide eugenol
(ZOE) was introduced in the 1890s. The
combination of zinc oxide and eugenol,
contained in oil of cloves, creates Zinc
oxide-eugenol (ZOE). An acid-base
reaction takes place, in presence of
water and accelerated by metal salts,
leading to the formation of zinc
eugenolate chelate.
2007/2008
Zinc Oxide Eugenol
They are characterized by
• Sedative effect on the pulp due to presence of eugenol and
their neutral pH
• Lower strength than Zinc phosphate cement
• Usually used as temporary filling
Types of Zinc Oxide Eugenol

1. Conventional ZOE
2. Reinforced ZOE
Forms: Liquid/Powder
• Mixed on paper pad
• Mixing time ranges from 30 to 60 seconds
• Setting time in the mouth ranges from 3 to 5 minutes
Compositions
Powder
• Zinc oxide: main ingredients
• Rosin: reduce the brittleness of the set cement
• Zinc stearate: plasticizer (i.e. form workable mass)
• Zinc acetate: improve strength
Liquid
• Eugenol and olive oil
Applications (Uses)
1. Cavity liner in deep cavity
2. Temporary filling material
3. Temporary cementing agent
4. Surgical dressing
5. Traditional root canal sealer

Setting reaction: Acid-base reaction
• First , hydrolysis of zinc oxide to its hydroxide
ZnO + H2O → Zn(OH)2
• Zinc hydroxide combines with eugenol to form a chelate
Zn(OH)2 + 2HE → ZnE2 + 2H2O ZnO ( unreacted part)
Zinc eugenolate
• Water is essential for reaction to proceed

• Reaction is a acid base one
• Structure: particles of unreacted zinc oxide embedded in a
matrix of zinc eugenolate.
Manipulation
Powder/liquid
▪ The bulk - incorporated into the liquid -spatulated thoroughly in a
circular motion with a stiff bladed spatula
▪ Small increments - until the mix is complete with the required

consistency
Classification
Type I: Temporary cementation (luting cement)
Type II: Permanent cementation (MODIFIED TYPE)
Type III: Temporary restoration [for a few days]
Type IV: Cavity liner
Interaction with other dental materials

✓ It inhibits composite polymerization. Therefore, it should
not be used under composite resin or as temporary
cement for restoration that will be cemented by resin
cements.
✓ Instead, non-eugenol ZO ; cements are formulated with
oil other than eugenol to be used in such situations and
for sensitive patients to eugenol.
* Properties:-
1- Biological properties:
- PH of the set cement is about 7(neutral) → little or
no effect on the pulp when placed in a deep cavity.
- Presence of free eugenol → sedative/palliative
effect and bacteriostatic action.
2- Consistency and film thickness:
40 microns.
3- Solubility and disintegration:
Free eugenol → leaching out → then replaced by
water→ hydrolysis of zinc eugenolate matrix and
disintegration of cement structure (high solubility of
all cements).
4- Strengh:
Poor (compressive: 15 MPa, tensile: 5MPa).
5- Bonding:
By mechanical interlocking.
6- Optical properties:
A-Lower mechanical properties(weak) → cannot
withstand forces of Condensation of amalgam
→ not used under amalgam filling.
B- High solubility → not used for permanent
cementation.
C- Eugenol:
# Some Pt sensitive to it.
# interferes with polymerization of
resins → not used under resin based
materials
1- Reinforced Zinc Oxide/Eugenol
* Aim: - a- improves mech. Properties.
b- ↓ solubility.
*Types:-
A- Polymer reinforced ZOE cement
B-Ethoxy benzoic acid cement

(E.B.A cement)
They are characterized by
• High pH value (alkaline)
➢ Stimulate pulp to lay down 2ry dentin.
➢ Have antibacterial effect→ destroy micro-organisms
found in carious lesions
• Good Biocompatibility
• Mainly used as Linear in deep cavity
Application (Uses)
• Used as a liner in deep cavity to seal the dentinal tubules
and prevent penetration of chemicals into the pulp.
• Used in direct pulp capping
• Used as intra-canal medicaments in endodontics
▪ Calcium Hydroxide Suspension.
▪ Two-paste system (chemically cured).
▪ One-paste system (light cured).
▪ Two-paste system (chemically cured).(DYCAL)
Paste 1 Paste 2
 Calcium hydroxide  Glycol salicylate.
 Zinc oxide  Titanium dioxide.
 Zinc stearate.  Calcium sulphate.
 sulphonamide.  Calcium tungstate.

