SCROLL OF SEALS

(BOOK 1)

With Boundless Hope and Highest Faith

Trust the Process and Direct for Triumph
To Chase the Dream and Desire of Excellence

Faith, Love & Hope

CHASE100%BatStateUInJesusNameAmen
August 2022, Atin ‘to
PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS

THE SEVEN GENERALS

PROCESS n P-V-T ∆H ∆U Wnf Wsf Q ∆S = Q/T

𝑉2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃1
Isothermal/ 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛
𝑇 𝑉1 𝑇 𝑃2
Hyperbolic 1
𝑉2
T=c 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑉1 𝑚𝑅 𝑙𝑛 𝑚𝑅 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑃2

𝑃𝑉
=𝐶 𝑇2 𝑉2
Isobaric 𝑇 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑙𝑛
0 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 𝑉1
P=c
𝑃∆𝑉 𝑉∆𝑃
Isometric/ 𝑚𝑅∆𝑇 𝑚𝑅∆𝑇
𝑇2 𝑃2
Isochoric/ 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑙𝑛 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑙𝑛
∞ 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 𝑇1 𝑃1
Isovolumic
V=c

𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2
𝑃2 𝑉1 𝑛 𝑚𝐶𝑛 𝑙𝑛
=( ) 1−𝑛 𝑚𝐶𝑛 ∆𝑇 𝑇1
𝑃1 𝑉2
𝑛𝑊𝑛 −1
Polytropic n 𝑚𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑇 𝑃
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑛−1
𝑘−𝑛 ln (𝑇2) ln (𝑃2 )
1−𝑛 𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶𝑣 ( ) 𝑛 = [1 − 1
= 1
=( ) 1−𝑛 ]
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑃 𝑉
ln (𝑃2 ) ln (𝑉1 )
1 2
𝑛−1
For isentropic For isentropic only:
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑛
=( ) only: −𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
Isentropic/ 𝑇1 𝑃1
−𝑚𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 No heat transfer No entropy changes
Adiabatic k
𝑄 = 𝑇∆𝑆 = 0 ∆𝑆 = 0
S=c
NOTES for PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS

1. HIP WIN: Heat IN Positive, Work IN Negative

2. Make use of the equations PV=mRT, P∆V=mR∆T, PV=8.314nT and PV=0.0281nT
3. Note the R, k, M, Cp and Cv relations. Values differ depending on the type of gas
4. Make use of Entropy-Heat relation: S = Q/T the term (∆T)/T leads to natural logarithm of temperature ratio
5. Use absolute unit of pressure and temperature when multiplying or dividing.

PROCESSES OF STEAM

Change in Change in Change in

Process Work Heat
Enthalpy Internal Energy Entropy

Isobaric 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝐻2 − 𝐻1

Isometric/
Isochoric/ 0 𝑈2 − 𝑈1
𝑆2 − 𝑆1
Isovolumic
𝐻2 − 𝐻1 𝑈2 − 𝑈1
Isothermal/
𝑄 − ∆𝑈 𝑇(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )
Hyperbolic

