[564001] Calculus A (I)

Lecture 2: Functions and Computation of Limit

Yuki CHINO

Department of Applied Mathematics, NYCU

September 16, 2022

Review of Lecture 1: Functions

One equation is sometimes superior to ten sentences.

One drawing is sometimes superior to ten equations.

Elementary functions 

I Algebraic functions → Translation of the graph

- Power functions
- Polynomial functions
- Rational functions
I Trigonometric functions → Additive theorem
I Exponential functions → Law of exponential
 
Review of Lecture 1: Functions
Translation 
I Symmetric displacement (reflection)
- x-axis: y = f (x) −→ − y = f (x)
- y-axis: y = f (x) −→ y = f (− x)
- origin: y = f (x) −→ − y = f (− x)
I Translation: direction x → +p, direction y → +q

y = f (x) −→ y − q = f (x − p)
I Stretching: c > 1 (Shrinking: c < 1, Reflection: c = −1)
- x-axis: y = f (x) −→ y = f (c x)
- y-axis: y = f (x) −→ c y = f (x)
 
Contents and Goal
Today’s Contents 
• Elementary functions
I Trigonometric functions: Additive theorem
I Exponential functions: Law of exponential
• Composite functions
• Inverse functions
I Logarithmic function: Law of logarithm
I Inverse trigonometric functions
• Limits
I Sequence: The limit of sequence
 
Today’s Goal (Aim) 
 Be able to apply additive theorem for trigonometric functions
 Be able to compute exponential, logarithm
 Be able to compute the limits
 Be able to apply the squeeze theorem
 
Trigonometric functions
PH y
P sin θ = = = y,
OP 1
OH x
cos θ = = = x,
1
OP 1
PH sin θ y
O H tan θ = = =
OH cos θ x
 
2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1
 

Negative, complementary, supplementary angles 

sin(−θ) = − sin θ, cos(−θ) = cos θ, tan(−θ) = − tan θ

sin( π2 − θ) = cos θ, cos( π2 − θ) = sin θ, tan( π2 − θ) = 1

tan θ

sin(π − θ) = sin θ, cos(π − θ) = − cos θ, tan(π − θ) = − tan θ

 
Trigonometric functions
Additive Theorem 

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

tan α ± tan β
tan(α ± β) =
1 ∓ tan α tan β
 

Double angle formula 

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 θ
2 tan θ
tan 2θ =
1 − tan2 θ
 
Trigonometric functions
Half angle formula 

θ 1 − cos θ θ 1 + cos θ θ 1 − cos θ

sin2 = , cos2 = , tan2 =
2 2 2 2 2 1 + cos θ
 
Trigonometric functions
Question 1 

Construct the triple angle formulae.

(1) Express sin 3θ by sin θ and cos θ.
(2) Express cos 3θ by sin θ and cos θ.
 
Trigonometric functions
Question 2 

Show the following.

(1) sin 3θ = −4 sin θ sin(θ + π3 ) sin(θ − π3 ).
(2) cos 3θ = 4 cos θ cos(θ + π3 ) cos(θ − π3 ).
 
Trigonometric functions
Compound angle formula 

For any θ, the following holds

p
a sin θ + b cos θ = a2 + b2 sin (θ + α) ,

where α satisfies
a b
cos α = √ , sin α = √ .
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
 

To compound to cosine function:

√ 
a b

a sin θ + b cos θ = a2 + b2 cos (θ − β), sin β = √ , cos β = √
a2 +b2 a2 +b2
Exponential functions
an = a × a × · · · × a , a: base, n: power/exponent
| {z }
n times multiplication

Law of exponential 

- am × an = am+n n, m ∈ N
m n m×n
- (a ) = a
- (ab)n = an bn
 
Extension to rational numbers:
1 1 am
a0 = 1, a−1 = =⇒ a−n = =⇒ = am−n
a an an
1 √ n √
m
a2 = a =⇒ am = an

N→Z→Q
Exponential functions
Definition: Exponential function 

y = ax , x∈R
 
Exponential functions
Napier’s/Euler’s number and exponential function 
 n
1
e = lim 1 +
n→∞ n
 x n
ex = lim 1 + , x∈R
n→∞ n
 
Composite functions
Composite functions 

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
 
Ex) f (x) = 2x − 3, g(x) = sin x.