▪ Setting reaction:
▪ 1. equal volumes of the two pastes are mixed on
waxed paper pad for 30 seconds. The cements will
set in 2 minutes
▪ Acid base reaction named Chelation

* Properties:
 1- Biological properties:
- Ph: 11-12 (alkaline) → stimulate pulp to lay
down 2ry dentin.
- Have antibacterial effect→ destroy micro-
organisms found in carious lesions.
 2- Solubility and disintegration: High
solubility
 3- Compressive strength:
 - Very low (5 MPa).
 - Therefore in deep cavity, a thin liner of Ca
(OH) cement and then a base of Zinc ph
cement should be placed before condensation
THANK YOU
Zinc oxide powder-based dental
cements
Faculty of Dentistry
ILOs
 Be familiar with zinc phosphate and

Polycarboxylate cements.
 Know their composition.
 Understand the setting reaction of both cements.
 How to manipulate them.
 Understand properties and applications of both
cements.
Classification of dental cements
They can be classified by the nature of the cement

powder into:
1. Zinc oxide
(ZOE, Zinc Phosphate, Zinc polycarboxylate
cements).
2. Ion leachable glasses (alumino-silicate glass)
Silicate and glass ionomer cements.
Zinc phosphate cements
It is a water-based cement, packaged as a powder and

liquid system.
 Powder:
- Zinc oxide (90%)
- Magnesium oxide
- Other oxides
 Liquid
- Aqueous solution of phosphoric acid (30-40% H2O)
- Zinc or aluminum phosphate ( buffer
Role of water
 Controls ionization of the acid.

 Influences the rate of reaction.
 Additional water increases the rate of ionization
which accelerates the reaction (shorten working
and setting time).
Uses
 Type
I: used for luting (permanent
cementation) of alloy restorations.
 TypeII: used for other purposes like

bases.
Setting reaction (crystallization)
 The surface of the zinc oxide particles reacts

with phosphoric acid to give an insoluble
phosphate.
 The final set mass is heterogeneous consisting
of a core of unreacted powder in a matrix of
zinc phosphate.
 Shrinkage occurs.
 It is exothermic reaction (produces heat).
Setting reaction (exothermic reaction)
Zinc oxide + Phosphoric acid Zinc phosphate + Heat

Set mass of zinc phosphate cement
Manipulation
Proportioning (Powder/liquid ration)

It depends on the needed consistency (base
or luting).
Mixing
- Carried out on a cool thick glass slab using a
cement spatula to dissipate the heat of reaction.
- Adding powder to the liquid in small

increments, to prolong the working time.
Manipulation
 A small portion of the liquid is added first to the

whole liquid to neutralize the acidity and
minimize heat liberation.
 Mixing is done over large area.
 Large amounts of powder can be incorporated
to saturate the mix.
 Finally a small increment of powder is
incorporated to control consistency of the mix.
Dispensing powder and liquid
Mixing and luting consistency
Mixing powder with liquid in increments
Consistency of the mix (for cementation)
Consistency of the mix
Precautions
 The liquid should be kept in a stoppered

bottle to avoid evaporation of water.
 If the liquid becomes cloudy in the bottle, it

should be discarded.
 Mixing should be done on a wide area of

thick glass slab to dissipate the resulting
heat.
Properties of zinc phosphate cement
 Working time
1-1.5 min
 Setting time
5-9 min
Factors affecting setting time
 Powder
- Finer particles react more quickly.
- Higher heat (powder preparation) reduces
the reactivity.
 Liquid
Adding buffering slowdown the rate of
reaction.
Factors affecting setting time
 Manipulative variables
The following four factors causes acceleration
of the reaction: High mixing
1. A high powder-liquid ratio.

