UCE

Mathematics 2

(For S.2)

BY

Chepa Y. M

Department of Mathematics, Kibuli Secondary School.

Telephone: +256 772 481628 Email: ymussy@yahoo.com
 Second edition 2008

© Chepa Y. M. March 2008

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the author.

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 Contents
Chapter Page
1. ROTATION .................................................................................................. 5
Properties of rotation .............................................................................................. 5
Centre and angle of rotation ...................................................................................... 7
Rotation in the Cartesian plane ............................................................................. 8
Rotational symmetry ............................................................................................ 10
2. STATISTICS .............................................................................................. 12
Representation of data......................................................................................... 12
Frequency tables (distributions) .......................................................................... 12
Bar chart: ............................................................................................................... 13
Pie Chart: .............................................................................................................. 13
Line graphs ........................................................................................................... 14
Measures of central tendency ............................................................................. 14
3. VECTORS ................................................................................................. 21
Vector and scalar quantities ................................................................................ 21
Representation of vectors .................................................................................... 21
Translations .......................................................................................................... 21
Position vectors .................................................................................................... 25
The zero vector ..................................................................................................... 29
Multiplying vectors by a scalar ............................................................................ 31
4. COMPUTATION ....................................................................................... 38
Squares of numbers ............................................................................................. 38
Square roots ......................................................................................................... 41
Reciprocals of numbers ....................................................................................... 44
5. RATIONAL NUMBERS AND POWERS ................................................. 48
Rational numbers and Irrational numbers .......................................................... 48
Terminating and Recurring Decimals ................................................................. 48
Standard form ....................................................................................................... 50
Indices ................................................................................................................... 52
6. SURDS ...................................................................................................... 61
Simplification of surds .......................................................................................... 61
Rationalization of the denominator ..................................................................... 63

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7. LOGARITHMS .......................................................................................... 66
Powers of 10 and logarithms ............................................................................... 66
Application of logarithms...................................................................................... 70
Multiplying and dividing logarithms ..................................................................... 76
Indices and logarithms ......................................................................................... 77
8. RATIO, PROPORTION AND PERCENTAGE........................................ 80
Ratio 80
Proportion .............................................................................................................. 86
Percentage ............................................................................................................ 93
9. QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS ................................ 99
Expanding algebraic expressions ....................................................................... 99
Quadratic expressions ....................................................................................... 100
The quadratic identities ...................................................................................... 101
Factorizing expressions ..................................................................................... 104
Solving quadratic equations .............................................................................. 108
10 SIMILARITIES AND ENLARGEMENTS ............................................... 112
Similarities ........................................................................................................... 112
Enlargement........................................................................................................ 117
Enlargement on the Cartesian plane ................................................................ 122
Areas of similar figures ...................................................................................... 123
Volume of similar figures ................................................................................... 126
Applications of scale factors .............................................................................. 128
11 THE PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM ......................................................... 130
Deriving the Pythagoras’ theorem .................................................................... 130
Applying the Pythagoras theorem ..................................................................... 131
12. THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS ......................................................... 134
The tangent of an angle ..................................................................................... 134
Elevation and Depression .................................................................................. 141
The sine of an angle ........................................................................................... 144
The cosine of an angle ....................................................................................... 147
Tangents, sines and cosines ............................................................................. 150

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Chapter 1.
ROTATION

There are many objects that turn when force is applied to them. Examples are doors,
the cover of a desk and so on. The turning of an object about a fixed point or axis is
called rotation. The amount of turning is called the angle of rotation. The angle of
rotation is measured in degrees. A rotation of 360 0 is called a revolution. A rotation of
1800 is called a half turn and a rotation of 900 is called a quarter turn. Figure 7.1
shows the various turns. The dotted lines show the initial positions. State the angle of
rotation in each case.

Fig. 7.1

Direction of rotation
The direction in which the hands of a clock turn is called clockwise and the rotation in
the opposite direction is called anticlockwise.
The angle of rotation in an anticlockwise direction is positive and that in a clockwise
direction is negative. Thus, a rotation of 900 anticlockwise is written as +900 and 900
clockwise as -900.

Properties of rotation
When an object is given a rotational transformation, the image is always the same
size as the object. Such a transformation is called an isometry.
Note: A rotation is fully described by stating the angle of rotation and centre of
rotation.

Example 1
(a) Find the position of line AB when rotated through 60 0 about point C.

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 Fig. 7.3

(b) Find the position of triangle PQR when rotated through an angle of
-1500 about point O.

Fig. 7.4
Solutions
(a) Join B to C and measure CB. Use a protractor and a ruler to mark a point
B such that  BCB = 600 and BC = BC. Similarly, join A to C and measure
an angle such that ACA = 600 and CA = CA. Join A to B to obtain the
image of line AB.

Fig. 7.5
Note: When the perpendicular bisectors of AA1 and BB1 are drawn, they meet
at the centre of rotation.
(b) Join P to O and measure PO. Use a protractor and a ruler t mark point
P1 such that POP1 = -1500 and OP1 = PO. Join Q to O, mark point Q1 such
that QOQ1 = -1500 and QO = OQ1. Join R to O, and mark point R1 such that
ROR1 = -1500 and RO = OR1. Finally join points P1, Q1, and R1 to obtain the
image of triangle PQR.

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 Fig.7.6
Centre and angle of rotation
Given an object and its image, the centre of rotation is found by joining at least two points on
the object to the corresponding points on the image. Construct perpendicular bisectors to each
line such that the bisectors meet at a point. The point where they meet is the centre of
rotation.
To determine the angle of rotation, join a point on the object and its corresponding point on
the image to the centre of rotation. Measure the angle between the two lines. This is the angle
of rotation.

Example
Triangle ABC is mapped onto triangle A1B1C1 under a rotation. Find the:
(a) centre of rotation (b) angle of rotation.
Solution:
(a) Draw a perpendicular bisector to lineAA1. Similarly, draw a perpendicular bisector to
line BB1. Let the two bisectors meet at a point O.
O is the centre of rotation.

(b) Join O to A and O to A1. Measure angle AOA1. AOA1 = 900 or -2700. This is the angle
of rotation.

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 Fig. 7.7

Rotation in the Cartesian plane

The figure below shows points A(2, 3), B(4, -5), C(-3, -4) and D(-2, 4) plotted on
squared paper. Each object point is then rotated about the origin O(0, 0) and its
image point noted as A1(-3, 2), B1(5, 4), C1(4, -3) and D1(-4, -2).

Rotation of +900 about point (0, 0)

Join each point in the figure above to the origin O(0, 0) and rotate this line through
+90 about point O(0, 0). You will notice that:
 A(2, 3) is mapped onto (-3, 2),
 B(-4, 5) is mapped onto (5, 4),
 C(-3, -4) is mapped onto (4, -3),
 D(-2, 4) is mapped onto (-4, -2).
It follows that a point P(m, n) will be mapped onto P1(-n, m) under a rotation of +900
about (0, 0).

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Rotation of -900 about (0, 0)
Using the same points in the figure above, when each point is rotated through -900
about (0, 0):
 A(2, 3) is mapped onto (3, -2),
 B(4, -5) is mapped onto (-5, -4),
 C(-3, -4) is mapped onto (-4, 3),
 D(-2, 4) is mapped onto (4, 2).
In general, given a point P(m, n) will be mapped onto P 1(n, -m) under a rotation of -
900 about point (0, 0).

Rotation of 1800 about point (0, 0)

If each point in the above figure is rotated through 180 0 about (0, 0), the image of:
 A(2, 3) is (-2, -3),
 B(4, -5) is (-4, 5),
 C(-3, -4) is (3, 4),
 D(-2, 4) is (2, -5).
In general, a point P(m, n) becomes P1(-m, -n) under a rotation of 1800 about point (0,
0).

Note: Under a rotation, the size and shape of the object and its image are the same.
In this case, the object is said to be congruent to the image.

In the figure below, triangle PQR is rotated through (a) +900 (b) -900 and (c) 1800
about point O(0, 0). The images are shown in the figure below as (a), (b) and (c).

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Exercise 1.1

1. State the images of the following points under a rotation of +90 0 about point
O(0, 0).
(a) (3, 6) (b) (-4, 5)
(c) (-5, -7) (d) (2, -1)
2. State the images of each of the following points under a rotation of -900 about
point (0, 0).

(c) (2, -5) (d) (-5, 6).

3. State the images of each of the following points under a rotation of 180 0 about
point (0, 0).
(a) (-3, 7) (b) (3, -2)
(c) (10, 5) (d) (-11, -15)
4. A shape is formed by joining the points with coordinates (6, 4), (6, 6), (5, 5)
and (6, 5) in that order. Find the coordinates of the images of these points
under a rotation of +900 about point O(0, 0).

5. Use squared paper to find the coordinates of the images of each of the
following:
(a) A(-1, -3), centre (0, -1) under a rotation of -900,
(b) B(4, 0), centre (1, 0) under rotation of +90 0,
(c) C(2, -3), centre (2, 0) under rotation of 1800
(d) D(1, 2), centre (3, 4) under a rotation of +90 0,
(e) E(0, 2), centre (0, 3) under a rotation of -900,
(f) F(-1, 2), centre (2, 3) under a rotation of 180 0.
6. A point P(6, 1) is mapped onto P1(5, 4) and point Q(1, 6) is mapped onto Q 1(-
2, 5) under a rotation. Find the centre and angle of rotation.

7. A triangle whose vertices are X(-2, 2), Y(-4, 2) and Z(-6, 4) is mapped onto
triangleX1Y1Z1 with vertices X1(2, -1), Y1(4, -1) and Z1(6, -3) under a rotation.
Find the centre and angle of rotation.

Rotational symmetry

When a plane figure is mapped onto itself under a rotation of angle , where  is
between 00 and 3600, it is said to have a rotational symmetry with the centre of
rotation being the same as the centre of symmetry.

Figure 7.10 represents an outline of a rectangular piece of cardboard with its

diagonals meeting at point E.

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When the cardboard is placed on the outline and rotated through 180 0 about E, it
occupies the same outline. After another rotation of 1800 about E, the card board
assumes the initial position. Thus, the cardboard fits onto the outline in two positions
before assuming its initial position. The rectangle is said to have a rotational
symmetry of order 2. Point E is the centre of rotation.

Exercise 1.2

1. Find the images of point P under each of the following situations.

Point P Angle of rotation Centre of rotation

(5, 0) +900 (1, 0)
(-2, -3) +1800 (1, 1)
(-3, 4) -90 0
(0, 2)
(4, 1) +1800 (0, 0)
2. Under a rotation, point A(7, -2) is mapped onto point A1(6, 1) and point B(2, 3)
is mapped onto point B1(-2, 5).
Find:
(a) the coordinates of the centre of rotation,
(b) the positive angle of rotation.
3. A triangle with vertices A(-2, 3), B(-5, 3) and C(-7, 7) is mapped onto A1(2, -1),
B1(5, -1) and C1(7, 5) respectively. Find the centre of rotation.

4. Point P(2, 5) and Q(9, -6) are mapped onto P1(8, 1) and Q1(5, -12) under a
rotation. Use squared paper to find:
(a) the coordinates of the centre of rotation,
(b) the angle of rotation,
(c) the coordinates of R if R1 is (-5, 4).

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Chapter 2.
STATISTICS
Statistics is that branch of mathematics which is concerned with the collection,
organization, interpretation, presentation and analysis of numerical data. To a
statistician, any information collected is called data. When data has not been ordered
in any specific way after collection, it is called raw data.

Representation of data
1. Frequency tables (distributions)
The frequency of an event is the number of times that the event occurs. While
counting the scores, a tally mark, /, is made for every count and the fifth stroke
crosses over the other four to have .
Example .1
Forty people were asked to judge which of five paintings, labeled A, B, C, D and E,
was the best. The results are given below.

B C B B D A E A
C C A A B D E A
B D B B B C A D
E B C A A C D B
C C A D B B D A
If a prize was given for the picture with the most votes, which picture won?
Solution
First we put the data into a frequency distribution (frequency table). This is a table
which gives each data item together with the number of times they occur.

Painting Tallies Frequency

A
10
B
12
C
8
D
7
E
3
Total 40

Painting B, with twelve votes, wins the prize.

The above data may be displayed in various ways.

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2. Bar chart:
Bar charts or graphs can be used to make quick comparison of data. They are either
horizontal or vertical, jointed or disjointed. The height or the length of the bar
represents the frequency and its width is not significant.
The bar graph for the above data can thus be drawn as follows.

3. Pie Chart:
In a pie chart, each number is represented by the area of a sector of a circle. The
frequency is proportional to the angle of the sector.
The forty votes are represented by 3600 (a full turn); thus one vote is represented by
3600  40 = 90.
Frequency Angle
A 10 10  9 = 900
B 12 12  9 = 1080
C 8 89= 720
D 7 79= 630
E 3 39= 270

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4. Line graphs
A line graph is used to show how things change over a period of time. For example:
A student obtained the following marks in six mathematics weekly tests. Draw a line
graph to represent this information.
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6
marks 60 65 80 75 85 90
To draw the line graph, mark the test numbers on the horizontal axis and the marks
on the vertical axis. Plot the ordered pairs on the graph with dots as shown in the
figure below. To obtain the line graph, join the dots with straight lines.

Measures of central tendency

These are values about which the distribution of data in a particular se may be
approximately balanced. The common ones include the mean, median and mode.

The mean ( x )
The mean is the value obtained when the total sum of the values of the members in a
list or distribution is divided by the total frequency.

Example 1
The masses (in kilograms) of nine students are 42, 47, 52, 57, 62, 67, 72, 77 and 82.
Calculate their mean mass.

Solution
Add all the masses together and divide by 9.
The sum of the masses is 558 kg.
The total number of students is 9.
558
The mean mass is = 62 kg.
9

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Example 2
Find the mean of the following frequency distribution.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f 2 4 1 3 3 3
Solution
To calculate the mean of the above data the following steps are followed.
 Multiply each frequency (f) by its corresponding value (x) to obtain the product
(f.x)
 Find the sum of the products, (f.x), and then divide this sum by the sum of
the frequencies (f) to obtain the mean, i.e. x  
( f .x)
f
x f f.x
1 2 2
2 4 8
3 1 3
4 3 12
5 3 15
6 3 18
f=16 f.x = 58

The mean, x  16 58 = 3.625.

In statistics, the symbol (sigma) is used to mean the sum of. Thus, the sum of
the frequencies (f) is written as f and the sum of the products (f.x) is written as
fx.

The median
Median is the middle value of a given set of data when all the entries are arranged in
order of size. It is the point at which exactly half of the data are above and half are
below.

In ungrouped data, if the total number of members in a list is odd, the median
position is a whole number given by 12 (n  1) th member of the group. This formula
gives the position at which the median is found in ranked data. To get the median, we
go back to the ranked data and look for the value or entry at the position obtained
from the calculation. When the position is not a whole number, we get the average of
the values just before and just after the one obtained through the computation.

Example 3
Find the median of each of the following lists of numbers.
(a) 1, 7, 1, 6, 2, 5, 2, 5, 2, 5, 3, 5, 3, 4, 4.
(b) 29, 12, 25, 14, 18, 21, 18, 20, 19, 20.
Solutions
(a) Rearranging the numbers in order of size, we have:
1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7

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 The number of members (n) is 15. The median is the 12 (15  1) th member. That
is the 8th member. From the ordered list, the 8th member is 4. The median is 4.
(b) Rearranging the numbers in order of size, we get:
12, 14, 18, 18, 19, 20, 20, 21, 25, 29
The number of members (n) is 10. The median position is given by
1 (10  1) = 1  11 = 5.5
2 2
This means that the median value falls between the 5th and 6th members in the
ordered data, and its value is their average.
The 5th and 6th members are 19 and 20 respectively. Therefore, the median is
19 20 = 19.5.
2
The median does not need to be among the numbers in the set of data.

The median of an ungrouped frequency distribution

In order to find the median using cumulative frequencies or the number of members
that lie above or below a particular value in a set of data, we must calculate the first
value with a cumulative frequency greater than or equal to the median.

Example 4
Find the median of the following distribution.
x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f 4 8 20 20 2 2 4

Solution
The total frequency, f = 60. The median position is 12 (60  1) = 30.5. This means the
median value lies between the 30th and 31st values in the ordered data and its value
is their mean.
In order to get the 30th and 31st values, we need to make a cumulative frequency
table as shown below.

x Freq. (f) Cumulative frequency (cf)

2 4 4
3 8 12
4 20 32
5 20 52
6 2 54
7 2 56
8 4 60
The cumulative frequency is obtained by adding all the frequencies below and up to
and including the particular value. From the table, we can see that the cumulative
frequency corresponding to x = 8 is 60. This is the total number of observations in the
distribution. From the cumulative frequency it can be seen that the 30 th member is 4
44
and the 31st member is also 4. Therefore, the median is 2
= 4.

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The mode.
The mode of a distribution is the most frequently occurring value. In a frequency
distribution, the mode is the value with the highest frequency.

Example 5
Find the mode of the following set of numbers.
2, 4, 4, 5, 7, 7, 7.
Solution
The mode is 7 as this appears three times.

Example 6
Find the mode of the following frequency distribution.
(a)
x 3 4 5 6 7
f 1 3 8 10 4
(b)
x 12 13 14 15 16
f 6 9 9 3 5

Solutions
(a) The mode is 6.
(b) The mode is 13 and 14 as these have the highest frequency.

