Core Ch 16 Coordination in humans

16.1.1 General plan of the nervous system

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
links the receptors and the effectors

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

consists of spinal nerves and cranial nerves which connect the receptors & effectors
with the CNS

16.1.2 Neurones—Structure & Types

Structure:
-composed of a cell body & nerve fibres (dendrons & axons)
**(Dendron—nerve fibre conducting nerve impulse towards cell body, Axon—nerve
fibre conducting nerve impulse away from cell body)

-most nerve fibres are surrounded by myelin shealth, which has the following functions:
-protect the nerve fibres
-insulates the nerve fibre to prevent nerve impulses from spreading to adjacent nerve
fibres
-speed up the transmission of nerve impulses along the nerve fibre

Types:
1. Sensory neurone
transmits nerve impulses from the receptor to the CNS
its cell body is outside the CNS
long dendron and short axon

2. Motor neurone
transmits nerve impulses from the CNS to the effector
its cell body is inside the CNS
short dendrons and long axon

3. Interneurone
connects the sensory neurone to the motor neurone
connects the interneurons in the CNS
short dendrons and short axons
16.2 Transmission of nerve impulses between neurons
1. A nerve impulse reaches the synaptic knob at the ending of the axon of a neurone
2. The nerve impulse stimulates the synaptic knob to release neurotransmitter
3. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft (synapse) and stimulates the
dendron of the next neurone to generate a nerve impulse

**Importance of synapses:
-only the axon end of a neurone can make neurotransmitter & only the dendrite
membrane has receptorssynapses make sure an impulse can only travel in ONE
direction
-allows a neurone to communicate with many other neurons

16.3.1 Spinal Cord

1. Structures
inner grey matter: consists of cell bodies
outer white matter: consists of nerve fibres
dorsal root: carries sensory nerve fibres; the cell bodies of sensory neurons group
together to form a swelling called the dorsal root ganglion
ventral root: carries motor nerve fibres; no swelling
central canal: contains cerebrospinal fluid to cushion the spinal cord from shock &
transport nutrients & oxygen to the neurons

2. Functions
as a centre for controlling reflex actions
relays nerve impulses between the brain and other parts of the body

16.3.2 The brain

a. Cerebrum
#Structures:
-outer cortex is made of grey matter (contains cell bodies of neurons)
-inner layer of the cerebrum is made up of white matter (contains nerve fibres)
-the cortex is highly folded to pack more neurons for better coordination

#General Function:
-controls voluntary actions, as centre for thinking, memory
#Functions of localized areas:
-Sensory areas: receive impulses from receptors to produce sensation

-Motor areas: send out impulses to effectors to produce responses

-Association areas:
-interpret impulses from the sensory cortex
-retrieve relevant information from the previously stored information
-integrate various sensory information and make decisions before initiating proper
responses

b. Cerebellum
#Structures:
-highly foldedpack more neurons for coordination
-outer layer—grey matter, inner layer—white matter

#Functions:
-coordinates muscular movements to maintain body balance
**(Cerebrum controls muscle’s contraction/relaxation VS Cerebellum controls muscle’s
degree of contraction/relaxation)

c. Medulla Oblongata
#Structures:
-outer layer—white matter, inner layer—grey matter

#Functions:
-the reflex centre for many reflex actions (e.g. saliva secretion, swallowing, coughing)
-controls other involuntary actions (e.g. breathing, heart beat, peristalsis)
**(Reflex actions VS Involuntary actions:
-reflex actions are quicker than involuntary actions
-responses are stereotyped in reflex actions but not in involuntary actions)

16.4 Reflex actions

1. Characteristics:
-a quick, inborn and automatic response to a stimulus
-cerebrum is NOT involved in the response
-provide fast protective reaction to sudden danger
2. Reflex arc:
Components of a spinal reflex arc:
Receptorsensory neuronespinal cord(interneurone)motor neuroneeffector

3. Examples of spinal reflex:

(i) Withdrawal reflex (e.g. touching a hot object accidentally)
pain/hot receptors in the skin are stimulated to generate a nerve impulse
the impulse is transmitted through a sensory neurone to the spinal cord
in the spinal cord, the impulse is passed through an interneurone to a motor
neurone
the motor neurone then transmits the impulse to the arm muscles
arm muscle contracts->withdraws
Significance: prevent further damage of the hand by the hot object

(ii)Knee jerk reflex (e.g. tapping tendon just below knee cap)
stretch receptors in the upper thigh muscle are stimulated to generate a nerve
impulse
nerve impulse is transmitted through a sensory neurone to the spinal cord
in the spinal cord, the impulse is passed to a motor neurone (no interneurone is
involved!)
the motor neurone then transmits the impulse to the leg muscles
leg muscle contracts->kicking up of the leg
Significance: help maintain posture & keep balance when moving

(iii)Pupil reflex
bright light->light-sensitive cells on retina->sensory neurone->interneurone in
brain (but NOT cerebrum)->motor neurone->muscle of iris->contraction of iris
muscles->pupil constriction