2. Fast rate of addition of powder to liquid.
3. The presence of moisture.
4. Higher temperature.
Properties
 Biological properties
- Freshly mixed cement has a pH between 1.6 and 3.6.
- So cavity liner should be used underneath it to
protect the pulp in deep cavities.
- It approaches neutrality within one to two days.
- Thin mix is more acidic than thick mix.
Properties
 Retention depends on mechanical interlocking
between the surface irregularities of the tooth
and restorations
 Stronger than zinc oxide eugenol cement.
 The set cement is opaque.
 Low film thickness (less than 25 micrometer).
Copper and silver modified zinc phosphate
cements
 They are similar to phosphate cements

except that the powder contains copper or
silver.
 They are considered bactericidal.
 Used mainly for cementation of orthodontic

appliances.
Ploycarboxylate cements
Carboxylate-based cements
Ploycarboxylate cement
 It is water-based cement.
 It is the first cement that produces true
chemical adhesion with tooth structure.
Composition
 Podwer/Liquid system
It is composed of a powder like zinc phosphate
cement with some fluoride.
The liquid is a polyacrylic acid (PAA)

copolymer in water and tartaric acid to reduce
viscosity.
 Single bottle system
The liquid can be freeze-dried and added to the
powder. This form is mixed with water.
(less viscous).
Packaging of polycarboxylate cement
Packaging of polycarboxylate cement
Bonding with tooth structure
 It is This occurs through an ionic interaction

between negatively charged molecules in the
cement with positively charged atoms, such as
calcium, in the tooth structure.
 The carboxylic group in PAA reacts with Ca ion in
tooth structures.
 Ionic bond formed between PAA and Ca ions in
hydroxyapatite.
 This bond is greater with enamel than dentin.
Setting reaction (gelation) and manipulation
 Zinc oxide + polyacrylic acid → zinc polycaboxylate
 The powder is rapidly incorporated in the liquid in

large quantities.
 Mix should be done rapidly in 30 to 40 sec.
 The mix should be used while it is still glossy.
 Working time is 2.5 to 3.5 min.

Properties
 Zinc polycarboxylate cement combines the

strength properties of phosphate cement with
the biologic acceptability of ZOE cement.
 It is weaker than zinc phosphate and stronger
than ZOE.
Properties
 Biological properties
Although polycarboxylate cement is acidic, it is
not irritant as zinc phosphate cement. This is
for two reasons:
1. Ployacrylic acid is weaker.
2. Polyacid chains are too large and lack the

mobility (high viscosity) to penetrate dentinal
tubules.
Properties
 Higher solubility than zinc phosphate cement,
silicophosphate and glass ionomer.
 Low irritation.
 Easy manipulation.
 Comparable film thickness with zinc phosphate.
 More difficult to mix than other cement because
of its high viscosity.
Applications
 Permanent cementation of metallic

restorations (common)
 Cavity liner
 Base
Filling the fitting surface of the bridge with
the cement
Removal of excess cement
Dental Biomaterial III
Glass Ionomer Cements
“Polyalkenoate cement” “ASPA
(aluminosilicate polyacrylic acid)”
▪ Chemical Bond with tooth structure

▪ Fluoride release and rechargeability
▪ Biocompatible
▪ Appropriate coefficient of thermal
expansion with tooth structure
• Definition
• The word glass ionomer is a name derived from

cement composition as the powder particles are
ion leachable glass (alumina-silicate glass) that
are able to react with ionomeric acid containing
carboxyl group (polyacrylic acid).

A marriage of convenience between
SILICATE CEMENT ZINC POLY CARBOXYLATE
The “F” word The “B” words !!

“Fluoride” “Biocompatibility”
“Bonding”
Types of glass ionomer cements according to their
uses
• Type I: Luting A CORE
• Type II: Restoration
• Type III: Liners and bases
• Type IV: Pit and fissure sealants
• Type V: Orthodontic cements
• Type VI: Core build up
 Conventional glass ionomer
 Metal modified glass ionomer
 Resin modified glass ionomer
A. Conventional glass ionomer
They are supplied in the form of:

Powder and liquid: Mixed over paper pad using
plastic spatula.
Capsules: To be mixed with mechanical mixer.
Water settable: Utilized a polyacrylic acid
copolymer in a dry powder form mixed with
regular water to get cement mix.
Two paste system: In cartridge, dispensed and
mixed over a paper pad.
Composition:
• Powder:
✓ Acid soluble calcium fluroaluminosilicate glass
✓ Silica 29.0%
✓ Alumina 16.6%
✓ Aluminum fluoride 5.3%
✓ Calcium fluoride 34.3%
✓ Sodium fluoride 5.0%
✓ Aluminum phosphate 9.8%