Exercise 2

1. Find the mode, mean and median of the following sets of numbers
(a) 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 9
(b) 10, 10, 10, 20, 30, 30, 30, 30.
(c) 7, 1, 3, 5, 2, 9, 1.
2. The mean of 4 numbers is 8. If three of the numbers are 4, 5 and 10, find the
fourth number.

3. The total of the heights of twenty-six girls was 41.86 m. Find the mean height of
the girls.

4. In a year, a student scored the following marks in tests and examinations.

Term Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Exams
1 75 51 62 49
2 54 45 64 74
3 80 60 67 39
Calculate the student’s mean score.

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5. The number of litres of milk delivered to 50 houses on one morning is shown
below.

No. of litres 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of house 10 14 18 4 2 2
Calculate the mean number of litres delivered per house.
6. The table below shows the marks scored by students in a test.
Mark 0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of students 2 6 15 8 10 2

Calculate the mean and median mark.

7. The lengths, in centimeters, of 10 nails are: 3.01, 2.96, 3.04, 2.98, 3.00, 2.97,
2.99, 3.02, 3.03, and 2.94. Find the median length of the nails.

8. The number of goals scored in super league matches is shown in the table
below.
Goals frequency
0 10
1 20
2 10
3 6
4 9
4 8
Calculate the mean and median number of goals scored. State the modal
number of goals scored.

9. A company’s costs are split into the following categories.

Wages 45%
Rates 15%
Materials 30%
Transport 10%
Show this information in a pie chart.
10. A group of fifty year olds were asked how much television they had watched on
a particular evening. Their answers, to the nearest hour, are shown below.
1 3 0 3 1 4 5 4 3 2
0 4 6 2 2 2 3 2 2 7
3 1 0 2 3 3 0 1 7 2
5 4 2 1 1 3 4 2 4 4
0 0 1 2 1 3 1 2 7 2
(a) Set up a frequency distribution to represent this information.
(b) Draw a bar chart to show the above data.
(c) State the modal time.
11. Various types of large white loaves are delivered to a supermarket. The number
of each type delivered on a particular day is shown below.
Thin sliced 45
Medium sliced 84

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 Thick sliced 15
Uncut 36
(a) In a pie chart, what angle would represent 1 loaf?
(b) Display the above information in a pie chart.
12. The bar chart below shows the number of pages per day in the New Vision
news paper for 20 days during a certain month.

(a) State the modal number of pages.

(b) Calculate the mean and median number of pages.
13. The table below shows the number of letters collected by a school from the post
office in the first six weeks of the term.
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of letters 80 110 120 160 110 120
Show this information in a:
(i) bar graph,
(ii) line graph.
14. The table below shows the production of eggs by 200 hens in 7 days.

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of trays 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 (a) Draw:
(i) a bar graph to show this data,
(ii) a line graph to represent the information.
(b) A tray of eggs costs sh.3, 000. How much money was collected in the 7
days?
15. The table below shows the number of trays of eggs supplied to a hotel by two
farmers.

Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Farmer A 8 10 12 15 12 11 8
Farmer B 10 12 11 12 14 16 18
Draw line graphs to represent this data.
16. After a national examination at the end of secondary school education, students
from six schools were selected to attend university as follows:

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 School A B C D E F
No. of students 60 45 30 90 15 60
Show this information on a pie chart.
17. A farmer grows five types of crops in a 24-hectare farm. The pie chart below
shows how the crops are distributed on the farm.

(a) Calculate the area, in hectares, that each type of crop occupies.
(b) Show this information on a bar graph.
18. The mean mass of three men is 62 kg. Four women weigh 61 kg, 66 kg, 65 kg
and 69 kg. Find the mean mass of the 7 people.

19. Four farmers have the following number of animals: 25, 23, x and 2x. If the
mean number of animals per farmer is 24, find the value of x.

20. A car traveled at a speed of 80 km/h for 30 minutes, 70 km/h for 40 minutes and
90 km/h for 20 minutes. What was the average speed for the whole journey?
21. The average mass of 12 people in a lift is 68 kg. The maximum mass allowed in
the lift is 750 kg.
(a) By how many kilograms was the lift overloaded?
(b) How many people should come out of the lift to allow it to move?
22. The table below shows the ages of 11 girls in a soccer team.

Age in years 15 16 17 18 19
Frequency 2 4 2 1 2
Find the:
(a) modal age,
(b) median age,
(c) mean age.

20
Chapter 3
VECTORS

Vector and scalar quantities

When an object is translated, each point of the object moves the same distance and
in the same direction. Therefore, we can describe a translation only if we know the
distance moved and the direction of motion.
A quantity which describes the distance and direction of a movement is called a
displacement vector or simply a vector.
The distance moved by the object is the length of the vector and it is called the
magnitude (size) of the vector. Some examples of vectors are velocity, acceleration
and force. Some quantities like mass, height, time and temperature have magnitude
only. Such quantities are called scalars.

Representation of vectors
A vector is represented by a directed line as shown in the figure below.

The direction of the vector from A to B is shown by an arrow and its magnitude is the
length of the line AB.
Vector AB is written as or AB or AB. Its magnitude is denoted by AB .
A is the initial point (sometimes called the tail) and B is the terminal point (sometimes
called the head) of the vector.
Sometimes a vector can be denoted by a single small letter as shown in the figure
below.

In printed work, vectors are denoted by bold letters, thus vector AB or vector a is
written as AB or a. When writing these vectors you will use the common notation
or
.

Translations
If the object moves in such a way that all its points move through the same distance
and in the same direction, the object is said to have undergone a translation.
Consider a translation from point A to B in the figure below.

21
If each square is of one unit length, the translation is shown by the vector AB and can
be described as a displacement of 6 units to the right and 4 units upwards. This is
6
written as AB =   .
 4
When a displacement vector is written in this way it is called a column vector. The
number at the top represents the horizontal displacement and the lower number
represents the vertical displacement.
The figure below shows a displacement from P to Q.

The vector PQ is a displacement of 6 units to the left and 2 units downwards. This is
 6
written as PQ =   .
  2
It is important to note that whenever the displacement is towards the right or
upwards, it is a positive displacement whilst displacement to the left or downwards is
negative.

Example 1
Triangle XYZ is such that X(-2, 1), Y(-3, 2) and Z(-3, 4). It is given a translation of
7
vector   . Find the coordinates of its image, X1Y1Z1
 2
Solution:

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 7
Points X, Y and Z undergo a translation of vector   . The image, X1Y1Z1, is such that
 2
X (5, 3), Y (4, 4) and Z (4, 6).
1 1 1

Note: When an object undergoes a translation, all points move through the same
distance and in the same direction. Thus, lines XX1, ZZ1 and YY1 are parallel and
equal.

Exercise 3.1
1. Write the column vectors of the translations shown in the figure below.

2. On a squared paper draw the vectors represented by the following column

vectors.
3 1 
(a) PQ =   (b) IJ =  
 4   2

23
  5   2
(c) RS =   (d) MN =  
 2  3
0  2
(e) AB =   (f) CD =  
3  0
Equivalent vectors
Vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction. The
figure below shows two pairs of equivalent vectors. UV = WX and u = v.

3  3
Note: If AB =   then, BA =   . The vectors AB and BA have the same length but
 4   4
opposite directions.

Given a point P(x1, y1), we can plot the point on a graph paper by locating it x 1 units
and y1 units from the origin. When this point is joined to another point
(x2, y2), the directed line joining the two points form a vector.

Example 2
Plot the points P(2, 3) and Q(7, 4) and show vector PQ.
Solution

24
Exercise 3.2
1. A translation maps the origin of the Cartesian plane onto (2, 4). Under the same
translation, where would the following points be mapped?
(a) (-2, 1) (b) (2, 4)
(c) (-5, -2) (d) (0, 1)
2. A triangle, ABC, is such that A is (1, 1), B(1, 4) and C(5, 1). Find the coordinates
of the images of A, B and C when the triangle is translated by vectors:
  1
(a)   (b) AB
  1
(c) CA (d) CB

Position vectors
These are column vectors which originate from the origin.

In the figure above, Q is a point whose coordinates are (7, 4). The position vector of
7
R, denoted as OR or simply r, is given by OR = r =   .
 4
Also, the coordinates of point P are (2, 3). The position vector of point P, denoted as
 2
OP or p is given by OP = p =   .
3
In general, if a point P has coordinates (x, y) then its position vector is
x
OP = p =   .
 y

25
Adding vectors
 2
An object at point A(-1, 1) is given a translation r =   followed by a translation p =
 2
 3
  to point B as shown below.
1 

5
Note that a single translation q =   is equivalent to these two translations. We also
3
note that vector q is the sum of r and p. Thus,
 2   3  2  3  5 
r+ p = q or   +   =   =   .
 2  1   2  1   3 
Although the r + p is equivalent to q, the length of r plus the length of p is greater than
the length of q. Therefore, the + sign simply shows that r + p is a displacement r
followed by displacement p.
When adding vectors, the horizontal displacements and the vertical displacements
are added separately.
x  x 
Thus, if a =  1  and b =  2  then,
 y1   y2 
 x   x   x  x2 
a + b =  1  +  2  =  1  .
 y 1   y 2   y1  y 2 
Example 3
3 1   2
Given that a =   , b =   , c =   , find:
 4 6   3
(a) a + b (b) a + c
(c) a+b+c
Solutions
 3  1   3  1   4 
(a) a + b =   +   =   =   .
 4   6   4  6  10 
 3   2  3  2  5
(b) a + c =   +   =   =   .
 4    3   4  3  1 
 3  1   2   3  1  2   6 
(c) a + b + c =   +   +   =   =   .
 4   6    3  4  6  3  7 

26
If a point is given a translation a followed by a translation b, the resulting
displacement is the translation c. See figure below. This is written as
a + b = c. Where a + b means a followed by b.

Note that the tail of b is joined to the head of a so that the tail of the resultant vector,
c, is joined to the tail of a, the initial position, and its head joined to the head of b, the
final position.

Consider translation b followed by translation a as in the figure below.

The resulting displacement is still the same translation c. Thus b + a = c. It is

important to note that the resulting translation can be obtained by starting with either
a or b, as shown in the combined diagram in the figure below.

Note that a + b = b + a.
Subtracting vectors
When subtracting, 6 and -4 may be written as 6 + (-4). Similarly, when we subtract
vectors, we may write a – b = a + -b. The vector –b is the negative vector of b. Thus, if
 4   4
b =   then –b =   and can be represented diagrammatically as shown in the
5  5
figure below.

Note that both vectors have the same length and are parallel to each other, but are in
the opposite directions.
7 3
Thus, given a =   and b =   ,
5  2
7 3 7  3
a – b =   -   or a – b =   +  
5   2 5   2

27
  7  3  7  3
=   =  
5  2 5  2
 4  4
=   =   .
3 3
7   3  4
Therefore, a – b = a + -b =   +   =   .
5    2 3 
Consider points A(2, 3) and B(9, 5) in the figure below.

The position vectors of A and B are given as

 2 9
OA = a =   and OB = b =  
3 5
OA + AB = OB
AB = OB – OA
=b–a
9  2 7
=   -   =  
5 3   2
AO = -OA = -a. Thus, AB = AO + OB.

Example 4
 2
Given that the coordinates of point P are (4, -3) and PQ =   , find the coordinates of
5
point Q.

Solution
 4
The position vector of P is OP =   .
  3

28
The position vector of Q is given by:
OQ = OP + PQ
 4   2 6
=   +   =   .
  3  5   2 
The coordinates of Q are (6, 2).

The zero vector

Consider two vectors, c and d, such that translation c followed by translation d
returns to the initial point.

What can you say about the two translations? Do you notice that the vectors of the
two translation are exactly the same length but in opposite directions?

Such a result is called a zero or (null) vector. This is because there is effectively no
change in the position. A zero vector is written as O.Thus,
c + d = O. Therefore, c = -d. A vector RP has the same magnitude as the vector PR,
but its direction is opposite to that of PR.
PR + RP = O and RP = -PR

Exercise 3.3
1. State the position vectors of the following points:
(a) P(5, 3) (b) Q(2, 3)
(c) R(-6, 8) (d) S(-3, -4)
(e) T(0, 2) (f) U(-3, 0)
2. State the coordinates of the points with the following position vectors:
1  0
(a)   (b)  
 4 3
1   5
(c)   (d)  
  3  0
3. In each of the following, draw p + q and state its column vector.

29
4. Given that OR = OP + OQ, state the coordinates of R when the coordinates of P
and Q are:
(a) P(0, 1) and Q(3, 6)
(b) P(-3, 2) and Q(5, 1)
(c) P(-4, -3) and Q(2, 0)
(d) P(1, -7) and Q(6, 2).
5. Write down negatives of each of the following vectors:
7   5
(a)   (b)  
11  6
  3  2
(c)   (d)  
  3 0
  4 0
(e)   (f)  
 8 0
6. P is (5, 3), Q is (-4, 2) and R is (2, -3). Find the column vectors PQ, RQ and RP.

0
7. The coordinates of point A are (2, 1) and AB =   . Find the coordinates of B.
5
8. Given A(6, 3) and B(-4, 9), find the coordinates of C when:
(a) OC = OA + OB
(b) OC + OB = OA
0  3
9. Given that p =   , q =   and q + r = p, express r as a column vector.
 4   5
1   3   5
10. If r =   , s =   and t =   , determine:
 2   4   6
(a) r + s (b) r + s – t (c) r – (s + t)

30
Multiplying vectors by a scalar
 2
In the figure below, r =   and has been added to itself.
1 

 2  2  4
r + r =   +   =   .
1  1   2 
The addition of R to itself gives r + r = 2r. Thus,
 2  2  2  4
2r = 2   =   =   . The number 2 is a scalar value in 2r. In general, when a
1   2  1   2 
a  a   ka 
vector   is multiplied by a scalar k, we get k   =   . The scalar k can be any
b   b   kb 
positive or negative number. Each component of the vector is multiplied by the
scalar.

Example 5
 2  4
Given a =   and b =   , find the value of:
3  10 
(a) 4a (b)  12 b
(c) 3a - 12 b (d) 3a + 2b
Solution
 2  8
(a) 4a = 4   =  
 3  12 
1 1  4  2
(b)  b =    = 
2 2  10   5 
 2 1   4  6  2
(c) 3a - 12 b = 3      =   +  
 3  2  10   9    5
8 
=   .
 4
 2  4
(d) 3a + 2b = 3   + 2  
3  10 
6   8    2 
=   +   =  
 9   20   29 

31
 Note: When a vector is multiplied by a positive scalar, its direction does not
change. However, when a vector is multiplied by a negative scalar, its direction is
reversed.

The magnitude of a vector

The length of a vector is called magnitude. In the figure below the magnitude of OA is
the length of line OA and is denoted as OA or a or a.

Triangle OAB is right-angled at point B. We can use the Pythagoras’ theorem to find
the length of line OA. Thus
2 2 2
OA  OB  BA
= 62 + 32
= 36 + 9
= 45
OA = 45
Therefore, OA = a = 6.708 units.
6
Note that the column vector of OA is   and OA is 6 2  3 2 .
3
a
In general, the magnitude of a column vector t =   also denoted as |t|, is given by
b 
a2  b2
Since the magnitude of a vector is its length, the quantity is always a positive scalar.

Example 6
 2  5
Given that, a =   and b =   determine:
3  4
(a) |a| (b) |b|
(c) |a + b| (d) |a - b|

Solutions

(a) |a| = 2 2  3 2 = 13 = 3.606

32
(b) |b| = 5 2  (4) 2 = 25  16
= 41
= 4.403.
 2   5  7 
(c) a + b =   +   =  
 3    4    1
|a + b| = 7 2  (1) 2 = 50
= 7.071.
 2   5    3
(d) a – b =   -   =  
3  4  7 
|a – b| = (3) 2  7 2 = 9  49
= 58 = 7.616
Example 7
 3
Given r =   , find:
  4
(a) |r| (b) |2r|
(c) 2|r| (d) |kr|
Solutions

(a) |r| = 3 2  (4) 2

= 9  16 = 25 = 5.

 3  6 
(b) 2r = 2   =  

  
4  8 
|2r| = 6 2  (8) 2
= 36  64
= 100 = 10

(c) 2|r| = 2 3 2
 (4) 2 
= 2 25 = 2  5 = 10

 3   3k 
(d) kr = k   =  
  4    4k 
|kr| = (3k ) 2  (4k ) 2
= 9k 2  16k 2
= 25k 2 = 5k
From this example, multiplying a vector by a scalar, k, also multiplies its magnitude
by k. In general, |kr| = k|r|.