16.5 Differences between reflex and voluntary actions

Reflex Voluntary action
Inborn Not inborn
Cerebrum is NOT involved Cerebrum is involved
Stereotyped response Response may vary
Must require stimulation of May/may not require stimulation of
receptor/stimulus receptor/stimulus
Faster response Slower response
16.6 Hormonal coordination
1. Nature of hormonal coordination
-Hormones: chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands and are transported by
blood to all parts of the body to regulate various body processes

-Endocrine glands: ductless glands which secrete hormones into the blood
-Target cell/organ: it is a cell/organ on which a specific hormone acts
**(A hormone can have several target organs)

2. General plan of the endocrine system

Endocrine gland Function

Pituitary gland Regulate growth & reproduction;
Control secretions of hormones from other
endocrine glands;
Osmoregulation
Thyroid gland Regulate metabolic rate and hence growth
rate
Pancreas Regulate blood glucose level
Adrenal gland Prepare the body for emergency action
Ovaries/Testes Stimulate development of reproductive
systems and secondary sexual
characteristics

3. Differences between nervous & hormonal coordination

/ Nervous coordination
System involved Nervous system
Components of the system Neurones/nerve fibres
Nature of message -Electrical (nerve impulses)
-Chemical
(neurotransmitter)
Medium of transmission Nerve fibres
Rate of transmission rapid
Area of response Localized, restricted to
places with nerve supply
Duration of response Short-term
Hormonal coordination
Endocrine system
Endocrine glands
Chemical (hormones)
Blood
Slow
Widespread, one hormone
may affect several target
organs at the same time
Usually long-lasting
 Question bank 

1. Referring to the specific cell types involved, describe the sequence of events that
leads to the withdrawal of the foot after stepping on a sharp nail.

-reception of stimulus by pain receptors in the skin (1)

-generation of a nerve impulse (1)
-which is transmitted to the muscles of the leg via the following pathway:
receptorsensory neuronespinal cordinterneuronemotor neuroneleg
musclescontraction of the leg muscles resulting in the withdrawal of the leg (1, 1)

2. With reference to the mechanisms involved, explain why the response in nervous
coordination occurs much faster than that in hormonal coordination.

-nerve impulses are transmitted along nerve fibres at a very high speed (1)
-while it takes time for hormones to be transported to target cells via the blood
circulation (1)

3. State two differences between reflex actions and voluntary actions.

-cerebrum is not involved in reflex actions, while cerebrum is involved in voluntary

actions (1)
-stereotyped response is produced in reflex actions, while different responses are
produced in voluntary actions (1)
-reflex actions are inborn, while voluntary actions are not inborn (1)
-a receptor is always involved in reflex actions, while a receptor may not be involved
in voluntary actions (1)
ANY TWO

4. For (i) cerebrum , (ii) cerebellum, (iii) medulla oblongata of the brain, state and
explain one role that each plays when a man is riding a bicycle.

-(i) cerebrum receives/integrates sensory impulses to make an appropriate decision

for action (1, 1)
OR
cerebrum sends nerve impulses to the skeletal muscles to bring about the
movement (1, 1)
 -(ii)cerebellum coordinates the action of the skeletal muscles (1) to maintain balance
of the body (1)

-(iii)medulla oblongata increases/controls the rate of heart beat/ the rate and depth
of breathing (1) to supply more oxygen to the skeletal muscles (1)

5. By means of a flowchart, show the nervous pathway involved in pupil reflex action.

-light-sensitive cellssensory neuroneassociation neurone in brainmotor

neuroneiris muscles (3)

6. State one function of oblongata oblongata.

-it acts as the reflex centre for some reflex actions (1)
OR
-it controls involuntary actions (1)

7. With reference to the types of photoreceptor cells and their distribution on the
retina, explain why more neurones in the visual centre are allocated to unit area of
the yellow spot.

-yellow spot contain a high density of cone cells (1)

-and there are three types of cone cells for colour perception (1)
-as a result, there are more sensory nerve impulses coming from the yellow spot (1)
-hence more neurons are allocated to the analysis of the nerve impulses from the
yellow spot (1)

8. After the perception of what we ‘see’, what it means to us depends on other parts of
the brain. Explain how this works.

-impulses received from the visual cortex will be interpreted at the association area
(1)
-where relevant information about the image will be retrieved from the previously
stored information (1)
9. Describe how nerve impulses can be transmitted across the neuromuscular junction
leading to muscle contraction.

-arrival of nerve impulses at the motor nerve ending triggers the release of
neurotransmitters into the neuromuscular junction (1)
-these neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse (1)
-bind to the receptor sites on the membrane of the muscle fibre to trigger muscle
contraction (1)

Coordination (★★★){CE 95-3(b), CE 00-2(b), CE 04-2(c)}

1. Function of cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla, spinal cord {DSE 14 P1-10, DSE

16 P1-1, DSE 13 P1-1}
2. Nervous transmission across a synapse/neuro-muscular junction
{DSE 15 P1-5, AL 04 PIA-6, AL 07 PIA-6, AL 09 PIA-1}
3. Reflex action vs voluntary action (Compare their nature with named
examples)
(a) Fast vs slow
(b) Under the control of will or not (cerebrum is involved or not)
(c) Stereotype vs different responses, altered through learning or experience
4. Pupil reflex
5. Withdrawal reflex
6. Hormonal coordination vs nervous coordination {AL 02 PIIB-5(b)}