 Liquid:
 Polyacrylic acid
 Water: Medium of reaction and hydrates the
reaction products.
 Tartaric acid to improve setting properties

 Freeze-dried Poly acid powder is
incorporated with glass powder.
 Powder (with both components) is mixed
with water on use
 Facilitates mixing and extends shelf life
Setting reaction
• Chemical reaction, called acid-base reaction.
• Slow reaction.
Fig.1. Setting reaction of conventional glass

ionomer
➢ Dissolution .
➢ Gelation
➢ Hardening
2007/2008
Unreacted glass particles.
Silica hydrogel sheath .
Amorphous matrix of
cross-
Linked polysalt
hydrogel of
Ca++&Al+++.
The structure of the set GIC
2007/2008
H2O Si+4
PAA
SiO2, in Al+3
SiO2,
Al2O3, H2O Na+
Al2O3,
Na, Ca, Ca+2
Na, Ca,
F F-
F
PAA
Residual Glass Particle

SiO2,
POLYACRYLATE HYDROGEL
Al2O3, (initially Ca polyacrylate gel
Na, Ca, and later Al polyacrylate gel)
F
Si+4, Al+3, Ca+2, Na+, F- Ions
Stages
1. Dissolution (Acid attack)
• When the powder and liquid are mixed, the

surface of the glass particles is attacked by the
acid. Then Ca, Al, sodium, and fluoride ions are
leached from the glass and diffuse into the
aqueous acidic solution. Calcium polysalts are
formed first, and then followed by aluminum
Polyacid liquid
Hydrogen
ions
Ca2+
Al3+
Glass core
F-
Silica gel
2. Gelation
• Set cement consists of unreacted glass particles
surrounded by silica gel held together by an
amorphous matrix of hydrated Polyacrylate
calcium and
aluminum polysalts. Calcium polysalts are
responsible for initial set.
Ca2+ -COOH
Al3+
Cross-linked
F- polyacid
3. Hardening
 Last as long as 7 days.
 The reaction of aluminium ions provides the final
strength of set cement.
Hydration: Both matrix and silica gel are hydrated
at the end of the reaction and strength developed.
Water plays an important role in the structure of
cement.
• After hardening, fresh cement is extremely prone

to the cracking and crazing, due to drying of
loosely bound water. Hence these cements must
be protected by application of varnish.
Glass
core
Cross-linked polyacid
Silica gel
• Manipulation
1. Preparation of tooth surface
• The enamel and dentin are first cleaned with
pumice slurry followed by application of 10%
polyacrylic acid for 5 seconds to ‘condition’ the
dentin surface to remove the smear layer.
• After conditioning and rinsing, tooth surface
should isolate and dry.
2. Proportioning and mixing
a. Hand mixing:
• Divide the dispersed powder into two equal parts.
• Powder is incorporated rapidly into liquid.
• 10 seconds after adding first increment, second
increment is added to the liquid.
• Finished mix should have a glossy surface.
b. Capsule mixing:
• Amalgamator is used for mixing.
• Powder and liquid contained within capsule are
mixed by removing the seal separating the liquid
and powder.
• After mixing, the cement is dispersed directly on
the prepared cavity.
• Advantages: Controlled over P/L ratio.
3.Protection of cement during setting
 Glass ionomer cement is extremely sensitive to air
and water during setting.
 Immediately after placement into cavity,
preshaped matrix is applied to it.
3. 4. Finishing:
 Excess material should be trimmed from margins.
 Hand instruments are preferred to rotary tools to
avoid ditching.
 Further finishing is done after 24 hours.
5. Protection of cement after setting

• Before dismissing the patient, restoration is again
coated with the protective agent (varnish) to protect
trimmed area.
• Failure to protect for first 24 hours results in weakens
cement.
 Properties
1. Biocompatibility
• Pulpal response to glass ionomer cement is
favorable.
• Pulpal response is mild due to: Large molecular
weight of the polyacrylic acid, which prevents
entry into dentinal tubules.
2. Anticariogenic properties
• Fluoride is released from glass ionomer at the
time of mixing and lies within matrix.
• Initial release is high, but declines after 3
months.
• Fluoride can also be taken up into the cement
during topical fluoride treatment and released
again, thus glass ionomer act as fluoride
reservoir. (Fluoride rechargeability)
3. Solubility and disintegration: Initial solubility is