33
Exercise 3.4
1. Evaluate the following:
 3 1
(a) 2   (b) 10  2 
1  1
5
  4 0
(c) 5   (d) 3  
 5 1 

  1   1
(e) -8   (f) -7  
  1  0
1 3  1   10 
(g)   (h)  
3  9  5   5 
2. Given A(6, 3) and B(-4, 12), find the coordinates of C when:
1 1
(a) OC = OA + OB
3 4
(b) OC = 2OA + OB,
1
(c) OC + OB = 2OA
2
1   3 1 
3. If r =   , s =
  and t =   , determine:
 3   4  3
(a) 4r – t (b) 2s – 3r
1
(c) 3r + s + t
3
4. Determine the magnitudes of the following vectors:
 4 1 
(a)   (b)  
 2  3
 6   4
(c)   (d)  
 8  7
 5  8 
5. Given that a =   and b =   calculate:
 3  6
(a) | 12 b | (b) |a - 1 b |
2
(c) |a + b| (d) |-2a|
 a  a  1
6. Given that r =   and s =   and |r| = |s|, find a.
  3  2 
 1   3 
7. If a =   , b =   and |a| = |b|, find the value of y.
 y  1  y  2
8. PQR is a straight line such that PQ  2QR.
(a) Given P(6, 0) and R(4, 3), write down the column vectors for OP and OR.

34
 (b) If OP = p and OR = r, express RP, RQ and OQ in terms of p and r. Hence
find the coordinates of point Q.

Equality of vectors
x  x 
Two vectors  1  and  2  are equal if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2.
 y1   y2 
Note: Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and same direction

Example 8
 6k  10 
Given a =   , b =   and a = b, determine the value of k and n.
4   5  n
Solution
 6k  10  10 5
  =   , then 6k = 10 or k = = and 4 = 5 + n. Therefore, n = -1
 4   5  n 6 3
5
k = and n = -1.
3

The null vector

0
The vector   has no magnitude and no direction. It is therefore, a null or zero
0
vector dented as O or O

Mid-points
A point that bisects a vector is called its mid-point. To find the mid-point of a vector
we get the point that lies halfway on the position vector.
Suppose M is the mid-point of OA in the figure below, then
8   4 1
OA =   and OM =   . OM = OA.
6 3 2
This means that the position vector of point M is half the position vector of point A.

35
If M is the mid-point of a line AB where A is the point (x1, y1) an B is the point (x2, y2)
then the coordinates of M are given by
 
M = x1 2 x2 , y1 2 y2 .
Example 9
Find the mid-point, N, of points A(1, 5) and B(3, 7).
Solution
x1 = 1, y1 = 5; x2 = 3, y2 = 7
1  3 5  7 
The coordinates of N are  , 
 2 2 
 4 12 
Therefore, N  ,  = N(2, 6).
2 2 
Exercise 3.5
1. PQRS is a parallelogram with points P3, 1), Q(12, 5) and R(6, 8). Find:
(a) PQ,
(b) the coordinates of S
(c) |QS|.
2. Given A(1, 4), B(6, 7) and D(1, -2), and that ABCD is a trapezium such that DC
= 3AB, find the coordinates of C.

3. Show that the points U(-4, -2), V(-1, -3), W(5, 0) and X(2, 1) are vertices of a
parallelogram.

4. Find the mid-point of AB given A(-8, 5) and B(1, 4).

 6
5. Given X(7, 14), XY =   . Find:
  8
(a) the coordinates of Y,
(b) XN,
(c) the coordinates of N
6. The point M  12 ,  1 is the mid-point of points A(a, -3) and B(4, b). Find a and b.

7. Triangle ABC with vertices A(-1, 1), B(1, 3) and C(2, 1) is translated by vector
 2
  . Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image.
  1
 3  4
8. Given that a =   and b =   , find:
  2   6
1
(a) a + 2b (b) 3a - b
2
(c) |a – 2b|
9. Given r = a – 2b and s = 3a + b, express the following vectors in terms of a and
b:
(a) r – s (b) 4s + 3r

36
   2
10. Given point B(5,3) and AB =   , find the coordinates of point A.
 4
 4
11. Given point N(-6, 8) and NM =   , find the mid-point of NM.
  4
12. Show that quadrilateral ABCD with vertices A(1, 2), B(4, 4), C(4, 1) and D(1, -1)
is a parallelogram. Determine the coordinates of the point of intersection of its
diagonals.

13. Point M(-3, 4) is the mid-point of points A and B. If the coordinates of A are
(-5, 1), find the coordinates of B.

14. Given that quadrilateral PQRS with vertices P(2, 4), Q(8, 8), R(8, 2) and S(2, -2)
is a parallelogram. Find:
(a) the magnitudes of the diagonals,
(b) the coordinates of the point of intersection of its diagonals.

37
Chapter 4
COMPUTATION

Squares of numbers
When a number is multiplied by itself, the product is called its square. For example, 9
 9 = 81; 81 is the square of 9. In short the square of 9 is written as 92. Thus, 92 = 81.

Square tables
Tables of squares are normally provided together with other mathematical tables, to
enable us do quick calculations. In this section you will learn how to find squares of
whole numbers and decimals using tables. In the tables, squares of numbers
between 1.000 and 9.999 are given. Table 1 below is an extract from the table of
squares.

The table has three main sections as follows:

 Column headed x, featuring from top to bottom the numbers 1.0 – 9.9
 Ten main columns headed 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
 Mean difference columns headed 1 to 9.
Example 1
Use square tables to find the values of:
(a) 1.22 (b) 1.282
Solution
(a) 1.22
 Move down the column headed x and read 1.2
 Move along this row to the column headed 0. The number at the intersection of
this row and the column for 0 is 1.440.
 1.440 is the square of 1.2.
1.22 = 1.440.
Note: Square tables give values up to 4 significant figures.
(b) 1.282
 Move down the column headed x and read 1.2.
 Move along the row starting from 1.2 until you reach the column headed 8. The
number at the intersection of this row and the column is 1.638. Therefore,
1.282 = 1.638.

38
An extract from the tables of squares

Example 2
Use the above table to find the values of:
(a) 14.62 (b) 1.4632
Solutions
(a) Note that 14.6 is not a number between 1.000 and 9.999 and therefore it cannot
be read from the tables directly. We can change it to a number between 1.000
and 9.999 using the standard form.
14.6 = 1.46  10. Therefore, 14.62 = 1.462  102 or 1.462  100.
We can get the value of 1.462 from tables.
 Move down the column marked x and read 1.4.
 Along the row marked 1.4 move until you reach the column marked 6.
The number at the intersection of this row and the column is 2.132
Therefore, 1.462 = 2.132
14.62 = 1.462  100
 14.62 = 2.132  100
= 213.2
(b) The number 1.4632 has four figures. To find its square, the mean difference
column (ADD section) is used.
 1.4 is read in the column marked x.
 From 1.4 move along the row to the column headed 6. The number at
this point is 2.132.
 Move ahead along the same row to the section headed ADD. Under the
column headed 3, the number at the point of intersection is 9.
 Add this number to the figure 2.132 obtained as the square of 1.46. That
is, 2.132
+ 9
2.141
 1.4632 = 2.141

Normally, positive numbers greater than 10 and less than 1 are expressed in
standard form before using the square tables. To express a number in the form A 
10n where 1  A  10, and n is an integer is to express the number in standard form.

Example 3
Find the values of the following using tables.
(a) 25.32 (b) 223.42

39
Solution
(a) Express 25.3 in standard form.
25.3 = 2.53  10
25.32 = (2.53  10)2
Using tables:
2.532 = 6.401
25.32 = 2.532  102
= 6.401  100
= 640.1
(b) Express 223.4 in standard form:
223.4 = 2.234  102
223.42 = 2.2342  (102)2
Using tables:
2.2342 = 4.973
+ 18
4.991
223.42 = 2.2342 (102)2
= 4.991  10 000
= 49 910.

Exercise 4.1
Find the squares of the following numbers.
1. 2.7 2. 3.85
3. 6.123 4. 38.9
5. 86.7 6. 79.86
7. 83.57 8. 496.8
9. 263.4 10. 1639
11. 14.24 12. 2.002

Squares of numbers less than 1

Numbers less than 1 can be expressed in standard form. For example:
0.367 = 3.67  10-1
0.0367 = 3.67  10-2
0.00367 = 3.67  10-3
When the power of 10 is a negative integer, this is the same as dividing by 10 raised
to the power of a positive integer. For example:
3.67  10-1 = 3.67  101
3.67  10-2 = 3.67  102
3.67  10-3 = 3.67  103
Example 4
Use tables to find the squares of:
(a) 0.43 (b) 0.0642

40
Solution
(a) Express 0.43 in standard form
0.43 = 4.3  10-1
= 4.3  101
(0.43)2 = 4.32  (101)2
= 18.49 102
= 0.1849
(b) Express 0.0642 in standard form.
0.0642 = 6.42  10-2
0.06422 = 6.422 (10-2)2
= 41.22  10-4
= 41.22  10000
= 0.004122

Exercise 4.2
Use square tables to find the values of:
1. 0.162 2. 0.382
3. 0.0562 4. 0.0492
5. 0.00632 6. 0.2132
7. 0.003642 8. 0.000422
9. 0.82 10. 0.0822
11. 0.06742 12. 0.004922
13. 0.06492 14. 0.00212
15. 0.6252
16. Evaluate:
(a) 932 + 522 (b) 872 – 43.42
(b) 161.22 + 19.42 (c) 0.2392 + 0.66122
Square roots
The square of 4 is 16. The square root of 16 is 4. The sign for the square root is .
Thus 16 = 4 and 36 = 6.
Finding square roots by factorization
Factorization can be used to find the square root of a number that can be expressed
in terms of its prime factors. The factor should be in pairs or in powers of even
numbers.

Example 5
Find the square roots of the following numbers:
(a) 1225 (b) 1.44

41
Solution
(a) 1225 = 5  245
= 5  5  49
=5577
= 5 2  72
1225 = 5 2  7 2
=57
= 35

(b) 1.44 = 144

100
12  12 12 2
= =
10  10 10 2

1.44 = 122 = 12 = 1.2

102 10

Alternatively,
144 = 2  72
= 2  2  36
= 2  2  2  18
=22229
= 2  2  2 2  3  3
= 24  32
24 32
 1.44 =
22 52
22  3
=
25
12
= = 1.2
10

Exercise 4.3
Find, by factorization the square roots of:
1. 441 2. 3249
3. 3.625 4. 7569
5. 99225 6. 2.56
7. 23.04 8. 0.7056
9. 0.001369 10. 0.05
11. 400 12. 0.0004
Square root tables
A faster way of finding the square root of a number is by use of square root tables.
The square root tables give the square roots of numbers from 1.000 to 9.999 and
from 10.00 to 99.99. Table 4.1 (a) is an extract from square root tables for value

42
between 1.000 and 9.99. The square root tables have three sections similar to those
of the square tables and these sections are used in a similar way.

Table 4.1 (a)

Example 6
Find the square root of 2.65.
Solution
The square root of 2.65 will be read from the tables with numbers between 1.000 and
9.999. The square root is obtained in the same way the squares are read from the
square tables.
2.65 = 1.628
Square roots of numbers less than 1 and greater than 100.
To find the square root of a number that is less than 1 or greater than 100, the
number should be expressed in a form that lies between 1 and 100. For example,
225 = 22.5  10 or 2.25  102.
Note that we take the form in which 10 is to the power of an even number.
Thus, 225 = 2.25  10 2
= 1.5  10 = 15.
Example 7
Find the square root of:
(a) 0.235 (b) 0.0168
(c) 4863
Solution
(a) 0.235 = 23.5  10-2
 0.235 = 23.5  10 2
= 4.848  10-1
= 4.848  10
= 0.4848
(b) 0.0168 = 1.68  10-2
0.0168 = 1.68  10 2

43
 = 1.296  10-1
= 1.296  10
= 0.1296
(c) 4863 = 48.63  102
4863 = 48.63  10 2
= 6.973  10
= 69.73

Exercise 4.4
Find the square roots of the following from the tables:
1. 8 2. 7
3. 13 4. 77
5. 69.5 6. 8.72
7. 10.5 8. 0.97
9. 0.3475 10. 215
11. 4267 12. 0.018
13. 0.0273 14. 0.008471
15. 0.0006477 16. 0.0007982
17. 87273 18. 0.10758
19. 234000 20. 99999
21. Evaluate each of the following:
(a) 0.0792 (b) 0.00256
(c) 563 (d) 0.364
22. Work out the following using tables:
(a) 2.5  250 (b) 6.8  68
(c) 16.3  1630 (d) 352  35.2
23. Evaluate without using tables:
0.81 0.64 0.0144  0.625
(a) (b)
0.36 0.04  0.25

Reciprocals of numbers

Reciprocals of numbers by division.

Given a number x, its reciprocal is 1x . For instance, if x = 2, its reciprocal is 12 . Also
when x = 72 or 3.5, its reciprocal is 72 or 31.5 . We can use long division to find the
values of reciprocals.

Example 8

44
Find the value of the reciprocals of each of the following numbers correct to 4
significant figures:
(a) 15 (b) 1.45
(c) 0.245 (d) 73

Solutions
1
(a) The reciprocal of 15 = . To find the value of the reciprocal we use the long
15
division method.
0.06666..
15 1.00
 90
100
 90
100
 90
100 Thus, 1  0.06667
15
 90
Using a similar method, we can show that:
(b) 1  0.6897
1.45

(c) 1  4.082
0.245

(d) 1 = 7  2.333
3 3
7
Table of reciprocals
Finding reciprocals by division is a very tedious process. A quicker way is to use
the table of reciprocals. The table of reciprocals provides reciprocals of numbers
from 1 up to numbers less than 10. However, if the number x is less than 1 or
greater than 10, it is first expressed in standard form. The table of reciprocals is
read in the same way as the table of square roots or the table of squares.

Example 9
Use the table of reciprocals to find the reciprocals of each of the following
numbers:
(a) 7 (b) 8.23
(c) 1.752 (d) 4.0126
Solutions
(a) In the column marked x, find the row marked 7.0. Move to the right along
this row up to the column marked 0. Read the number at the intersection of

45
 this row (7.0) and the column 0. It is 0.1429. This is the reciprocal of 7.0.
Thus, 71.0 = 0.1429
(b) In the column headed x, find the row marked 8.2. Move along this row up
to the column headed 3. Read the number at the intersection of the row
and the column. The number is 0.1215. Thus, 8.123
(c) In the column headed x, find the row marked 1.7. Move along this row up
to the main column headed 5. Read the number at the intersection of the
row and the column. The number is 0.5714. Move further along this row
until the column headed 2 in the differences column. Read the number at
the intersection of this column and the row. The number is 7. We write this
number as 0.0007. Subtract 0.0007 from 0.5714 to get 0.5707. Thus,
1  0.5707
1.752
(d) Round off 4.0126 correct to 4 significant figures to get 4.013. Then
following a similar procedure as above in (c), we get
1  0.2491
4.0126
Example 10
Find the reciprocal of the following numbers:
(a) 231 (b) 0.00463
Solutions
1 1 1 1
(a) = =  2
231 2.3110 2
2.31 10
= 0.4329  10-2
= 4.329  10-1  10-2
= 4.329  10-3
= 0.004329

(b) 1 = 1
0.00463 4.63  103
= 1  1
4.63 103
= 0.2160  103
= 2.160  102 = 216.0
Exercise 4.5
1. Use the table of reciprocals to find the values of the following correct to 4 s.f:
(a) 1 (b) 1
17 35.8
(c) 1 (d) 1
128.5 0.186
(e) 1 (f) 1
0.098 0.007183
2. Find, correct to 3 s.f., the values of:

(a) 1 (b) 1
5  68 0.83  0.46

46
3. Given that v1  1  u1 , where u = 25 cm and f = 10 cm. Find v correct to 2 decimal
f
places.
4. One sterling pound is equivalent to 1.592 US dollars. How many sterling pounds
are equal to one dollar?

5. Calculate the value of r, correct to 4 s.f., given that 1r  r11  r12  r13 , when
r1 = 25, r2 = 18 and r3 = 37.

47
Chapter 5.

RATIONAL NUMBERS AND POWERS

Rational numbers and Irrational numbers

A number which is either an integer or can be expressed as a fraction of two integers

p
(i.e. in the form q , where p and q are integers having no common divisor and q  0)

is called a rational number. For example 3 , 2 , -1, -2, 5 are all rational numbers.
4 7 9

Terminating and Recurring Decimals

Some fractional numbers can be expressed as terminating decimals. For example,
3 = 0.75; 1 = 0.25; 51 = 0.51.
4 4 100
Conversely, terminating decimals can easily be expressed as a ratio of two integers
and therefore are rational numbers.
When we change 2 to a decimal, the digit 6 repeats itself continuously without an
3
end. We say that digit 6 is recurring. Decimals with such recurring digits are called
recurring decimals.
In contrast, 0.235294… is neither recurring nor a terminating decimal. It is a non-
terminating and non-recurring decimal.
Recurring decimals can have one digit which recurs or a group of digits that recur.
For example, 0.3333.. has one recurring digit. 0.9595… has 2 recurring digits. A dot is
put on top of the recurring digit when there is only one recurring digit. In the case of
two or more recurring digits, the dots are put on top of the first and the last recurring
digits. For example,

0.9595… = 0. 9 5
0.1245245… has 3 recurring digits, 245. Therefore, 0.1245245… = 0.12 45

Recurring decimals to fractions

Example 1
Express the following recurring decimals as fractions.
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.23 (c) 0.4 68 (d) 0.8 1 81
Solutions
(a) Let n stand for any decimal number.
n = 0.5555……………………………..(i)
Multiply both sides by 10 to get:
10n = 5.555…………………………….(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) gives:
10n – n = 5.555… - 0.555… = 5.000
9n = 5
5
n=
9

48
 5
 0.5 =
9
(b) n = 0.2333………………….. (i)
Multiply both sides of the equation by 10 to get:
10n = 2.3333…………………….(ii)
Note that after multiplying by 10, the decimal parts of equations (i) and (ii) are not the
same. Multiply equation (ii) by 10 to get:
100n = 23.333 ……………………..(iii)
Now the decimal parts of equations (ii) and (iii) are the same.
Subtracting (ii) from (iii) gives:

90n = 21
21 7
n= =
90 30
7
 0.23 = .
30
Note that subtraction should only be done after the decimal number has been
multiplied by the appropriate powers of 10 (i.e. 10, 100, 1000, etc.) so that there are
only the recurring digits after the decimal point.