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = 2g(x) − 3 = 2 sin x − 3

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = sin f (x) = sin(2x − 3)

* In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f
Inverse functions
Inverse functions 

If the function f is one-to-one,

y = f (x) ⇔ x = f −1 (y)
 

f = (f −1 )−1 , D(f −1 ) = R(f ), R(f −1 ) = D(f )

Logarithm
loga M : logarithm of M to base a.

an = M ⇔ n = loga M
- M >0
- a 6= 1 (a = 1 is a trivial case)
- loga a = 1 and loga 1 = 0

Properties of logarithm 
x
- loga xy = loga x + loga y, loga y = loga x − loga y
n
- loga x = n loga x
logb x
- (Change of base): loga x =
logb a
 
Logarithmic functions and inverse trigonometric functions
Logarithmic function (= Inverse exponential function) 

y = log x ⇐⇒ x = ey
 

log 1 = 0, log e = 1.
Inverse trigonometric functions 

sin−1 x = arcsin x ←→ (sin x)−1 = csc x

cos−1 x = arccos x ←→ (cos x)−1 = sec x
tan−1 x = arctan x ←→ (tan x)−1 = cot x
 
Question 

Consider the domains and ranges of the following inverse functions

sin−1 x, cos−1 x and tan−1 x. (Check the domain where sin x, cos x
and tan x is one-to-one.)
 
Next Lecture: Sequence
Function → “continuous” · · · range is R
Sequence → “discrete” · · · range is Z or N
Sequence 

Sequence is a row of numbers with a certain rule.

 
The limit of sequence 

Sequence {an } approaches to some value α as n increases

lim an = α or an → α (n → ∞).
n→∞
 
1
Ex). an = n
lim an = 0
n→∞
Next Lecture: The limit of sequence
The limit of sequence 

Sequence {an } approaches to some value α as n approaches to a

lim an = α or an → α (n → a).
n→a
 
 
To find the limit of an , “normally” we can just substitute a into n.
 
How about the following sequences (How can we compute)?:
n−1
1. lim 2
n→1 n − 1
p
2. lim n2 + 2 − n
n→∞

2n3 + 2
3. lim
n→∞ n3 + 2n2 + 1
Next Lecture: The limit of sequence
Compute the limit of indeterminate forms 

I reduction of the fraction

I rationalization of the numerator of the fraction
I divide all terms by the leading term in denominator
I Apply l’Hôpital’s rule (We will study in the section Derivative)
 
How about the following sequences (How can we compute)?:
n−1
1. lim 2
n→1 n − 1
p
2. lim n2 + 2 − n
n→∞

2n3 + 2
3. lim
n→∞ n3 + 2n2 + 1
Next Lecture: The limit of sequence
Theorem 2.4 

Let an → α and bn → β as n → ∞. Then the following holds.

1. an ≤ bn ⇒ α ≤ β.
2. an ≤ cn ≤ bn and α = β imply that lim cn = α(= β).
n→∞
3. lim (an ± bn ) = (α ± β).
n→∞
4. lim (an · bn ) = (α · β).
n→∞
an α
5. lim = , where β 6= 0.
n→∞ bn β
 
* The statement 2 is called the squeeze theorem.
The squeeze theorem is useful when we cannot compute the limit directly.
Next Lecture: Example
How to use Squeeze theorem 

n!
Compute the limit: lim
n→∞ nn
 
Announcement
Next lecture and Office hour

I Next lecture: 9/20 (Tue.) 10:10-12:00

I Office Hour: TBA
Or you can make an appointment
(email: y.chino@math.nctu.edu.tw)