high due to leaching of intermediate products.
The complete setting reaction takes place in 24
hours; cement should be protected from saliva
during this period.
4. Adhesion:
 Glass ionomer cement bonds chemically to the
tooth structure
• Bonding is due to reaction occurring between
carboxyl group of polyacrylic acid and calcium of
hydroxyapatite of enamel and dentin.
• Bonding with enamel is higher than that of
dentin, due to greater inorganic content.
5. Esthetics:
• Glass ionomer cement is tooth colored material
and available in different shades.
• Potential for discoloration and staining.
• Advantages • Disadvantages
1. Adhesion to the 1. Technique sensitive
tooth surface during manipulation
2. Good marginal seal and bonding
3. Anticariogenic 2. Short working time
property (long and long setting
fluoride release) time
4. Biocompatibility 3. Low fracture
5. Minimal cavity toughness
preparation required (brittleness)
4. Low wear resistance
Poor Strength Properties
Poor Esthetic Qualities
Low Abrasion Resistance
Moisture Sensitivity
Short WT
B. Modifications of glass ionomer
cements
• Aim
– Improves mechanical properties.
– Improves abrasion (wear) resistance.
• Types
1. Metal-reinforced glass ionomer
a. Silver alloy admix
• Idea and aim: Incorporate amalgam alloy powder
with the glass powder (hand mixed material)
before mixing with the acid in order to increase
wear resistance and flexural strength.
• E.g.: Miracle mixture.
Modifications of glass
ionomer cements
• Disadvantages: Did not increase the wear
resistance (Not successful).
b. Cermet cement
• Idea: Silver particles are bonded to glass particles
by sintering (fusion at high temperature, then
ground to give fine powder and react with acid
(capsulated, mechanically mixed material).
• More resistance to wear than conventional glass
ionomer.
ionomer cements
b. Cermet cement
• Poor esthetics: Radiopaque and grayish in color.
• Applications:
1. Core build up restoration.
2. Restoration of class І and class II in deciduous teeth.
ionomer cements
2. Light cured glass ionomers (Resin
modified glass ionomers or Hybrid
ionomers)
• Purpose: To overcome the disadvantages of
moisture sensitivity, low early strength, short
working time and long setting time of the
conventional glass ionomer (these problems
result from slow acid-base reaction).
ionomer cements
 Idea: Addition of polymerizable functional
groups (resin component) to the composition of
conventional glass ionomer.
 These functional groups give additional curing

processes that can overcome these problems and
allow the bulk of the material to mature through
acid-base reaction.
ionomer cements
• The resin component is polymerized either
chemically or by light.
• Form: Powder/Liquid.
• Composition:
• Powder: Ion leachable glass and photoinitiator

for light (dual cure).
ionomer cements
 Liquid (Kept in a dark bottle): Modified polyacid
with methacrylate end group; hydroxyethyl
methacrylate (HEMA) monomer.
 Setting reaction: Two mechanisms
a. Dual cure: Two reactions include conventional

acid-base reaction and polymerization reaction
of the resin component when light is applied to
ionomer cements
• This reaction is much slower, giving a
considerable longer working time and a rapid set
once irradiated with visible light.
• Applications: Direct restorative materials,

bases or liners for use under composites,
amalgams and ceramic restorations.
ionomer cements
• Problem: Limited depth of cure.
• How to improve? 1- Incremental placement. 2-
Triple cure.
b. Triple cure: The resin part was modified to
allow self curing reaction→ Ensure effective
polymerization of the resin part in deep cavity.
• Three reactions:
1. Conventional acid-base reaction.
2. Light cure polymerization of the resin
component.
3. Chemical cure polymerization of the resin Self curing
ionomer cements
b. Triple cure:
• Advantages:
1. Incremental placement is not necessary.
2. The reaction ensures full depth of cure.
• It is used as core build up material.