(c) n = 0.468468…………………………..(i)
1000n = 468.468………………………………(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) gives:

999n = 468
468 52
n = =
999 111
(d) n = 1.8181………………………………………….(i)
100n = 181.8181……………………………………(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) gives:

99n = 180
180 20 9
n= = =1 .
99 11 11

49
Exercise 5.1
Express the following fractions as decimals.
1 8 13 5
1. 2. 3. 4.
3 11 30 27
15 1 2 2
5. 6. 7. 5 8. 1
37 27 3 9
Express the following as fractions in their lowest terms.
9. 0.0 9 10. 0.16 11. 0.5 22
12. 1.4 5 13. 0.8 14. 3.4

15. 1.63 16. 3.12 17. 0.56 71



18. 0.3 15 19. 2.7 2 20 3.7 1

Standard form
When a number is expressed as A  10n where 1  A < 10, that is A is equal to or
greater than 1 but less than 10 and n is an integer, the number is said to be in
standard form.
For example:
49 = 4.9  101 (101 = 10)
596 = 5.96  102 (102 = 100)
1274.3 = 1.2743  103 (103 = 1000)
It is assumed that every whole number has a decimal point after the ones digit. You
will notice that the decimal point is moved to the left so as to obtain a number
between 1 and 10. The power of 10 is equal to the number of places moved to the
left. In this case, the power of 10 is a positive integer.
If the decimal point is moved to the right so as to obtain a number between 1 and 10,
the power of 10 will also be equal to the number of decimal places moved. However,
in this case the power of 10 will be a negative integer. For example:
1
0.359 = 3.59  10-1 (10-1 = )
10
1
0.0462 = 4.62 10-2 (10-2 = )
100
1
0.003981 = 3.981  10-3 (10-3 = )
1000
Numbers in standard form are convenient to work with. Scientists sometimes deal
with very large and, at other times, very small numbers of units of measurements.
For example, the distance between the earth and the sun is approximately
150,000,000 km. This measurement is expressed in standard form as1.5  108 km.

Example
Express the following numbers in standard form.
(a) 24 (b) 8693 (c) 0.0873 (d) 0.00506

50
Solutions
(a) 24 = 2.4  10
(b) 8693 = 8.693  103
(c) 0.0873 = 8.73  10-2
(d) 0.00506 = 5.06  10-3

Exercise 5.2
1. Express the following numbers in standard form.
(a) 57600 (b) 0.0195
(c) 300000 (d) 0.000000718
(e) 0.00000198 (f) 998452
(g) 1596.9 (h) 290.64
2. The following numbers are in standard form. Write them in their normal form.
(a) 2.35  102 (b) 1.15  10-2
(c) 9.9  105 (d) 2.354  108
(e) 1.56  10-5 (f) 1.0601  10-4
3. The size of a molecule is estimated to be 0.0000001 mm. Express the size of
the molecule in standard form.
4. A bacterium divides itself 120,000,000 times in 1 minute. Express the total
number of bacteria reproduced within 1 minute in standard form.

5. The population of Uganda is expected to be 54.3 million in ten years’ time.

Express this population in standard form.

Multiplying decimals by 10, 100, 1000 …

When a number is multiplied by 10, tens become hundreds, units become tens,
tenths become units, hundredths become tenths and so on. For example, 3.64  10 =
36.4.
In general, when a number is multiplied by 10, 100 or 1000, the digits move 1, 2, 3
places respectively to the left. Notice that the number of places moved is equal to the
number of zeros in the multiplier.

Dividing decimals by 10, 100, 1000 …

When a number is divided by 10, hundreds become tens, tens become units, units
become tenths, tenths become hundredths and so on. For example:
120  10 = 12
6.19  10 = 0.619
The digits move one place to the right and their values become one-tenths of their
original values. Similarly, when you divide a number by 100, 1000, … the digits move
2, 3, … places to the right. In other words when we divide a decimal number by10,
100, 1000, … the decimal point moves 1, 2, 3 .. places respectively to the left. For
example:

51
 5.83  10 = 0.583
5.83  100 = 0.0583
5.83  1000 = 0.00583
Notice that the number of places moved by the decimal point to the left is equal to the
number of zeros in the divisor.

Exercise 5.3
Evaluate:
1. 0.158  100 2. 2.1  10 000
3. 0.0091  10 4. 31.24  1 000
5. 0.000027  100 000 6. 1.4008  100
7. 4.7  10 8. 3.16  1 000
9. 24.6  100 10. 0.097  1 000
11. 0.2  10 000 12. 10.15  100 000

Indices
An expression like 3  3  3  3 can be written as 34. This is read as three raised to
the power of four. The power is also called an index (plural indices) and the number 3
is the base.
Note: An index is the number of times the base is multiplied by itself .
Expressions can be written in index form as follows:
2  2  2  2  2 = 25
5  5  5  5 = 54
a  a  a  a  a  a a = a7

The laws of indices

When numbers with the same base are multiplied or divided, their indices are
operated according to certain rules.

Multiplication
a2  a3 = (a  a)  (a  a  a)
=aaaaa
= a5.
Also, a3  a4 = (a  a  a)  (a  a  a  a)
=aaaaaaa
= a7
Note: An index of a product is the sum of the given indices.
Thus, a2  a3 = a 2 3 = a5
a3  a4 = a 3  4 = a7
In general, am  an = am+n
For example, 42  43 = 42+3 = 45

52
Division
a  a  a  a  a
a5  a3 =
a  a  a
2
=a
a  a  a  a  a  a  a
Also, a7  a2 =
a  a
5
=a.
Note: The index of a quotient is the index of the divisor subtracted from the index of
the divident. Thus, a5  a3 = a5-3 = a2
Also, a7  a2 = a7-2 = a5
In general, am  an = am-n

Powers
Consider the number (a2)3
We know that: (a2)3 = a2  a2  a2
= a2+2+2 or a23
= a6
Also, (a3)4 = a3  a3  a3  a3 or a34 = a12
Note that the letter a has been used in the above example to represent any number.
The three basic laws of indices are:
(i) am  an = am+n
(ii) am  an = am-n
(iii) (am)n = amn

Exercise 5.4
Simplify, giving the results in index form.
1. 34  3 2. 46  43
3. 25  23  2 7 4. a2  a6
5. a12  a  a2 6. y6  y5  y2
7. 58  54 8. 25  24
9. 33  3 10. 79  74
11. (26  25)  24 12. 26  (25  24)
13. (54)3 14. (c6)2
15. (34)2 16. (53)4
17. (u10)3 18. (71)9
19. (4)6 20. (62)12
21. u10  u7  u 22. 2a  2b  2
23. (e5)a 24. (3n)2

53
Zero index
Consider the expression, a2  a2.
a  a
We know that a2  a2 = =1
a  a
And a2  a2 = a2-2 = a0
Therefore, a0 = 1.
In general, any number or expression with a power (or index) zero is equal to 1. For
example, 30 = 1; 1500 = 1 and (a  b)0 = 1.

Positive indices
Consider a product of numbers with an index. For example (ab)2.
ab2 = ab  ab
=abab
= a  a  b b
= a2  b2
= a2b2
2
a a a a2
Similarly,   =  = 2 .
b b b b
n n
a a
In general, (ab) = a b and    n
n n n

b b
Example:
Simplify: (a) (2a)3 (b) (3y2)4
(c) 2a5  3a4
Solutions
(a) (2a)3 = 23a3 = 8a3
(b) (3y2)4 = 34  (y2)4
= 34y8
= 81y8
(c) 2a5  3a4 = 2  3  a5  a4
= 6a9
Example
24a6  5a3
Simplify:
8a7
Solution
3
2 4a6  5a3
simplifying coefficient by cancellation
 a7
18

= 3a6 × 5a3 ÷ a7 = 15a6+3-7

= 15a2

54
Exercise 5.5
Simplify, giving the results in index form.
1. 2a3 × 5a4 2. a5 × 3a7

3. 2m2 × n2 × m3 4. 1 a 2 12a3  6a6

4
5. 3a4 × 2b2 × 5a3 × 4b5 6. 6p6 × 5q × q2 × p
7. 7y0 × 3z4 × 4z0 8. 4a5 ÷ 2a3
10y 4  9y3
9. 18a7 ÷ 6a5 10.
3y 2

15t 5  6t 5 4t 7  3t 2  t 3
11. 12.
5t 7 t 2  6t 5
13. (2y3)5 14. (5z2)3
5
15.  12 y 3  16. (ab2)3
 
4
 
17.  a  18. (2pq4)3
 b3 

19. 4x 
2
20. 1y 
0

Negative indices
Consider the expression: a3 ÷ a5 = a3-5 = a-2.
a a a 1
We know that a3 ÷ a5 = = 2
a a a a a a
1
Thus, 2 = a-2
a
1
In general, a-n = n .
a
Note: The laws of indices apply to both positive and negative indices.
Example
Simplify:
(a) 2-3 × 2-2 (b) 3-2 × 3-5
(c) a-4 ÷ a-2 (d) a6 ÷ a-3
(e) (a-2)3
Solutions
(a) 2-3 × 2-2 = 2-3+(-2) = 2-3-2 = 2-5
(b) 3-2 × 3-5 = 3-2+(-5) = 3-2-5 = 3-7
(c) a-4 ÷ a-2 = a-4-(-2) = a-4+2 = a-2

55
(d) a6 ÷ a-3 = a6-(-3) = a6+3 = a9
(e) (a-2)3 = a-2×3 = a-6

Example
Express the following with positive indices:
(a) 5-3 (b). a-4

(c) ba  3
(d) 2a-5

(e) (3a)-2 (f) 1

u 2
Solutions
1
(a) 5-3 = 13 (b) a-4 =
5 a4

(c) ba  3
 1 a
b
 3

= 1 ba  b3
3

a
3

(d) 2a-5 = 2  15  2
a a5

(e) (3a)-2 = 1  1
2 9a2
 3a 
 

(f) 1 = 1 ÷ u-2 = 1 ÷ 1 = 1 u2 = u2

u 2 u2 1
Note: In (d), -5 is the index for a only while in (e), -2 is the index for both 3 and a.

Exercise 5.6
1. Simplify, leaving your answers in index form.
(a) 7-2 × 7-2 (b) 3-5 × 3-4
3 -5
(c) a × a (d) a-7 × a4
(e) 2-3 ÷ 24 (f) 5-2 ÷ 5-6
-11 -8
(g) a ÷ a (h) a3b2 ÷ a4b5

2. Express the following as positive indices:

(a) 2-4 (b) 2-3a-5

(c) 3a-4 (d) 1

a 2
(e) (a-2)-3 (f) (a-1)2
(g) (a2b-3)-1

Fractional indices
The laws of indices also apply to fractions. We have seen that
am × an = am+n.

56
 1 1 1
 21
Also consider a 2  a 2  a 2  a1  a .
1 1
We have multiplied a 2 by itself to obtain a or a 2 has been squared to get a.
  a
Thus, a 2
1 2 1
2
2
the third law of indices
=a
Remember that the square of 4 is 16. Hence, 4 is the square root of 16, written
as 16 .
In general, a  a  a .
1
The number a is also written as a 2 .
1 1 1 1
 31  31
Similarly, a 3  a 3  a 3  a 3  a1  a
 
Thus, a 3
1 3
= a3
1
3
 a.
1
This means that a 3 is the cube root of a and is also written as 3 a .
1
In general, the nth root of a is written as a n or n
a . From the laws of indices we have,
(am)n = (an)m = amn.
You should be able to show that (am)n = (an)m.
Therefore, a n   1 m
 am 
1
n
an .
m

Example
Simplify:
1 1
(a) 36 2 (b) 64 3
1
1
 8 3
(c) 125 3
(d)  
 27 
Solutions

  6
1
1
2 21
(a) 36 2 = 6 2 2
 61  6

64 = 4   4
1
1
3 31
(b) 3 3 3
 41  4

125 = 5   5
1
1
3 31
(c) 3 3 3
5

 8  3  8 3  2
1 1

(d)   = 
 27   27 31  3
 
n n
a a
Remember that    n
b b
Example
Simplify:
2 2

(a) 83 (b) 32 5

57
 3

 81  2
(c)  
 64 
Solutions

(a)
2

83 = 83   1 2
= 22 = 4
 
2 1 1
Alternatively, 8 3 = 8 2 3
= 64 3 = 4

(b)
2

32 5 = 32 5   2 1 2
2
4
3 3
n n
 81  2  64  2 a b
(c)   =   , since   =  
 64   81  b a
3
  64  2 
1
3
8 512
=    =   =
  81   9 729
 
Example
Simplify:
1 1 1 1

(a) y2 y 3 (b) 5 2  20 2
1 5

(c) 8a 2  12a 2
Solutions:
1 1 1
  
1

(a) y2 y 3 = y2 3

1
 31 1

= y2 y6
1
1
 12 1 1

(b) 5  20 =    20 2
2 2

5
1

1 2
=   20 
5 
1

= 42 = 2
1
1 5
8a 2 8 21  52
(c) 8a  12a =
2 2
5
= .a
12a 2 12

2 2
= .a
3
2
=
3a 2

58
Example
3

Solve for x if: (a) 3x = 243 (b) 2x-1 = 32 (c) x 4  27

2
Solution:
(a) First express 243 in index notation with base 3. That is, 243 = 3 5. Thus,
3 x  3 5 . Since the bases are the same, their indices are equal. Therefore, x = 5.
1 1

(b) 2x-1 = 32 = 32 ÷ 2 2 = 25 ÷ 2 2
2
5  21
= 2
41
Therefore, 2x-1 = 2 2
Equating the indices we get,
x–1= 41
2
x = 51
2
3 3

(c) x 4  27  x 4  3 3
We can make the power of x be 1. This can be done by multiplying both indices
by  4 , which is the reciprocal of 3 .
3 4
4

Thus,  x 4   3 3  
3 3 4
3

 
3 4
3 3 4
x 4
3 3
x = 3-4
= 1
81

Summary of the laws of indices.

1. am × an = am+n 2. am ÷ an = am-n

3. (an)m = (am)n = amn 4. a-n = 1n

a

5. a0 = 1 6. (ab)n = anbn
m

7. a n  n am

Exercise 5.7
1. Simplify:
3 1
(a) 49 2 (b) 16 4
1 1 2 1

(c) 53 5 4 (d) 32 5  243 5

1 1 1 4

(e) 2 2 3 2 6 2 (f) a5 a

a 
1 1 1

(g) a6 a3 (h) 2

 a6 4

59
 a  a 
1 5 1
1
(i) 5 2
(j) 5y 2  2y 2

16a  63a  
1 1 1
4
(k) 2
(l) 2
 7a2 2

1
 
2
(m) 1 3a
3
(n) 125 3
343

729
1 
1
3  2
3
3 4
(o) (p)

6a      
1 1 2 1
(q) 4 2 a
6
2 (r) 5 a3 3  4a 2
2 1
32 5  27 3
(s)
18
2. Solve for a in:
5
(a) 2a  1 (b) 3 a  27 3
64
(c) 3 × 2a+5 = 768 (d) 254a = 125


1
a 3
(e) 1  1024 (f) a
3
4
4
2 1
(g) a 3  16 (h) 2a 2  16

3. If a = 8 and b = 36 calculate the values of:

1
3
1
2  32 
1 2
(a) a b
3
(b) a b 2 
 

4. Evaluate:
11
(a) 32 5
(b) 5-5
250
16 
1 1
3
(c) 814 (d)
(e) (4abc)0 (f) (-1)-3
(g) 1 21  4
(h) 26x 7
4x 5
25x 
3
(i) 6 2
(j) 36a8
1 3 1
(k) c  c 2 (l) r 4 r 4
(m) 2a4 × 5a-3 (n) m ÷ m-2
(o) 92n ÷ 3n (p) 9n-1 × 27n+3
(q) (a2 + b3)0
5. Find a and b if 2a × 3b = 12.

6. Find a, if 6 a  1 .
216
2n1
7. Find n, if 4  1024

60
Chapter 6.

SURDS

A number which cannot be expressed as an integer, a terminating decimal or a

recurring decimal is called an irrational number.
2 cannot be expressed as a fraction, i.e. it is neither a terminating nor a recurring
decimal.
2 = 1.414213562…
Therefore, 2 is an irrational number.
Other roots such as 3 , 11 , 3 4 . . . are examples of irrational numbers.