Isentropic/ 𝑊𝑛𝑓 = −∆𝑈 = 𝑈1

Reversible 0 − 𝑈2 0
Adiabatic
𝑊𝑠𝑓 = −∆𝐻 = 𝐻1
𝐻2 ′ − 𝐻1
Adiabatic 𝑈2 ′ − 𝑈1 𝑆2 ′ − 𝑆1 − 𝐻2 0
CONVERSIONS
MASS and WEIGHT
LINEAR 1 ton/short ton/US ton 2000 lbs.
1 yard 3 feet 1 tonne/ Mton 1000 kg
1 meter 3.281 feet 1 tonne/ Mton 2205 lbs.
1 meter 1.0936 yard 1 long ton 2240 lbs
1 statute mile 5280 feet 1 kg 2.2046 lbs
1 statute mile 1760 yards 1 lb 0.4536 kg
1 nautical mile 6080 feet 1 kg force 9.81 N
1 league 3 nautical miles 1 lb 32.174 pdl
1 league 18240 feet 1 lb 4.4482 N
1 rod 5.5 yard 1N 0.225 lb
1 rod 16.5 feet 1 lb 16 ounces
1 cable length 720 feet 1 lb 7000 grains
1 fathom 6 feet 1 kip 1000 lbs
1 span 9 inches 1 slug (mass) 32.174 lbs
1 furlong 220 yards 1 slug (mass) 14.59 kg
1 inch 2.54 cm 1 slug (mass) 143.12 N
1 inch 1000 mils 1N 105 dynes
1 chain 4 rods
WORK and ENERGY POWER
1 BTU 778 ft-lb 1 hp 550 ft-lb/s
1 BTU 0.252 kcal 1 hp 33 000 ft-lb/min
1 BTU 1.055 kJ 1 hp 42.42 BTU/min
1 kcal 4.187 kJ 1 hp 2545 BTU/hr
1 Joule 1 N-m 1 hp 0.746 kW
1 erg 1 dyne-cm 1 metric hp 0.736 kW
1 erg 10-7 J 1 boiler hp 33 480 BTU/hr
1 CHU 1.8 BTU 1 boiler hp 35 322 kJ/hr
1 CHU 1.9 kJ 1 TOR 200 BTU/min
BTU – British Thermal Unit 1 TOR 12 000 BTU/hr
CHU – Celsius Heat Unit
1 TOR 4.72 hp
AREA
1 ha 10 000 m2 1 TOR 3.516 kW
1 ha 11 960 yd2 1 kW 3412 BTU/hr
1 acre 4046.8 m2 1 kW 1 kJ/sec
1 acre 0.4047 ha 1 hp = 1 mechanical hp = 1 british hp
= 1 imperial hp ≈ water hp ≈ electric hp
1 acre 43560 ft2
1 m2 10.76 ft2
1 m2 1.196 yd2
VOLUME ANGLE
1 barrel (bbl) 42 gallons 1 revolution 2π radians
1 US gallon/ gal 3.7854 L 360 degrees
1 US gallon/ gal 4 quarts 400 grads
1 US gallon/ gal 8 pints 400 gons
1 US gallon/ gal 16 cups 6400 mils
1 US gallon/ gal 231 in3 PRESSURE
1 Br. gallon 277.42 in3 1 atm 101.325 kPa

1 ft3 7.481 gal 1 atm 0 kPag

1 ft3 28.32 L 1 atm 14.7 psi

1 ft3 1728 in3 1 atm 760 torr

1 m3 1000 L 1 atm 760 mmHg

1 m3 264.2 gal 1 atm 29.92 in Hg

1 m3 35.31 ft3 1 atm 1.033 kg/cm3

1 cavan 25 gantas 1 atm 10.33 m H2O

1 ganta 3L 1 bar 100 kPa

1 ganta 8 chupas 1 MPa 1 N/mm2

1 torr 1 mm Hg
1 ksi 1000 psi
US COINS Fluidity: Reciprocal of viscosity
1 penny = 1 cent
1 nickel = 5 cents Solid Angle = Subtended area/radius2,
1 dime = 10 cents steradian
1 quarter = 25 cents
1 half = 50 cents
1 dollar = 100 cents