Comparable properties of
cements
Compressive strength [MPa]
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
IC
IC
e
t
e
en
at
lat
G
ph
m
RM
xy
ce
os
bo
ph
sin
ar
Re
nc
lyc
Zi
Po
Zhen Chun Li and Shane N. White, 1999

Bond strength
Separation forces [MPa]
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Zinc phosphate GIC RMGIC Resin
Sule Ergin and Deniz Gemalmaz, 2002

Film thickness [µm]
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
te e IC IC sin
pha ylat G G Re
ho
s
bo
x RM
p r
nc yca
Zi Po
l
Shane N. White, Zhaokun Yu, 1992

THANK YOU
Dental Amalgam
By
Prof. Essam Al-
Wakeel
ILOs Faculty of Dentistry
Dental Amalgam Faculty of Dentistry
Short History Faculty of Dentistry
Short History Faculty of Dentistry
Uses
General Composition Faculty of Dentistry
Purposes of Constituents in Amalgam
expansion.
Ag-Sn Phase Diagram
Purposes of Constituents in Amalgam
alloy.
Presentation of amalgam alloy
Presentation of amalgam
Amalgam capsule
Amalgam capsule and pestle
Amalgamators
I
Lath-cut Spherical Admixed
Particle size
Lath-cut versus spherical powders
Classification
r .II
traditional).
It has < 6 wt% Cu -
Classification
It
Amalgamation reactions Faculty of Dentistry
Cu6Sn5 (ή) + γ + εγ 1+Weak

→Hgγ + Cu3Sn (ε) +
Filler increase strength
Hardest
Dispersion
Unreacted ( filler
SnHg
AgHg
Spherical
1
Unreacted
Phases present in low copper amalgam
Schematic diagram showing phases during
setting of low Cu amalgam
High copper amalgam
Schematic electron micrograph of admixed
high copper amalgam
‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬
Dental Amalgam II
By
Prof. Essam Al-Wakeel
Significant properties
 ANSI/ADA requirements
1. One hour compressive strength > 80 MPa
2. Creep < 3%
3. Dimensional changes in 5 minutes to one
day ± 20 µm/cm.
Strength and stiffness
 Amalgam is strong in compression than in tension
and has a relatively high modulus of elasticity.
 Tensile strength is about 1/8 of the compressive
strength at day 1.
 More γ in the set amalgam increases strength.
Less mercury
 Spherical alloys have higher strength.
Dimensional changes
 In general, most amalgams contract or

expand slightly during setting.
 Dissolution of γ causes contraction in the

first 20 min.
 Formation of γ1 and ή phases causes

expansion latter.
Delayed expansion
 It occurs in zinc-containing amalgam due to
moisture contamination during manipulation of
amalgam.
 Moisture may come from operator’s hand or
the patient’s saliva.
 It occurs over a period of weeks and months
 Zn + H2O → ZnO + H2
Creep Faculty of Dentistry
 The repeated chewing forces causes creep of

amalgam.
 Unicompositional amalgam shows the lowest
creep values.
 The presence of γ2 is associated with the
higher creep rates in low copper amalgam.
 Creep is correlated with marginal breakdown
(ditching) of the filling.
Marginal breakdown
Tarnish and corrosion
 Amalgams often show tarnish and corrosion in
the oral cavity.
 Corrosion causes increased porosity, reduced
marginal integrity, loss of strength and release
of intermetallic compounds.
 γ1 has the highest corrosion resistance and γ2
has the lowest.
 Corrosion products fill the gap between filling
and tooth walls reducing microleakage.
Types of corrosion
 Due to heterogeneous structure

 Galvanic corrosion
 Concentration cell corrosion
In low copper amalgam:
γ2 + 1/2O2 + H2O + Cl- → Sn4(OH)6Cl2 + Hg
In high copper amalgam

Cu6Sn5 (ή) + 1/2O2 + H2O + Cl- → CuCl2 3Cu (OH) + SnO
Thermal properties
 Amalgam has high thermal diffusivity, so it

require a base or liner under it.
 Varnish in superfacial cavity, glass ionomer or

zinc phosphate bases in moderate cavities and
calcium hydroxide liner and base in deep
cavities.
 Amalgam has a higher coefficient of thermal

expansion, Three times than that of tooth.
Microleakage
Manipulation of Dental Amalgam
A. Selection of the alloy and mercury
 A high-copper amalgam is selected because a
restoration with no gamma 2 (γ2) has better
mechanical properties.
 Spherical alloy has higher strength.
Less surface area and less mercury
 Fine particles produce smoother surface during