Now consider the following cases:

(a) 4 = 2; 3 27 = 3; 4 16 = 2; 0.09 = 0.3 = 3 .
10
(b) 2 = 1.414213562. . .; 5 = 2.236067 . . .;
We observe that:
In (a), the numbers under the root sign are positive rational numbers and the roots of
these numbers are either integers or can be expressed as a ratio of two integers.
In (b), the numbers under the root sign are positive rational numbers but the roots of
these numbers are irrational. Such numbers are called surds.
A surd is an irrational root of a rational number.
Thus 16 = 4 is not a surd but 3 16 is a surd.
3
8 is a surd but 8 is not a surd.
Simplification of surds
(a) Reduced form of a surd
Consider the following example:
72  36  2 = 36  2 = 6  2  6 2 .
Example 1
Reduce to the simplest form of a surd:
(i) 8 (ii) 45
Solutions
(i) 8 = 4  2  4  2  2 2.
(ii) 45 = 9  5  9  5  3 5.

(b) Surds of the same order can be multiplied or divided.

a  b  a  b  ab
a  a  a a  a2  a
a
b
ba 

61
Example 2
Simplify: (i) 8  2, (ii) 12
27
Solutions
(i) 8  2  16  4.

(ii) 12 =
27
12
27
 4 2
9 3

Addition and subtraction of surds

Surds of the same order with the same number under the root sign can be added or
subtracted.

Example 3.
Simplify: (i) 5  20 (ii) 54  150  24
Solutions
(i) 5  20 = 5  4  5  5  2 5  3 5 .

(ii) 54  150  24 = 9  6  25  6  4  6
= 3 6 5 6 2 6
= 6 6.
In simplification of surds the following rules are used:
(i) a c  b c  (a  b) c .

(ii) a c  b c  (a  b) c

(iii) a a a

(iv) ab  a  b

(v) a a
b b

Note that a  b is not the same as a  b .

For example, 9  16  25  5
But 9  16  9  16 as 9  16  3  4  7.

Exercise 6.1
Express the following irrational numbers so that the integer under the square root
sign is as small as possible, e.g. 12  4  3  2 3 .
1. 24 2. 180

3. 32 4. 108

62
5. 800 6. 720

7. 5000 8. 74a8

9. 50 10. 147

11. 135 12. 150

13. 24a3 b 2 14. 18x 4 y 3 z

15. 1000p2 q
Express the following as complete square roots:
e.g. 2 3  4  3  12 .

16. 5 3 17. 1 54
3

18. 4 12 19. 2a b

20. 4 5 21. 10 7

22. 2 135 23. 3x 2 5

3
Simplify the following:
24. 14  7 25. 32  24

26. 5 2 5 27. 3  15

28. 2 8  3 8 29. 2 27  3 6

30. 2 20  3 7 31. 10  2 2  5

32. 10  30  12

Rationalization of the denominator

A number such as 1 can easily be evaluated by first expressing it with a rational

2
denominator. The process of converting an irrational denominator to a rational one is
known as rationalization.

Example 4

Evaluate: (i) 1 (ii) 12 , given that 2  1.4142.

2 18
Solutions:

(i) 1 = 1  2  2  1.4142  0.7071.

2 2 2 2 2

(ii) 12 = 12 = 12  4 = 4  2 = 4 2 .
18 92 3 2 2 2 2 2

63
 = 2 2 = 2 × 1.4142 = 2.8284.
Example 5

Simplify 5 by rationalizing the denominator.

2 3
Solution
5 = 5  3  15  15 .
2 3 2 3 3 23 6

Example 6

Rationalise the denominator of 1 .

5 2

Solution:
Note: When the denominator is of the form a  b c , where a, b and c are integers,
we multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate surd of the
denominator.
a  b c is the conjugate surd of a  b c and vice versa.
Hence the conjugate surd of 5  2 is 5 2.
1 1  5 2 = 5 2 5 2
Therefore, = 
5 2 5 2 5 2 5 ( 5  2)  2( 5  2) 5 4

= 5 2

Exercise 6.2
Express the following with rational denominators:
1. 2 2. 2
3 6

3. 1 4. 2
5 3

5. 10 6. 3
2 2 5

7. 3 8. 8
10 12

9. 10 10. a
20 a

Evaluate the following, without using calculator, correct to 4 SF, given that
2 = 1.4141 and 3 = 1.7321

11. 5 12. 4
2 3

2 6 5
13. 14.
3 2 2

64
Simplify:
15. 3 12  2 3 16. 12  3 75

17. 12  2 3 18. 18  200  2 72

19. 50  98  8 20. 3 (3  3 )

21. 3 (3  27 ) 22. 45  3 20  80

23. 2 45  20  3 80 24. 5 6  294  24

25. 175  2 28  63 26. a( a  b )

27. 7  3 2 7  3 2  28.  2 2 3  2 2 3 

Rationalise the denominators (Q.29 – 39)
29. 1 30. 3
5 1 7 2

31. 4 32. 3
6 5 2 3 2

2 3
33. 34.
3 2 3 1

7 5 2  11
35. 36.
7 5 11  4

3 2 6 2
37. 38.
3 2 10  7

33  23
39.
33  23

If x = 3  2 and y = 3  2 , find the value of: (Q.40 – 42)

40. xy 41. x2 + y2
42. x2 – y2
43. Evaluate: x2 + 2x, if x = 5 and 5 = 2.2361.

44. Simplify: x2 +  3 x if x = 2 - 3.
Simplify the following by rationalizing the denominators Q.45 – 46:
45. 1  1 46. 1  1
5 2 5 2 7 3 7 3

65
Chapter 7.

LOGARITHMS

Powers of 10 and logarithms

Numbers like 10, 100, 1 000, 10 000 and so on, can easily be expressed as powers
of 10.
Thus: 10 = 101, 100 = 102, 1 000 = 103 and 10 000 = 104.
The power of 10 for a given number is its logarithm to base 10. Thus, the logarithm of
1 000 to base 10 is 3, written as
log10 1000  3 or simply log 1 000 = 3.
The logarithm of a number is the power to which 10 is raised to give that number.
Therefore, 1 000 = 103 = 10logarithm.
In general, if 10 is raised to power a to give x then x = 10a. This means that the
logarithm of x to base 10 is a, written as log10 x  a or simply log x = a.

The logarithms of some numbers are integers while the logarithms of other numbers
are not integers. However, there are tables which enable us to find the logarithms of
numbers.

Logarithms of numbers between 1 and 10.

These can be obtained from the table of logarithms.
Example 1
Find the logarithm to base 10 of 1.86
Solution
From the table of logarithms shown below, find the logarithm of 1.86 as follows:
Look for the number 1.8 in the column headed x. Move along this row up to where it
meets with the main column headed 6. Read the number at the intersection of the
row and the column. The number is 0.2695.
Therefore, log 1.86 = 0.2695 or 1.86 = 100.2695
Example 2
Find log10 2.356
Solution
The number has four significant figures. Look for the number 2.4 in the column
headed x. Move along this row up to where it meets with the main column headed 5.
Read the number at the intersection. The number is 0.3711. Move further along the
same row up to the differences column headed 6. The number at this intersection is
11. Write this number as 0.0011. Add 0.0011 to 0.3711 to get 0.3722.
Therefore, log10 2.356  0.3722 or 100.3722 = 2.456.

66
Exercise 7.1
1. Express the following numbers as powers of 10:
(a) 100 (b) 100 000
(c) 1 (d) 1.53
(e) 7.002 (f) 6.23
(g) 8.1 (h) 1.01
2. Find the logarithms of the following numbers:
(a) 9.991 (b) 1.025
(c) 3.108 (d) 4.444
(e) 7 (f) 6.002

Logarithms of numbers greater than 10

Numbers that are greater than 10 are first expressed in standard form in order to get
their logarithms. That is, A × 10n, where 1 A  10 and then the laws of indices are
applied.

Example 3
Find the logarithms of:
(a) 27.4 (b) 382
(c) 18 347
Solutions:
(a) 27.4 = 2.74 × 101
From tables, log 2.74 = 0.4378
Therefore, 27.4 = 100.4378 × 101 = 100.4378+1 = 101.4378
Therefore, log 27.4 = 1.4378.

67
(b) A number with more than 4 significant figures should first be rounded to 4
significant figures.
Thus, 18 347 = 18 350 (to 4 s.f.)
18 350 = 1.835 × 104
Fro tables, log 1.835 = 0.2637
So 18 350 = 100.2637 × 104 = 104.2637
Therefore, log 18 350 = 4.2637.
A logarithm has two parts:
(a) the integer part before the decimal point, called the characteristic.
(b) the decimal part after the decimal point called the mantissa.
Note: The characteristic of a logarithm is the same as the power of 10 when the
number is written in standard form.

Exercise 7.2
Find the logarithms of the following numbers.
1. 17 2. 34.6
3. 485 4. 3094
5. 1006 6. 597.2
7. 20.17 8. 800.4
9. 88.8 10. 543 000
11. 123 456 12. 49 836
13. 8 14. 2.8
15. 9.05 16. 3 014 952
17. 100.02 18. 111.11

Logarithms of numbers between 0 and 1

The logarithms of numbers between 0 and 1 can be found from tables
of logarithms by first expressing them in standard form.

Example 4
Find the logarithms of:
(a) 0.723 (b) 0.0052
Solutions
(a) 0.723 = 7.23 × 10-1
From tables, log 7.23 = 0.8591.
Thus, 0.723 = 100.8591 × 10-1 or 10-1+0.8591
= 100.8591 + (-1) = 101 .8591
Therefore, log 0.723 = 1.8591.
1.8591 is read as bar one point eight five nine one.

68
Note: Only the characteristic is negative. The mantissa is always positive. Therefore,
the negative sign is put above the characteristic.
(b) 0.0052 = 5.2 × 10-3
From the tables, log 5.2 = 0.7160
Thus, 0.0052 = 100.7160 × 10-3
= 10-3+0.7160
= 10 3 .7160
Therefore, log 0.0052 = 3 .7160

Exercise 7.3
Find the logarithms of the following numbers:
1. 0.44 2. 0.9
3. 0.005 4. 0.0089
5. 0.000046 6. 0.001
7. 0.178 8. 0.0102
9. 42 10. 0.0000008
11. 0.002059 12. 5.7
13. 601 14. 1 000 000
15. 2.003

Antilogarithms
The logarithm of 2.4 is 0.3802. The number whose logarithm is 0.3802, is
called the antilogarithm of 0.3802, which is 2.4.
Thus, antilogarithm 0.3802 = 2.4. Simply written as antilog 0.3802 = 2.4.
Tables of antilogarithms are also given. See Table 7.2. The tables are used in the
same way as those of logarithms

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Example 5
Find the numbers whose logarithms are:
(a) 0.1068 (b) 2.0088
(c) 1.0769
Solution
(a) Look for the number 0.10 on the column headed x. Move along this row until
where it meets with the main column headed 6. The number at the intersection
is 1.276. Continue along this row up to the differences column head 8. The
number at this intersection is 2. Write this number as 0.002. Add 0.002 to 1.276
to get 1.278.
Therefore, antilog 0.1068 = 1.278.
Note: The decimal points are only indicated in the column headed 0. These
decimal points apply in the whole table.
(b) Similarly, from the tables (see Table 7.2):
Antilog 0.008 = 1.019
The difference for 8 = 0.002
1.019 + 0.002 = 1.021
Therefore, antilog 2.0088 = 1.021 × 102.
(in 2.0088, the characteristic is 2)
(c) From the tables, antilog 0.076 = 1.191.
The difference for 9 = 0.002
1.191 + 0.002 = 1.193
Therefore, antilog 1.0769 = 1.193 × 10-1.
(in 1.0769 , the characteristic is 1 )

Exercise 7.4
Use tables to find the numbers whose logarithms are:
1. 0.6841 2. 0.0431
3. 1.9820 4. 3.1172
5. 2 .2003 6. 4 .3142

7. 1.6990 8. 3 .6246

9. 5.3010 10. 6 .0000

11. 1.5752 12. 0.9909

Application of logarithms
The main use of logarithms is in the multiplication and division of numbers.
They are also used in finding the roots of numbers.
Multiplication of logarithms
Logarithms can be used to work out the products of numbers. We have
already seen that logarithms are powers or indices. The rules of indices are

70
therefore followed when working out multiplication using logarithms.
Example 6
Evaluate 4.5 × 6.27 using logarithms.
Solution
From tables, log 4.5 = 0.6532 and log 6.27 = 0.7973.
4.5 × 6.27 = 100.6532 × 100.7973
= 100.6532+0.7973
= 101.4505
Therefore, log (4.5 × 6.27) = 1.4505.
From the table of antilogarithms, the number whose logarithm is 1.4505 or,
antilog 1.4505 = 2.819 × 101 = 28.19.
Note: The logarithm of 4.5 × 6.27 was obtained by adding log 4.5 to log 6.27.
Log (4.5 × 6.27) = log 4.5 + log 6.27
= 0.6532 + 0.7973
= 1.4505
Generally, log(ab) = log a + log b
Note:The logarithm of a product of numbers is the sum of the logarithms of the
numbers.
Example 6 can also be done in tabular form as follows:
No. logarithm
4.5 0.6532
+
6.27 0.7973
28.19 1.4505
Antilog 1.4505 = 2.819 × 101
= 28.19

Example 7
Use logarithms to evaluate 356 × 43.6.
Solution
No. Standard form logarithm
356 3.56 × 102 2.5514
+
43.6 4.36 × 101 1.6395
15520 1.552 × 104 4.1909

Antilog 4.1909 is 1.552 × 104. Therefore, 456 × 43.6 = 15520

Example 8
Use logarithms to evaluate 0.0417 × 0.00928.

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Solution
No. Standard form logarithm
0.0417 4.17 × 10-2 2 .6201
+

0.00928 9.28 × 10 -3 3 .9675

0.0003869 3.869 × 10-4 4 .5876
Antilog 4 .5876 is 3.869 × 10 -4

0.0417 × 0.00928 = 3.869 × 10-4 = 0.0003869.

Exercise 7.5
Evaluate the following using logarithms:
1. 2.8 × 3.61 2. 13.6 × 5.2 × 6.2
3. 30.7 × 10.71 4. 0.83 × 0.052
5. 1.346 × 1.117 × 2 6. 4.2 × 13.5 × 9.1
7. 0.0108 × 1.76 × 0.21 8. 5.234 × 7.04
9. 183 × 356 10. 5400 × 1.36
11. 0.000812 × 0.049 12. 409 × 15.2
13. 0.0252 × 328 14. 14.7 × 1.68 × 44.7

Division
As in multiplication, logarithms can be used to work out division of numbers.
Example 9
Evaluate 5.23 ÷ 3.14
Solution
From the tables, log 5.23 = 0.7185 and log 3.14 = 0.4969.
Therefore, 5.23 ÷ 3.14 = 100.7185 ÷ 100.4949
= 100.7185 – 0.4969
= 100.2216
Therefore, log (5.23 ÷ 3.14) = 0.2216.
From the table of antilogarithms,
Antilog 0.2216 = 1.666.
Therefore, 5.23 ÷ 3.14 = 1.666.
Note that log (5.23 ÷ 3.14) = log 5.23 – log 3.14
= 0.7185 – 0.4969
= 0.2216
b 
Generally, log (a ÷ b) = log a – log b. Or l og a  l oga  l ogb.