FLUIDS
Dynamic/Absolute Viscosity
1 poise (P) = 1 dyne-sec/cm2
= 0.1 Pa-s
= 0.1 Poiseuille
1 lb-sec/ft2 = 478.7 poises
1 cP = 10-3 Pa-s
Kinematic Viscosity
1 stoke (St) = 1 cm2/s
= 0.0001 m2/s
1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s
CONSTANTS
PROPERTIES OF AIR
Specific Heat Ratio
Constant Pressure Specific Heat k = 1.4 (for cold air)
Cp = 0.24 BTU/lb-R k = 1.3 (for hot air)
Cp = 0.24 BTU/lb-F
Cp = 0.24 kcal/kg-K SPECIFIC HEAT RATIO (K)
Cp = 1 kJ/kg-K O2 = 1.395
Cp = 1.0062 kJ/kg-K N2 = 1.399
Cp = 1.0048 kJ/kg-K CO = 1.399
H2 = 1.4
Constant Volume Specific Heat Ar = 1.666
Cv = 0.171 BTU/lb-R Ne = 1.666
Cv = 0.171 BTU/lb-F Hg = 1.666
Cv = 0.171 kcal/kg-K He = 1.667
Cv = 0.7186 kJ/kg-K CO2 = 1.288
Cv = 0.716 kJ/kg-K NH3 = 1.304
CH4 = 1.321
Gas Constant
R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K Universal Gas Constant
R = 53.3 ft-lb/lb-R R = 8.314 J/mol-K
R = 1545 ft-lbf / lb-K
Density R = 0.0821 L-atm/mol-K
ρ = 1.2 kg/m3
ρ = 0.0749 lb/ft3
PROPERTIES OF WATER For Steam
Cp = 2 kJ/kg-K
Density Cp = 0.5 BTU/lb-R
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 Lf = 2257 kJ/kg
ρ = 62.4 lb/ft3 Lf = 970 BTU/lb
ρ = 9.81 kN/m3 Lf = 540 cal/g
ρ = 1 kg/L
ρ = 1 g/mL MOLECULAR WEIGHTS (kg/kmol)
ρ = 1 g/cm3 C = 12
H=1
Specific Heat O = 16
Cp = 1 BTU/lb-R N = 14
Cp = 1 BTU/lb-F S = 32
Cp = 1 kcal/kg-K Air = 28.97
Cp = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
ORGANIC FUELS
For Ice Suffixes:
Cp = 2.09 kJ/kg-K -ane = CnH2n+2
Cp = 0.5 BTU/lb-R -ene = CnH2n
Lf = 335 kJ/kg -yne = CnH2n-2
Lf = 144 BTU/lb
Lf = 80 cal/g
Prefixes n-value NUMERICAL PREFIXES
Meth =1 Prefix Symbol Exponent (10n)
Eth =2 Exa E 18
Prop =3 Peta P 15
But =4 Terra T 12
Pen =5 Giga G 9
Hex =6 Mega M 6
Hep =7 Kilo k 3
Oct =8 Hecto h 2
Non =9 Deca D 1
Dec = 10 Deci d -1
Undec = 11 Centi c -2
Dodec = 12 Milli m -3
Micro μ -6
SPECIFIC GRAVITY Nano n -9
Seawater = 1.03 Pico p -12
Mercury = 13.6 Femto f -15
Ocean = 1.023 Atto a -18

Density
ρ = 2406 kg/m3 (concrete)
ρ = 7200 kg/m3 (cast iron)
ρ = 7850 kg/m3 (steel)
ρ = 0.284 lb/in3 (steel)
MACHINE DESIGN CONSTANTS Color Coding for Pipes
For Steel Water Green
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Steam Silver Grey
k = 6.5 x 10-6 /F Oil/ Mineral/ Combustibles Brown
k = 11.7 x 10-6 /C Gases/ Fumes Yellow Ochre
Acid/ Alkalis Violet
Modulus of Elasticity Air Light Blue
E = 30 x 106 psi Waste/ Drainage Black
E = 207 GPa Electricity Light Orange
Communications White
Modulus of Rigidity Fire Fighting Materials Safety Red
G = 11.5 to 12 x 106 psi Hazardous Services Safety Yellow
G = 80 to 83 GPa

For Cast Steel

Material Factor = 0.7

For Aluminum
E = 69 GPa

Naming Refrigerant
R-ABC
ABC + 90 = CHF
CHF = Carbon Hydrogen Fluorine
MOMENT OF INERTIA AND
RADIUS OF GYRATION

𝐼𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝐼𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 + 𝐴𝑑 2

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎, 𝐼
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑘 = √
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴
MOMENT OF INERTIA
MOMENT OF INERTIA and
POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA
CENTROID