carving and finishing.
 Pure mercury should be used.
B. Proportion of the alloy to mercury
 In the past, Hg-alloy ratio was 3 to 1 or 8 to 5.
 Squeezing was required to remove excess Hg.
 In 1960, Eames technique (no squeeze-cloth
technique) was developed.
 Now, the Hg-alloy was low (1:1) and even less.
 The ratio can be adjusted using a mechanical
dispenser or using capsules.
 Every 1% increase in the residual Hg above 60% will
cause 1% decrease in compressive strength of the
filling.
C. Mixing (trituration)
 Old technique:
Trituration by mortar and pestle.
 Currently, mechanical mixing (amalgamators)
 Normal mix: appears shiny and separate as a
single mass.
 Undermix: appears dull and crumbly.
 Overmix: appears soupy and stick to the inside of
the capsule and the instruments.
Amalgamators
Amalgam (left: undermixed, center:
normal mix, right: overmixed)
Correctly triturated amalgam mass
Ready amalgam mass
Cavity design and Carrying amalgam
 The cavity should be with sufficient depth

particularly the isthmus part.
 Undercut is required to retain dental amalgam.
 Amalgam is dispensed into the isolated cavity
using amalgam carrier.
 The cavity should be filled in increments.
The amalgam being dispensed into the
cavity
D. Condensation
Purposes:
1. Compact the amalgam mix into a denser mass
and eliminating voids.
2. Adapt amalgam to the tooth structure.
3. Express (squeeze out) excess mercury.
Condensation
 Irregularly-shaped alloy needs smaller
condensers and greater force.
 Large condenser tips and smaller forces are
needed with spherical alloys.
 Mechanical condensation can be performed
using a mechanical device (impact or
vibration). Used mostly with irregularly-
shaped alloys when high condensation forces
are required.
Condensation of amalgam
Overpacking of amalgam
E. Carving and burnishing
 Amalgam restoration is carved to produce the
proper tooth anatomy using sharp carvers.
 Carving is done towards the margins of the
tooth.
 Burnishing involves rubbing the surface of
partially set amalgam with a smooth surface
instrument (burnisher).
 It helps to achieve better adaptation to the
cavity margins and eliminates microprosities.
Carving amalgam
Burnishing of amalgam
E. Carving and burnishing
 The disadvantage of burnishing is the
disturbance of the microstructure of the surface
layer resulting in weaker margins.
 In general, burnishing should not be done once
amalgam reaches certain degree of hardness.
F. Finishing and polishing
 Final finishing and polishing should not be

done until the amalgam is full set (at least 24
hours after condensation).
 Wet abrasive powder in a paste form and
rubber cup are used.
 Final polish is done using a rotating soft brush.
Finished amalgam
Finished amalgam
Advantages of dental amalgam
Ease of manipulation.
Acceptable marginal adaptation.
High compressive strength.
Technique insensitivity.
Self Sealing.
Good wear resistance.
Low cost.
Disadvantages Faculty of Dentistry
Some destruction of sound tooth tissue.

Poor aesthetic qualities.
Long-term corrosion.
Galvanic response potential exists.
Local allergic potential.
Concern about possible mercury toxicity.
High thermal diffusivity.
High coofficient of thermal expansion ( microleage)
Is Dental Amalgam a Safe
Restoration???
Amalgam Safety
 It is controversial.
 Despite the toxicity of mercury, dental

amalgam is a safe restoration.
 Hg can get access to the body through the skin,

ingestion or lungs.
 The most dangerous form of Hg in dental

clinic is Hg vapor.
Good Mercury Hygiene in
Dental Clinics
 Premeasured capsules should be used.

 A mask should be worn during working
with amalgam.
 Hg should be contained in stoppered
bottles.
 Spills of Hg should be avoided.
 No touch technique should be used.
Good Mercury Hygiene in
Dental Clinics
 Amalgam scrap should be stored under

water in a closed container.
 Dental office should not be carpeted.
No effective way for removing liquid mercury from carpeting.
 Use high evacuation system when

finishing or removing amalgam.
 Working in a well-ventilated spaces
with fresh air exchange.
Gallium Amalgam
 It was suggested as early as 1928 in
Germany.
 Under development in Japan since 1956.
 The first commercial alloy was introduced in
Tokyo in 1990 and called gallium alloy GF
and then Gallium alloy GF II.
 The more recent alloy was introduced in
Australia in 1995 and called Galloy.
Composition of Galloy
 Powder
Ag (50%), Sn (25.7%), Cu (15%) and Pd
(9%) and traces (0.3%), all by weight.
 Liquid
Gallium (62%), indium (25%), tin (13 %) and
traces 0.5%.
Handling characteristics
 Ga amalgams are more difficult to handle