Example 9 can also be done in a tabular form as follows:

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Antilog of 0.2216 is 1.666. Therefore, 5.23 ÷ 3.14 = 1.666
Example 10
Use logarithms to evaluate 430 ÷ 38.
Solution
No. Standard form logarithm
430 4.3 × 102 2.6335
-
38 3.8 × 101 1.5798
11.32 1.132 × 101 1.0537
Antilog 1.0537 = 1.132 × 10 . Therefore, 430 ÷ 38 = 11.32.
1

Example 11
Use logarithms to evaluate 0.0231 ÷ 0.000458.
Solution
No. Standard form logarithm
0.0231 2.31 × 10-2 2. 3636
-
0.000458 4.58 × 10 -4
4. 6609
50.43 5.043 × 10 1
1.7027
Antilog 1.7027 = 5.043 × 101. Therefore, 0.0231 ÷ 0.000458 = 50.43

Exercise 7.6
Use logarithms to evaluate the expressions:
1. 3.4 ÷ 2.3 2. 8.33 ÷ 13.58
3. 1.03 ÷ 4.92 4. 832 ÷ 59.1
5. 14.3 ÷ 0.017 6. 0.314 ÷ 0.128
7. 0.0195 ÷ 0.00152 8. 0.0308 ÷ 0.07

Combined multiplication and division

Example 12
Use logarithms to evaluate:
4.2  8.7 743.1  34.8 0.031 0.001 23
(a) (b) (c)
5.6 15.6  102.7 0.215  0.0802

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Solutions
(a)
No. logarithm
4.2 0.6232
8.7 0.9395 +
4.2 × 8.7 1.5627
5.6 0.7482 -
6.524 0.8145
4.2  8.7
Antilog 0.8145 = 6.524. Therefore, = 6.524.
5.6
(b)
No. Standard form logarithm
743.1 7.431 × 102 2.8710
34.8 3.48 × 101 1.5416
743.1 × 34.8 4.4126 4.4126
15.6 1.56 × 101 1.1931
102.7 1.027 × 102 2.0116 -
15.6 × 102.7 3.2047 3.2047
16.14 1.614 × 101 1.2079
Note: The logarithms of the numerator and denominator are repeated in the fourth
column.
4.4126 – 3.2047 = 1.2079
Antilog 1.2079 = 1.614 × 101. Therefore,
743.1  34.8
= 16.14.
15.6  102.7

(c)
No. Standard form logarithm
0.0312 3.12 × 10-2 2 .4942
0.00123 1.23 × 10-4 4 .0899
0.0312 × 0.00123 6 .5841 6 .5841
0.215 2.15 × 10 -1
1 .3324
0.0802 8.02 × 10-2 2 .9042 -
0.215 × 0.0802 2 .2366 2 .2366
0.0002226 2.226 × 10 -4
4 .3475

Antilog 4 .3475 = 2.226 × 10-4

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Exercise 7.7
Evaluate each of the following:
2.63  8.12 5.78
1. 2.
13.24 5.32  6.09

0.48  1.83 350  468

3. 4.
0.042  0.181 1143  184

0.33  0.045 13.81 0.31

5. 6.
0.29  0.67 0.93 14.27

7. 2.61 8. 1
4.83 0.11 7.92 13.68 8.09

34.8  7.362 5.3  6.94  1.45

9. 1.89  0.0413
10. 4.71 9.46  7.28

Negative characteristics
Great care must be taken when dealing with negative characteristics. Here
are some examples on how to handle negative characteristics.
(a) 2 . 53 + 3 . 46 = 2 + 3 + 0.53 + 0.46
= 5 .99

(b) 5 .62 + 6 .71 = ( 5 + 6 ) + 0.62 + 0.71

= - 11 + 1.33
= 10 .33
(c) 2.42 – 4.22 = 2 – 4 + 0.4 – 0.22
= -2 + 0.28 = 2 .28
(d) 5 . 81 - 3 .54 = -5 + 0.81
-(-3 + 0.54)
-2 + 0.27
= 2 .27
(e) 2 .03 - 4 .18 = -3 + 1.03
- (-4+0.18)
1 + 0.85
= 1.85

Exercise 7.8
Simplify the following logarithms:
1. 5.834 + 0.412 2. 1.001 + 3.121
3. 3.4 – 4.1 4. 3.1 – 5.2
5. 2 .9 + 1 .1 6. 7 .8 + 6.5
7. 3 .6 - 1 .4 8. 4 .5 – 5.2
9. 1 .2 – 2.1 10. 5 .3 - 3 .7

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11. 4 .6 - 7 .7 12. 6.4 – 7.5

Multiplying and dividing logarithms

Logarithms can be multiplied or divided by integers. Multiplication and division
of logarithms with positive characteristics is done in the same way decimals
are multiplied or divided by integers.
Example 13
Work out the following multiplications and divisions involving logarithms.
(a) 2.418 ÷ 3 (b) 1.319 × 4
(c) 2 .645 × 3 (d) 6 .34 ÷ 2
(e) 3 .436 ÷ 2 (f) 1 .312 ÷ 4
Solutions
(a) 2.418 ÷ 3 = 0.806
(b) 1.319 × 4 = 5.276
(c) 2 .645 × 3 = (-2 + 0.645) × 3
= -6 + 1.935
= 5 .935
(d) 6 .34 ÷ 2 = (-6 + 0.34) ÷ 2
= 3 + 0.17
= 3 .17
(e) 3 .436 ÷ 2 = (-3 + 0.436) ÷ 2
Remember that it is only the characteristic, and not the mantissa, which is
negative. Therefore, we re-write 3 so that the negative characteristic is divisible
by 2.
Note: -3 = -4 + 1, -6 + 3, -8 + 5, and so on.
Thus, 3 .436 ÷ 2 = (-4 + 1 + 0.436) ÷ 2
= (-4 + 1.436) ÷ 2
= -2 + 0.718
= 2 .7.18
(f) 1 .312 ÷ 4 = (-4 + 3 + 0.312) ÷ 4
= (-4 + 3.312) ÷ 4
= -1 + 0.828
= 1 .828

Exercise 7.9
Simplify the following logarithms:
1. 3.8 × 2 2. 5.1 ÷ 3
3. 4. 3 × 3 4. 1.6 × 2
5. 6. 2 ÷ 3 6. 3 .9 ÷ 3
7. 5 .1 ÷ 2 8. 1.8 ÷ 4

76
9. 2. 5 ÷ 5 10. 1 . 04 ÷ 6

Indices and logarithms

From the laws of indices, we know that (an)m = anm. Therefore, when dealing
with logarithms we can use this rule.
Example 14
Use logarithms to evaluate:
(a) (3.8)3 (b) (0.573)2
3 5
(c) 16.29 (d) 0.035
Solutions:
(a) From the tables 3.8 = 100.5798. Thus,
(3.8)3 = (100.5798)3
= 101.7394
Antilog 1.7394 = 5.487 × 101
= 54.87
Note: Log 3.8 = 0.5798 and log (3.8)3 = 3 × 0.5798 = 1.7394
In tabular form:

No. Logarithm
3.8 0.5798
3.83 0.5798 × 3
54.87 1.7394

Antilog 1.7394 = 5.487 × 10. Therefore, (3.8) 3 = 54.87

(b)
No. Standard form logarithm

0.573 5.73 × 10-1 1 . 7582

0.5732 1 . 7582 × 2
= 1 . 5164
0.3285 3.285 × 10-1 1 . 5164
Antilog 1 . 5164 = 3.285 × 10-1. Therefore,
(0.573)2 = 0.3285
(c) No. Standard form logarithm
16.29 1.629 × 101 1.2119
1.2119 ÷ 3
3
16.29 = 0.4040
2.534 2.534 × 100 0.4040

3
16.29 = 2.534

77
(d) No. Standard form logarithm
0.035 3.5 × 10-2 2 .5490
5
0.035 2 .5490 ÷ 5
= 1 .7098
0.5126 5.126 × 10-10 1 .7098
5  3.549
Note: 2.5490
5
= 5
= 1 .7098
Antilog 1 .7098 = 5.126 × 10-1.
Therefore, 5 0.035 = 0.5126.

Example 15
0.256 14.7
Use logarithms to evaluate 3 8.6  38.5

Solution
No. Standard form logarithm
0.256 2.56 × 10-1 1 .4082
14.7 1.47 × 101 1.1673

0.256 × 14.7 0.5755 0.5755

8.6 0.9345
-
38.5 3.85 × 101 1.5855
8.6 × 38.5 2.5200 2.5200

0.256 14.7 2 . 0555

3 3
8.6  38.5
= 1 .3518
-1
0.2248 2.248 × 10 1 .3518

3  1.0555
Note: 2 .0555 = 3

= 1 .3518
Antilog 1 .3518 = 2.248 × 10-1
0.256 14.7
Therefore, 3 8.6  38.5 = 0.2248.

Exercise 7.10
Use logarithms to evaluate:
1. (7.48)3 2. (14.5)5
3. (0.249)6 4. (0.018)3
5. (0.0483)2 6. 310

78
 3 4
7. 48.5 8. 113.2
4
9. 0.491 10. 0.0514

11. 3
0.134 12. 0.0189
2.35

0.4563 0.2452  3.143

13. 14. 0.007 34.1
0.0347

5.0213.71
15. 0.823 × 0.0621 16. 94.6

12.81 5
17. 33.6
18. 0.0137
2
0.63  0.123
19. 3 5.28 20. 4 0.09214.7
4.093

26.25 0.752  0.0364 15.63 

21. 22.  2.82  46.7 
3.41 6.03  

79
Chapter 8

RATIO, PROPORTION AND PERCENTAGE

Ratio
Quantities of the same kind may be compared in various ways. For example,
consider two line segments PQ and RS, where PQ = 8 cm and RS = 12 cm
(a) RS may be said to be 4 cm longer than PQ. Thus we compare the two lengths
by giving the difference between their lengths.
(b) Alternatively, the length of PQ may be given as a fraction of RS. Thus:
PQ 8 2
 
RS 12 3
(c)The two lengths may also be compared in ratio form thus, PQ:RS = 2:3,
read as ratio of PQ to RS is equal to two to three.
However, RS:PQ is 12:8 = 3:2, which means PQ:RS ≠ RS:PQ
A ratio involves comparing similar quantities whose units must be the same. Ratios
are normally given in their simplest form and have no units of measurements.

Example 8.1
Express the following ratios in their simplest form:
(a) 3 days to 3 weeks (b) sh. 6 to 40 cents.
Solutions
(a) 3 days:3weeks = 3 days : 21days
= 3 : 21
=1:7
(b) sh. 6 : 40 cents = 600 cents : 40 cents
= 600 : 40
= 15 : 1

Example 8.2
Express the following ratios in their simplest forms:
(a) 0.02 : 0.8
(b) 32 : 54

Solutions
(a) Multiply the decimals by suitable powers of 10 to obtain whole numbers.
0.02: 0.8 = 0.02 × 100: 0.8 × 100
= 2:80
= 1:40
(b) Multiply the fractions by the LCM of their denominators to obtain whole
numbers.
2 : 4 = 2 15 : 4 15
3 5 3 5
= 10:12 = 5:6

80
When converting the ratio form, a:b, to a fraction, the number on the left-hand side of
the ratio becomes the numerator while the number on the right becomes the
denominator of the fraction, i.e ba .

Example 8.3
The ratio of the heights of two students is 2:3. If the taller student is 180 cm tall, what
is the height of the shorter one?

Solution
Height of shorter student : height of taller student = 2 : 3
height of shorter
Thus, height of taller  32

Height of shorter = 32 × 180 cm

= 120 cm

Example 8.4
Rebecca, Aisha and Musa shared sh. 2,400 in the ratio 3:4:5 respectively.
How much did each receive?
Solution
The total amount was divided into 3 + 4 + 5 = 12 shares.
Thus, Rebecca received 123  sh.2,400 = sh. 600

4  sh.2,400 = sh. 800

Aisha received 12
5  sh.. 2,400 = sh. 1,000
Musa received 12

Example 8.5
If a:b = 2:3 and b:c = 4:5, find a:c.
Solution
To obtain a single ratio a:b:c;
- multiply each ratio a:b and b:c by an appropriate value so that the share for b,
which is common in both ratios, is the same.
- get the LCM of the numbers representing b in both ratios.
- change the ratios to have the value of b as the LCM.
The LCM of 3 and 4 is 12.
a:b = 2:3 = 8:12 (multiply each number in the ratio by 4)
b:c = 4:5 = 12:15 (multiply each number in the ratio by 3)
a:b:c = 8:12:15
Therefore, a:c = 8:15

Exercise 8.1
1. Express the following ratios in their simplest forms.
(a) 9 cm:48 cm (b) 4 weeks:8 days

81
 (c) sh. 150:sh. 350 (d) 3 cm:3 m
(e) 5 cm3:5 litres (f) 40 min:1 hour
(g) 12 cm2:1m2 (h) 50 g:0.8 kg
(i) 300 m:2 km

2. Simplify the following ratios.

(a) 26:52 (b) 1:0.2
(c) 0.3:0.06 (d) 0.4:0.1
(e) 1: 1 (f) 3 :5
2 4 4

(g) 3k:20k (h) 2:3

5 4

(i) 1 21 :3 41 (j) 18:6:2

3. Simplify the following ratios.

(a) 3:6:12 (b) 24:36:54
(c) 0.2:1.6:3.6 (d) 1: 1: 1
2 3 4

(e) 4p:48p:20p (f) 1 :2 : 1

2 5

(g) 3-3x:5-5x:1-x (h) 1 : 0.2: 3

3

4. Find the ratio a:c if:

(a) a:b = 1:2, b:c = 2:5 (b) a:b = 2:5, b:c = 4:1
(c) a:m = 5:1, m:c = 41 : 21 (d) a:n = 3:4, n:c = 6:5

5. There are 40 teachers in a school of 500 students. Find the ratio of student to
teacher in its simplest form.

6. The angles of a triangle are in the ratio 2:3:4. Calculate the sizes of the angles.

7. The ratio of girls to boys in a school is 2:3. There are 320 girls. How many boys
are there?

8. Divide 1,200 kg in the ratio 2:3:5.

9. A sum of money is divided into two parts in the ratio 5:7. If the larger amount is
sh. 6300, find the smaller amount.

10. A metal alloy consists of copper, tin and zinc in the ratio 2:5:3. Find the amount
of each constituent in 130 kg of the alloy.

82
11. Mr. Waako has three sons, Kimuli, Kaggwa and Muwendo, aged 12, 16 and 36
years respectively. He divides sh. 64,000 among them in the ratio of their ages.
How much does each receive?

Expressing scale in ratio form

Maps and plans of houses have their scales given in the form 1:n. For
instance, the scale of a map is 1:200,000. This means that, 1 cm on the map
represents 200,000 cm on the ground. Note that the scale can be written as a
ratio 1:200,000 or as a fraction 1 .
200000
The latter is sometimes called the representative fraction or RF in short.
Example 8.6
Find the scale of a map in which 36 km is represented by 1.8 cm.
Solution
Scale 1.8 cm : 36 km
= 1.8 cm : 3,600,000 cm (convert km to cm)
= 18 : 36,000,000 (multiply both numbers by 10)
= 1 : 2,000,000 (divide both numbers by 18)

Example 8.7
If the ratio of the scale of a map is 1 : 50,000 and the distance between two
points on the map is 8 cm, find the actual distance between the two points.
Solution
Let the actual distance be x cm. Then, 8 cm : x cm = 1 : 50,000
Or x : 8 = 50,000 : 1
x  50,000
8 1
x = 8 × 50,000 = 400,000
The actual distance is 400,000 cm or 4 km.

Example 8.8
In a scale drawing, the dimensions of a door are 2 cm by 3 cm. If the scale is
1 : 100, what are the actual measurements of the door in metres?
Solution
1 cm represents 100 cm.
2 cm represents 200 cm = 2 m.
3 cm represents 300 cm = 3 m.
The measurements of the door are 2 m by 3 m.

Exercise 8.2
1. Find the representative fraction in each case:
(a) 1 cm on the map represents 1 km.
(b) 0.5 cm on the map represents 500 m.

83
 (c) 200 km is represented by 5 cm on the map.
(d) 5 cm on the map represent 25 km.
(e) 2.4 cm on the map represent 48 km.
2. The scale of a map is 1 : 50,000. Find the length on the map of a road 3 km long
in centimeters.

3. An area of 2 cm2 on a map represents 4 km2 on the ground. Find the

representative fraction on the map. Leave the answer correct to 1 significant
figure.

4. The measurements of a 2-cm cube were trebled. Find the ratio of the new
volume to the original volume then express it in the form 1 : n.

5. A rectangle measures 3 cm by 4 cm in a scale drawing. If 1 cm represents 1 km,

find the actual area of the rectangular field.

Changing quantities in ratio

When the value of an item changes, we may want to express the new value in
terms of the old value.
Example 8.9
The price of a dress is increased from sh.5000 to sh. 8000. Find the ratio of
the price increase.
Solution
New price : old price = 8000 : 5000
=8:5
We say that the price has increased in the ratio 8 : 5.
The new price = 85  old price.

Example 8.10
If the price of a television falls from sh. 90,000 to sh. 80,000, what is the ratio
of the price decrease?
Solution
New price : old price = 80,000 : 90,000
=8:9
We say, in this case, the price has decreased in the ratio 8 : 9.
New price = 89  old price

In example 8.10, 89 is called the multiplying factor (number) which gives the
new value.
new value
In general, old value = multiplying factor.

84
Example 8.11
(a) Increase 600 in the ratio 6 : 5.
(b) Decrease 40 in the ratio 5 : 8.
Solution
(a) New value = 65  600 = 720

(b) New value = 58  40 = 25

Exercise 8.3
1. Increase 240 litres in the ratio:
(a) 4:3 (b) 9:5
(c) 1: 1 (d) 11 : 11
2 4 2 4
2. Decrease 8 kg in the ratio:
(a) 1:2 (b) 0.7 : 1.6
(c) 2:3 (d) 5:2
3 4 8 3
3. The number of goats in a certain farm has decreased from 500 to 350. In what
ratio has it decrease?

4. A shopkeeper increased the price of a radio in the ratio 27 : 20. If the price of
the radio was sh. 100,000, find the new price.

5. In a certain primary school the number of pupils decreased in the ratio

6 : 7. If the school now has 720 pupils, what was the original number?
6. Maria reduced the amount of money she used to spend on clothing by 52 . In
what ratio did she reduce her spending on clothing?

7. A test is marked out of a total of 120 scores. If the scores are to be expressed
as percentages, in what ratio must the marks be worked out?

8. A number is increased by 52 of its value and then decreased by 32 of its new

value. What is the ratio of the final value to the original value?

9. Kijja used to run 45 km daily. When he got injured he reduced the distance in
the ratio 4 : 5. What was his new daily running distance?

10. In a school, sh. 72,000 was spent on beans per day. When the price of beans
went up in the ratio 5 : 3, the amount of beans consumed was reduced in the
ratio 7 : 8. What was the new daily expenditure on beans?

85
Proportion
Direct proportion
Two quantities are said to be in direct proportion if they increase or decrease
at the same rate. From table 8.1 we notice that the ratios of the number of
oranges bought and the cost in shillings are equal. Thus, the cost of oranges
is proportional to the number of oranges bought. We say that the cost is
directly proportional to the number of oranges bought.
Table 8.1
Number of oranges 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Total cost in shillings 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Example 8.12
In a primary school, 4 teachers are needed to cater for 60 students.
(a) How many teachers will be needed for 150 students?
(b) How many students will require 6 teachers?
Solution
Method 1: Unitary method
(a) 60 students need 4 teachers.
4 teachers.
1 student needs 60

4 × 150 = 10 teachers.
150 students need 60

(b) 4 teachers will be needed by 60 students.