(because of their sticky nature).
 In most other respects, they are similar to

spherical amalgam.
 They are technique sensitive.
Physical properties
 Comparable compressive strength and creep

with silver amalgam.
 Lower corrosion resistance.
 Moisture contamination causes marked

expansion (sometimes causes cracking of the
tooth).
Evaluation of Ga Amalgam
 Gallium amalgam can be successfully used

in simple cavities.
 Sealing the restoration before and after
placement is mandatory to prevent
excessive expansion.
 Handling properties need to be modified.
 More in-vivo studies are required before
market distribution.
Amalgam Bonding
 Using resin bonding technology, amalgam
is micromechanically bonded to dentin
and enamel.
 The advantages of amalgam bonding
include:
1. Amalgam retention
2. Tooth reinforcement
3. Reducing microleakage and post operative
sensitivity.
Resin bonding System for amalgam
 Amalgambond resin-based adhesive is one of

the first to find successes in the market.
 After application of the etchant and primer, the
mixed amalgam is condensed into the
adhesive.
 The resulting bond is almost half of that of
composites.
AMALGAM BONDING
Mechanical Interlocking
AMALGAM
BONDING SYSTEM
Amalgam Reaction
Product Matrix
Residual
Amalgam Alloy
Amalgambond Plus
(Parkell)
ENAMEL or DENTAL
DENTIN AMALGAM
Interfacial Interlocking of phases

Although there is evidence that amalgam use
is declining, it remains the first choice for
posterior direct restorations because of its
 Longevity
 Ease of placement
 Versatility
Amalgam versus composite restorations

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Dental Biomaterial III

This course provides information about dental

Pastelike or flowable material

Hardens to a rigid solid

 Cementing agent for permanent

ii. Temporary cements

• Temporary cements are used when the restoration will have

N.B. No single material can fulfill all of these

• These functions differ as the depth of the restoration,

• Thin layers of material (≤0.5 mm) used primarily as

 1- Cements based on Zinc Oxide.

Eugenol Phosphoric acid Polyacrylic acid

Zinc oxide eugenol cement Zinc polycarboxylate

Phosphoric acid Polyacrylic acid

Slicate cements Glass-ionomer cements

Types of Zinc Oxide Eugenol

1. Cavity liner in deep cavity

2. Temporary filling material

3. Temporary cementing agent

5. Traditional root canal sealer

• Water is essential for reaction to proceed

▪ Small increments - until the mix is complete with the required

Interaction with other dental materials

B-Ethoxy benzoic acid cement

▪ Two-paste system (chemically cured).(DYCAL)

 sulphonamide.  Calcium tungstate.

▪ Acid base reaction named Chelation

 Be familiar with zinc phosphate and

They can be classified by the nature of the cement

It is a water-based cement, packaged as a powder and

 Controls ionization of the acid.

 TypeII: used for other purposes like

 The surface of the zinc oxide particles reacts

Zinc oxide + Phosphoric acid Zinc phosphate + Heat

Proportioning (Powder/liquid ration)

- Adding powder to the liquid in small

 A small portion of the liquid is added first to the

 The liquid should be kept in a stoppered

 If the liquid becomes cloudy in the bottle, it

 Mixing should be done on a wide area of

1. A high powder-liquid ratio.

 They are similar to phosphate cements

 They are considered bactericidal.

 Used mainly for cementation of orthodontic

The liquid is a polyacrylic acid (PAA)

 It is This occurs through an ionic interaction

 Zinc oxide + polyacrylic acid → zinc polycaboxylate

 The powder is rapidly incorporated in the liquid in

 Mix should be done rapidly in 30 to 40 sec.

 The mix should be used while it is still glossy.

 Working time is 2.5 to 3.5 min.

 Zinc polycarboxylate cement combines the

1. Ployacrylic acid is weaker.

2. Polyacid chains are too large and lack the

 Permanent cementation of metallic

▪ Chemical Bond with tooth structure

• The word glass ionomer is a name derived from

Glass Ionomer Cements

SILICATE CEMENT ZINC POLY CARBOXYLATE

The “F” word The “B” words !!

They are supplied in the form of:

Glass Ionomer Cements

Glass Ionomer Cements