1 teacher is needed by 60
4
= 15 students.

Therefore, 6 teachers are needed by 15 × 6 = 90 students

Method 2: Ratio method

(a) The number of students has increased in the ratio 150 : 60
The number of teachers will also increase in the same ratio since they are
directly proportional. Thus
150 × 4 = 10 teachers
60
(b) Number of teachers has increased in the ratio 6 : 4
Number of students will also increase in the same ratio, thus
6 × 60 = 90 students.
4

Method 3:
(a) Let the number of teachers be n.
n = 4
150 60
4 × 150 = 10 teachers.
Thus, n = 60

(b) Let the number of students be m.

86
 m  60
6 4

m = 60
4
 6 = 90 students.

In general, if two quantities, p and q, are directly proportional and one

increases (or decreases) in a particular ratio then the other increases
(or decreases) in the same ratio.
Thus, p : q or q : p is constant.
In a situation like this, where the ratio of two variables is constant, we say that
one quantity is directly proportional to the other. Thus, p is directly
proportional to q, or, p varies directly as q.
The symbol  is used for ‘is proportional to’. i.e. p  q.
This relationship may also be written as an equation, p = kq, where k is a
constant.
If y  x then a constant, k, can be found so that y = kx.

Example 8.13
Given that a  b and a = 12 when b = 4, find
(a) the relationship between a and b as an equation;
(b) a when b = 9;
(c) b when a = 32.
Solution
a  b, therefore a = kb or ba = k, where k is a constant.
(a) if a = 12 when b = 4
12 = k. Therefore, k = 3
4
Thus ba = 3 i.e. a = 3b

(b) If b = 9 and a = 3b
=3×9
Therefore, a = 27.
(c) If a = 32 and a = 3b
 32 = 3b
 b = 323
= 10 32

Example 8.14
Given y  x2 and y = 12 when x = 2, find
(a) y when x = 5
(b) x when y = 15.
Solution
y  x2
Therefore, y = kx2 (k is a constant)
y = 12 when x = 2
Therefore, 12 = 4k  k = 3.

87
Therefore, y = 3x2
(a) If x = 5 and y = 3x2,
y = 3(5)2
Therefore, y = 3 × 25 = 75

(b) If y = 15 and y = 3x2,

15 = 3x2
5 = x2
Therefore, x =  5

Example 8.15
In the following table b is directly proportional to a.
(a) Find an equation connecting b and a.
(b) Find the missing numbers in the table.

a 1 2 3 10
b 7 14 49

Solution
b  a  b = ka (where a is a constant)
(a) From the table, when a = 1, b = 7
 7 = k.1
Therefore, k = 7
Hence, b = 7a is the equation connecting b and a.
(b) If a = 3 and b = 7a, then b = 7 × 3 = 21
If b = 49 and b = 7a
 49 = 7a
 a = 49
7
=7

If a = 10 and b = 7a  b = 7 × 10 = 70.

Example 8.16
The area of a circle varies directly as the square of its radius. If an area of a
circle of radius 7 cm is 154 cm2, what is the
(a) area of a circle of radius 14 cm;
(b) effect on the area of doubling the radius?
Solution
Let A be the area of the circle and r its radius. Then
A  r2
 A = kr2 (k is a constant)

88
When r = 7, A = 154  154 = k.49
Therefore, k = 154
49
or 22
7
, so that A = 22
7
r2

(a) If r = 14 and A = 22
7
r2
 A = 22  14 = 616 cm2
2
7

(b) When radius is doubled, i.e. 2r, then A1 = 22

7
(2r)2 where, A1 is the new area.
 A1 = 4( 22
7
r2) = 4A
Thus, the area is increased 4 times as much.

Exercise 8.4
1. y  x. If y = 6 when x = 2, find
(a) y when x = 7; (b) x when y = 42.
2. y  x. If y = 12 when x = 3, find
(a) y when x = 8; (b) x when y = 15.
3. y  x. If y = 21 when x = 4, find
(a) y when x = 12; (b) x when y = 81
4. y  x. If y = -5 when x = 10, find
(a) y when x = -15; (b) x when y = 8
5. y  x2. If y = 8 when x = 2, find
(a) y when x = 3; (b) x when y = 32.
6. y  x2. If y = 2 when x = 2, find
(a) y when x = 4; (b) x when y = 12 21

7. y  x . If y = 27 when x = 9, find
(a) y when x = 9; (b) x when y = 98.
8. Given the cost of material is directly proportional to the length and that 2 metres
of material costs sh. 7,000, find the cost of 5 metres.

9. If the cost of books varies directly as the number bought and if 5 books cost sh.
2,500, find the cost of 9 books.

10. Travelling at a constant speed, the distance traveled by a car is directly

proportional to the time taken. If 190 km is traveled in 4 hours, find
(a) the distance traveled in 10 hours;
(b) the time taken to travel 285 km.
11. At constant speed, distance traveled varies directly as time. If a man walks 32
km in 5 h, how far would he have walked in 3 h at the same constant speed?

12. The extension of a spring varies as the weight attached to the spring. If a weight
of 10 g produces an extension of 2.8 cm find
(a) the extension produced by a weight of 16 g;
(b) the weight which would produce an extension of 4.2 cm;

89
Inverse proportion
If one quantity increases while the other decreases at the same rate, or one of
the quantities decreases while the other increases at the same rate, such
quantities are said to be inversely proportional. Consider, for example, the
time a cyclist would take to cover a distance of 48 km at various speeds. See
table 8.2.
Table 8.2
Speed (v) in km/h 4 6 8 12 16
Time taken (t) in hours 12 8 6 4 3

As the speed increases, the time taken for the journey decreases. This is an
example of inverse proportion. Speed multiplied by time always has the same
value, that is, speed × time = 48 or vt = 48
In general, the product of two inversely proportional quantities is a constant.
The statement ‘v is inversely proportional to t’, is normally written as
v  1t or vt = k where k is a constant.

Example 8.17
Time (T) varies inversely as speed (S). If a journey takes 5 hours when
travelling at a speed of 60 km/h, find
(a) the time for the journey if the speed is 90 km/h;
(b) the speed at which a car must travel if it is to complete the journey in 3 hours.

Solution
T  S1 i.e. TS = k (k is a constant)
If T = 5 when S = 60
TS = 5 × 60 = 300
 k = 300
(a) If S = 90 and TS = 300
T × 90 = 300
 T = 300
90
= 3 31 hours.

(b) If T = 3 and TS = 300

 3 × S = 300
S = 100 km/h

Example 8.18
y varies inversely as the square of x. If y = 5 when x = 2 find
(a) y when x = 4
(b) x when y = 4
Solution
y 1
x2
2
xy=k (k is constant)

90
 22 × 5 = k
k = 20
 x2y = 20
(a) If x = 4  16y = 20
 20 = 5
y = 16 4
(b) If y = 4  4x2 = 20
 x2 = 5
 x =  5

Example 8.19
A farmer has enough feed to last his 45 cows 30 days. If he buys 5 more
cows, how long will the feed last?
Solution
Unitary method
45 cows can be fed for 30 days
1 cow can be fed for 30 × 45 days
30 45
50 cows can feed for 50
= 27 days
Thus, if 5 cows are added to the herd, the feed will last for 27 days.

Constant product method

Let d be the required number of days.
Then, 50 × d = 45 × 30 = 1,350
d = 1350
50
= 27

Exercise 8.5
1. Write as an equation
(a) y varies inversely as x;
(b) p varies inversely as q;
(c) m varies inversely as the square of n
(d) r varies inversely as the square of s;
(e) a varies inversely as the cube of b;
(f) b varies inversely as the square root of c
2. y varies inversely as x. If y = 6 when x = 6, find
(a) y when x = 12;
(b) x when y = 9.
3. a varies inversely as b. If a = -5 when b = 4, find
(a) a when b = -10
(b) b when a = 7.

91
4. y varies inversely as x2. If y = 10 when x = 2, find
(a) y when x = 4;
(b) x when y = 4.
5. Time varies inversely as speed for a given journey. If it takes 5 hr to complete
the journey when travelling at 80 km/h, how long would the same journey take if
the speed were increased to 100 km/h?

6. The length of material which can be bought for a given amount varies inversely
as the price. If 12 m can be bought when the price is sh. 2,500 per metre, how
much can be bought for the same total cost when the price is sh. 3,000 per
metre?

7. A bus uses 40 litres of fuel to travel 100 km. How much fuel will be used on a
journey of 68 km?

8. Five pipes of equal sizes can fill a tank in 40 minutes. How long would four of
these pipes take to fill the same tank?

9. It takes two hours for a car to cover a distance at 60 km/h. How long will it take
to cover the same distance at 80 km/h?

10. A family of 6 has enough food to last 12 days. How long will the food last if the
family receives 3 visitors who are to stay for 10 days?

11. A mass choir is to be split into groups for training. If it is split into groups of 8,
there will be 15 groups.
(a) How many groups of 10 would there be?
(b) If only 6 trainers are available, how many members will be in each group?
12. A class of 30 students uses 75 pencils in a term. If the number of
students is reduced to 24, how many pencils are likely to be used in a
term?
13. A school has enough money to buy 250 books that cost sh. 15,000 each.
How many books costing sh. 10,500 can be bought instead?
14. Given that a is directly proportional to b, copy and complete the following
table.
a 6 8 14 28 38 -
b - - 21 - - 40

15. A class room was arranged for a meeting for 84 participants such that
there were four rows of chairs. A different arrangement was suggested
using the same number of chairs in 7 rows. How many chairs per row
were there in the second arrangement?
16. Given that x and y are inversely proportional, copy and complete the
following table.

x 6 8 - 48 - 144
y - 3 2.4 - 216 -

92
17. A contractor estimates that he can fence an estate in 9 days if he
employs 4 people. Will 6 people be enough to complete the work in 5
days?
18. A group of girls finished a piece of work in 10 days. How many extra girls are
needed to complete the same work in 8 days?

Percentage
Percentage is a fraction with the denominator of 100. Per cent means in each
hundred and is denoted as %. For example, 34 per cent is written as 34% and
it means 34 out of every 100.
34 . Similarly, 25% = 25 and 150% = 150 .
Thus, 34% = 100 100 100
Converting percentage to fraction
Example 8.20
Convert the following percentages to fractions.
(a) 20% (b) 45 21 %

Solutions
(a) 20 = 1
20% = 100 5

45 1
(b) 45 2 % = 1002 = 91
1
2
 100 = 91
1 200
Converting fractions to percentages
A fraction can be expressed as a percentage by multiplying it by 100.
Example 8.21
Convert the following fractions to percentages.
(a) 81 (b) 0.625
(c) 3 21 (d) 3.25

Solutions
(a) 1 = 1 × 100% = 12.5%
8 8
(b) 0.625 = 0.625 × 100% = 62.5%
(c) 3 21 = 72 × 100%
= 3.5 × 100% = 350%
(d) 3.25 = 3.25 × 100% = 325%
Note that decimals and fractions that are greater than 1 convert to
percentages that are greater than 100%.

93
Quantities as percentages
To express on quantity as a percentage of another quantity
(a) express in the same units
(b) write as a fraction
(c) multiply by 100
1
and add % sign.

Example 8.22
Express 28 as a percentage of 40.
Solution
Converting to a percentage,
28 = 28 7 × 100 %
40 1 40 1
= 70%
Example 8.23
Express 20 cm as a percentage of 5 m.
Solution
5 m = 500 cm
20 and 20 cm as a percentage of
Thus 20 cm as a fraction of 500 cm = 500
20 × 100 % = 4%
500 cm = 500 1

Percentage of quantities
To find a percentage of a given quantity
(a) Write the percentage as a fraction
(b) multiply the fraction by the given quantity.

Example 8.24
Find
(a) 5% of 25 (b) 33 31 % of sh. 12,000

Solution
(a) 5 × 25 = 5
5% of 25 means 100 4
= 1 41

33 1
(b) 33 3 % of sh. 12,000 = 1003 × 12,000
1

= 1300 00 12,000

= sh. 4,000

94
Example 8.25
If 20% of a class is boys and there are 5 boys, how many students are in the
class?
Solution
20% is 5
5
1% is 20
5 × 100 = 25
100% is 20

Therefore, there are 25 students in the class.

Percentage increase or decrease

Percentage increase or decrease are of significant importance in real life. A
Shopkeeper who wants to reduce the prices of goods finds it practical to
reduce the prices on the basis of a percentage.
Example 8.26
The price of a T.V set costing sh. 230,000 goes up by 12%. What is the new
price?
Solution
The increase = 12% of sh. 230,000
= 0.12 × sh. 230,000
= sh. 27,600
The new price is 230,000 + sh. 27,600 = sh. 257,600
Alternatively, the new price is (100% + 12%) of 230,000
= 112% of sh. 230,000
= 1.12 × sh. 230,000
= sh. 257,000

Example 8.27
The price of a ream of paper that costs sh. 7000 is reduced by 10%. What is
the new price?
Solution
The price decrease = 10% of sh. 7,000
10  sh.7,000
= 100
= sh. 700
The new price is sh. (7,000 – 700) = sh. 6,300
Alternatively, the new price is (100% - 10%) of sh. 7,000
= 90% of sh. 7,000
= 0.9 × sh. 7,000
= sh. 6,300

95
Example 8.28
In a sale, a shirt that cost sh. 8,000 is sold at sh. 6,800. What is the
percentage decrease in price?
Solution
8000 6800
The percentage decrease = 8000
 100%

= 1200
8000
100%
= 15%

Example 8.29
The population of a town increased from 200,000 people to 350,000 people.
What is the percentage increase?
Solution
350,000 200,000
Percentage increase = 200,000
100%

= 150,000100%
200,000
= 75%
increase / decrease
In general, percentage = original value
 100%

Exercise 8.6
1. In a by-election, 18,500 votes were cast. If the winning candidate
received 30% of the total votes cast, how many votes were cast in favour
of the winning candidate?
2. In a mathematics test marked out of 50 marks, Mbatya scored 27%. How
many marks did she score?
3. Increase the stated quantities by the percentages given in brackets.
(a) 200 (14%) (b) sh. 5,000 (0.23%)
4. Decrease the stated quantities by the percentages given in brackets.
(a) 400 litres (12.5%) (b) 60 kg (35%)
5. Twenty-four per cent of the fruits in a bag are oranges, 48% are apples
and the rest are pears. What percentage of the fruits are pears?
6. Prices of commodities in a shop are reduced by13%. How much will a
lamp, previously costing sh. 3,200, be sold for?
7. A pond has 1,200 fish. If the number of fish increases by 8 21 % what will
be the new population of fish in the pond?

96
8. A company increased salaries by 20%. If Kenneth and Hadijja were earning sh.
130,000 and 650,000 per month respectively, by how much were their salaries
increased?

9. A carpet is laid in a room that measures 3.5 m by 5.2 m. The carpet covers 60%
of the floor. Find the area of the carpet.

10. Mwanga and Leah each has a salary of sh. 540,000. Mwanga is given a rise of
12% in one year and the same percentage increase in the next year. Leah is
offered 14% increase for the two years. Who is offered a better deal and by how
much over the two years?

11. In a school, 64% of the pupils study Physics and 648 do not. How many pupils
are there in the school?

12. A trader raised the price of an article by 25%. When she realized that nobody
was buying it, she lowered the new price by 25%. If the old price was sh. 2400,
what is the new price after the reduction?

13. The radius of a circle is increased by 5%. What is the percentage increase in
the
(a) circumference?
(b) area?
14. The ratio of boys to girls in a class is 2:3. What is the percentage of girls in the
class?

15. A businesswoman bought 800 eggs at sh. 150 each. If 6 41 % got broken and
were thrown away, for how much should she sell each egg in order to make a
profit of 50%?

16. Express the following as fractions.

(a) 70% (b) 135% (c) 15.75%
17. Express the following as decimals.
(a) 60% (b) 175% (c) 8.5%
18. Express the following as percentages.
(a) 17 (b) 36 (c) 0.45
100 25
19. A salesman receives a commission of sh. 4,000 if she sells goods worth sh.
400,000. Find the ratio of the commission to the sales.

20. On a map of scale 1 : 50,000, the distance between two points is 25.6 cm. Find
the actual distance in kilometers.

21. Sixteen people can make 800 pots in 9 days. How long will 15 people take to
make 1,000 pots?

97
22. Twenty people working 7 21 hours a day can finish a piece of work in 21 days.
Find how many hours a day must 45 people work to finish the work in 7 days.

23. The dimensions of a rectangle measuring 8 cm by 2.5 cm are increased by

20%. Find the percentage increase in the area.

24. Express
(a) 5 cm as a percentage of 20 cm
(b) 30 cm as a percentage of 3 m
(c) 1.20 m as a percentage of 40 cm
(d) 45 kg as a percentage of 25 kg
(e) 3 kg as percentage of 500 g
25. On a test a student scored 25 out of a possible 40 marks. What percentage
mark did he receive?

98
Chapter 9

QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS

Expanding algebraic expressions

Consider the product of (a + b) and (c + d). This product can be written as
(a + b)(c + d).
Suppose we let (c + d) = u
Then, (a + b)(c + d) = (a + b) u
= au + bu
= a(c + d) + b(c + d)
= ac + ad + bc + bd
We see that each term in the first brackets is multiplied by each term in the
second brackets.
Example 9.1
Expand (3x + 2)(5 + 4y).
Solution
Let (5 + 4y) = u
(3x + 2)(5 + 4y) = (3x + 2) u
= 3xu + 2u
= 3x(5 + 4y) + 2(5 + 4y)
= 15x + 12xy + 10 + 8y
 (3x + 2)(5 + 4y) = 15x + 12xy + 10 + 8y.

Example 9.2
Expand (2a – 5)(b + 9).
Solution
(2a - 5)(b + 9) = 2a(b + 9) – 5(b + 9)
= 2ab + 18a – 5b – 45
We have multiplied each term in the second brackets by -5 and not just 5.
Terms in an expression are identified with the signs before them.

Example 9.3
Expand (x + 35 )(y - 41 )

Solution
(x + 35 )(y - 41 ) = xy - 41 x + 35 y - 20
3

Exercise 9.1
Expand.
1. (x + 1)(4 + y) 2. (6a + 1)(c + 3)
3. (2a + b)(c + 3d) 4. (x - y)(4 - z)

99
5. (a – 3d)(4c - b) 6. (8x + y)(a + 1)
7. (2u - v)(3x - y) 8. (p + q)(s - t)
9. (x + y)(c - 5) 10. (x + 1)(y - 1)
11. (x + 21 )(y + 41 ) 12. (u + w)(a + 2)

13. (5a + 4)(b - 3) 14. (x + y)( 21 a - c)

Quadratic expressions
Consider the product of (x + 3)(x + 4).
(x + 3)(x + 4) = x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
= x2 + 4x + 3x + 12
= x2 + 7x + 12
This kind of an expression where the highest power is 2 is called a quadratic
expression. Most quadratic expressions have three distinct terms known as
the quadratic term (x2), the linear term (7x) and the number term or constant
term (12).
A quadratic expression must have the quadratic term which should also be
the term with the highest power of the unknown letter. For example,
x2 + 3x + 1, a2 + 2a, y2 – 2y + 1, c2 – 4, e.t.c. but x3 – 2x, 2x3 – x2 + 6, 4x +8
are not.
Example 9.4
Expand and simplify:
(a) (2x + 1)(x + 3) (b) (x – 5)(x – 2),
(c) (2a – 3)(5a – 4).
Solutions
(a) (2x + 1)(x + 3) = 2x(x + 3) + 1(x + 3)
= 2x2 + 6x + x + 3
= 2x2 + 7x + 3
(b) (x – 5)(x – 2) = x(x – 2) – 5(x – 2)
= x2 – 2x – 5x + 10
= x2 – 7x + 10
(c) (2a - 3)(5a – 4) = 2a(5a – 4) – 3(5a – 4)
= 10a2 – 8a – 15a + 12
= 10a2 – 23a + 12

Exercise 9.2
Expand and simplify.
1. (x + 3)(x + 1) 2. (x + 2)(x – 4)
3. (x – 7)(x + 3) 4. (x – 4)(x – 3)
5. (a + 8)(a – 3) 6. (p + 2)(p – 5)
7. (x – 5)(x + 4) 8. (x + 5)(x + 4)

100
9. (x + 2)(5x + 3) 10. (3x + 2)(x – 4)
11. (2x – 7)(4x – 3) 12. (x +3)(x + 3)
13. (a – 4)(a – 4) 14. (x + 7)(x – 7)
15. (5t + 3)(3t + 2) 16. (2 – x)(3 – x)
17. (3 + p)(5 – p) 18. (4 – 2y)(1 – 3y)
19. (3x + 1)(8 – 2x) 20. (5 – 3x)(2 – 4x)

The quadratic identities

1. Show that (a + b)(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2.
The product (a + b)(a + b) can be written as (a + b) 2. Thus,
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b)
= a2 + ab + ab + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
This product is illustrated in the figure below.

Consider a square with side (a + b) units. The square is divided into:

(a) square A of side a,
(b) square D of side b,
(c) rectangle B of sides a and b,
(d) rectangle C of sides a and b.
Area of the big square = (a + b)2
Area of: square A = a2
rectangle B = ab
rectangle C = ab
square D = b2
Rectangles B and C are identical.
The area of A + B + C + D = a2 + ab + ab + b2
Therefore, (a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a2 + 2ab + b2

2. Show that (a – b)(a – b) = a2 – 2ab + b2

Consider a square of side a units. The square can be divided into two squares: one
of side (a – b) and another of side b; and two identical rectangles of side b and (a – b).
That is:
(a) square A has sides (a – b),
(b) rectangles B and C have sides b by (a – b),
(c) square D has side b.

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Area of the big square = a2 ………………………(i)
Area of square A = (a – b)(a – b)
= (a – b)2
Area of rectangle B = (a – b)b
= ab - b2
Area of rectangle C = (a – b)b
= ab – b2
Area of square D = b2
Total area = (a – b) + ab – b2 + ab – b2 + b2
2

= (a – b)2 + 2ab – b2 ……………….(ii)

Equating (i) and (ii) gives:
(a – b)2 + 2ab – b2 = a2
Therefore, (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2.
Note: (a + b)2 ≠ a2 + b2 and (a – b)2 ≠ a2 – b2

3. Show that (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2

Consider a square of side a units. See figure below.

The square is divided into:

(a) square A of side b,
(b) square D of side (a – b),
(c) rectangles B and C of sides b by a – b.
Area of the big square = a2 ………………………(i)
Area of square A = b2
Area of rectangle B = (a – b)b
Area of rectangle C = (a – b)b
Area of square D = (a – b)2
Total area = (a – b)b + (a – b)b + (a – b)2 + b2
= 2(a – b)b + (a – b)2 + b2……….(ii)
Equating (i) and (ii) gives:
2(a – b)b + (a – b)2 + b2 = a2
Therefore, 2b(a – b) + (a – b)2 = a2 – b2
This means, (a – b)[2b + (a – b)] = a2 – b2, a – b is common.
That is, (a – b)(2b + a – b) = a2 – b2,
Therefore, (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2

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Expanding, (a + b)(a – b) = a(a – b) + b(a – b)
= a2 – ab + ab – b2
= a 2 – b2
The expression, (a + b)(a – b), is called the difference of two squares.
The three important identities can thus be summarized as:
(a) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(b) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
(c) (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2

Example 9.5
Expand and simplify:
(a) (x + 4)2 (b) (x – 5)2
(c) (x + 3)(x – 3) (d) (2x + 1)2
(e) (3x + 2)((3x – 2)
Solutions
(a) (x + 4)2 = (x + 4)(x + 4)
= x(x + 4) + 4(x + 4)
= x2 + 4x + 4x + 16
= x2 + 8x + 16
(b) (x – 5)2 = (x – 5)(x – 5)
= x(x – 5) – 5(x – 5)
= x2 – 5x – 5x + 25
= x2 – 10x + 25
(c) (x + 3)(x – 3) = x(x – 3) + 3(x – 3)
= x2 – 3x + 3x -9
= x2 – 9
Note: (x – 9 = x – 32)
2 2

(d) (2x + 1)2 = (2x + 1)(2x + 1)

= 2x(2x + 1) + 1(2x + 1)
= 4x2 + 2x + 2x + 1
= 4x2 + 4x + 1
(e) (3x + 2)(3x – 2) = 3x(3x – 2) + 2(3x – 2)
= 9x2 – 6x + 6x – 4
= 9x2 – 4
Note: 9x2 – 4 = (3x)2 – 22.

Exercise 9.3: Expand.

1. (x + 1)2 2. (x + 2)2
3. (a – 5)2 4. (p + q)2
5. (a + 6)2 6. (b – 8)2
7. (x – y)2 8. (x + 1)(x – 1)
9. (y – 9)(y + 9) 10. (y – x)(y + x)
11. (y – a)(y + a) 12. (3x + 4)2

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13. (2a – 7)(2a + 7) 14. (5x + 3)2
15. (4x – 1)2 16. (7a – 3)2
17. (2x – 1)2 18. (3 – 2x)2
19. (c – ax)2 20. (x – 1)2

21. u 41 
2
22. a  34 2

23. 2x  31  2
24. 21 x  3
2

Factorizing expressions
If the product of 5 and 7 is 35, then 5 and 7 are factors of 35.
In algebra, letters represent numbers. Therefore, we can extend the idea of factors to
algebraic expressions. For example, a and b are factors of ab and 2, x and y are
factors of 2xy. Also, given that 5(a – b) = 5a – 5b, then, 5 and (a – b) are factors of 5a –
5b.

In order to find the factors of an expression such as 10x 2 + 15x, we look for the
factors that are common in both terms. The common factors of 10x 2 and 15x are 5
and x.
Thus, 10x2 + 15x = (5x × 2x) + (5x × 3)
= 5x(2x + 3).
Therefore, the factors of 10x2 + 15x are 5, x and (2x + 3). This means,
10x2 + 15x can be factorized as 5x(2x + 3).
The process of finding the factors of an expression is called factorization. This is the
reverse of expansion.
Consider (x + 2)(x + 3) = x(x + 3) + 2(x +3)
= x2 + 3x + 2x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6.
The expressions (x + 2) and (x + 3) are the factors of x2 + 5x + 6.
Similarly:
(a) (x + 3)(x + 4) = x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
= x2 + 4x + 3x + 12
= x2 + 7x + 12.
(b) (x + 2)(x + 7) = x(x + 7) + 2(x + 7)
= x2 + 7x + 2x + 14
= x2 + 9x + 14
(c) (x + a)(x + b) = x(x + b) + a(x + b)
= x2 + bx + ax + ab
= x2 + (a + b)x + ab
The last expression shows the relationship between the terms of the quadratic
expression and its factors. Thus, a constant term ab of a quadratic expression is the
product of the number terms a and b. whereas, the coefficient of x is the sum of a
and b.

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Example 9.6
Factorize x2 + 10x + 21.
Solution
Compare x2 + 10x + 21 and (x + __)(x + __), considering
x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b).
This means x2 + 10x + 21 = x2 + (a + b)x + ab.
We need two numbers a and b such that a + b = 10 and ab = 21
Clearly, a and b are factors of 21 whose sum is 10. These are 3 and 7.
Rewriting x2 + 10x + 21 as x2 + (3 + 7)x + 21 gives x2 + 3x + 7x + 21
= x(x + 3) + 7(x + 3)
= (x + 3)(x + 7).
Therefore, x2 + 10x + 21 = (x + 3)(x + 7).

Example 9.7
Factorize x2 + 7x + 12.
Solution
We need two numbers a and b such that a + b = 7 and ab = 12. These numbers are 3
and 4.
Thus, x2 + 7x + 12 = x2 + (3 + 4)x + 12
= x2 + 3x + 4x + 12
= x(x + 3) + 4(x + 3)
= (x + 3)(x + 4)

Example 9.8
Factorize x2 – 6x + 8
Solution
Let, x2 – 6x + 8 = (x + a)(x + b).
Thus. X2 – 6x + 8 = x2 + (a + b) + ab.
Then, (a + b) = -6 and ab = 8
Two numbers which add up to -6 and whose product is 8 are -2 and -4.
So, x2 – 6x + 8 = x2 + (-2 + -4)x + 8
= x2 – 2x – 4x + 8
= x(x – 2) – 4(x – 2)
= (x – 2)(x – 4).

Example 9.9
Factorize x2 – x – 30
Solution
Remember that x2 – x – 30 = x2 – 1x – 30
Let x2- x – 30 = (x + a)(x + b)
= x2 + (a + b)x + ab.
Thus, (a + b) = -1 and ab = -30. 5 and -6 satisfy both of these equations.
So, x2 – x – 30 = (x + 5)(x – 6)

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Example 9.10
Factorize x2 + 3x – 28.
Solution
Let x2 + 3x – 28 = (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
Thus, (a + b) = 3 and ab = -28.
The factors of -28 whose sum is 3, are 7 and -4.
So, x2 + 3x – 28 = (x + 7)(x – 4)

Example 9.11
Factorize:
(a) x2 + 12x + 36 (b) x2 – 8x + 16
Solutions
(a) Let x2 + 12x + 36 = (x + p)(x + q) = x2 + (p + q)x + pq
Thus, p + q = 12 and pq = 36.
The factors of 36 whose sum is 12, are 6 and 6.
So, x2 + 12x + 36 = (x + 6)(x + 6) = (x + 6)2
(b) Let, x2 – 8x + 16 = (x + p)(x + q) = x 2 + (p + q)x + pq
Thus, p + q = -8 and pq = 16
The factors of 16 whose sum is -8, are -4 and -4.
So, x2 – 8x + 16 = (x – 4)(x – 4) = (x – 4)2
Note: x2 + 16x + 36 and x2 – 8x + 16 are perfect squares because their factors are
identical.

Exercise 9.4
Factorize:
1. x2 + 7x + 10 2. x2 + 13x + 42
3. x2 + 9x + 14 4. x2 + 2x – 15
5. x2 + x – 12 6. p2 – 10p + 12
7. a2 – 2a – 35 8. d2 + 5d – 36
9. v2 – 14v + 45 10. u2 – u – 56
11. x2 + 9x + 8 12. n2 – 10n + 25
13. x2 – 2x + 1 14. c2 – c – 2
15. y2 + 14y + 24 16. w2 + 5w – 6
17. 9 – 6r + r2 18. 49 + 14t + t2
19. 4 + 4k + k2 20. x2 + 11x – 26

The difference of two squares

Earlier in this chapter, we learnt that (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2. Thus, the difference of the
squares of two numbers is equal to the product of their sum and their difference. The
factors of a2 – b2 are (a + b) and (a – b).

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In order to factorize the difference of two squares, it is important to rewrite the
expression so that the squares are clearly seen. For example:
(a) a2 – 9b2 = a2 – (3b)2
= (a – 3b)(a + 3b),
(b) 1 – 16x = 12 – (4x)2
2

= (1 + 4x)(1 – 4x),
(c) 4x – 25y = (2x)2 – (5y)2
2 2

= (2x + 5y)(2x – 5y).

However, some expressions which involve the difference of squares require us to
find the common factors first.

Example 9.12
Factorize:
(a) 7x2 – 7y2 (b) 3x2 – 75y2
Solutions
(a) Both terms have a common factor, 7. Therefore factorize as follows:
7x2 – 7y2 = 7(x2 – y2)
= 7(x + y(x – y)
(b) 3 is a common factor in the two terms.
Thus, 3x2 – 75y2 = 3(x2 – 25y2)
= 3[x2 – (5y)2]
= 3(x + 5y)(x – 5y)
The difference of two squares can be used to evaluate some expressions that involve
numbers in a faster way.

Example 9.13
Evaluate:
(a) 992 – 1 (b) 8.492 – 1.512
(c) 1012 × 988
Solutions
(a) 992 – 1 = 992 - 12
= (99 – 1)(99 + 1)
= 98 × 100
= 9800
(b) 8.492 – 1.512 = (8.49 – 1.51)(8.49 + 1.51)
= 6.98 × 10
= 69.8
(c) 1,012 × 988 = (1,000 + 12)(1,000 – 12)
= 1,0002 – 122
= 1,000,000 – 144
= 999,856

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Exercise 9.5
1. Factorize:
(a) x2 – 22 (b) x2 – 52
(c) 72 – n2 (d) 1 – t2
(e) (3a)2 – 1 (f) 4c2 – 252
(g) 25 – 49r2 (h) p2 – 36q2
(i) p2q2 – 1 (j) 48a2 – 3t2
(k) 72m2 – 2 (l) 4p2 - 4q2
(m) x4 – 1 (n) a3b – ab3
(o) nu2 – nv2
2. Calculate:
(a) 78.32 – 21.72 (b) 9232 – 772
(c) 0.8432 – 0.1572 (d) 752 – 252
(e) 94 × 106 (f) 975 × 1,025
(g) 3 × 252 – 3 × 752 (h) 5 × 122 – 5 × 882
(i) 6 × 532 – 6 × 472 (j) 22  562  22  562
7 7
3. Factorize completely
(a) x2y2 – 16 (b) 1 – p2q2
(c) 9x2 – y2 (d) a2b2 – c2
(e) 3x2 – 27 (f) 2a2 – 8
(g) 5a2b2 – 45c2 (h) 8a2 – 32b2c2
(i) 100 – x2 (j) 16x2 – 25
(k) 81 – x2y2 (l) x2y2 – p2q2
(m) 3x2 – 48y2z2 (n) 5b2c2 – 20d2g2
Solving quadratic equations
We solve an equation by finding the value of the unknown. For any two numbers, p
and q, if pq = 0, then, either:
(a) p = 0 which means 0 × q = 0
(b) q = 0 which means p × 0 = 0
(c) p = q = 0 which means 0 × 0 = 0
Similarly, if (x + 2)(x+ 3) = 0, then either x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0.
Solving for x, gives either x = -2 or x = -3.
Thus, in order to solve a quadratic equation, the quadratic expression is factorized so
that the equation is in the form (x + a)(x + b) = 0.

Example 9.14
Solve (x – 4)(x + 1) = 0

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Solution
If (x – 4)(x + 1) = 0, then either x – 4 = 0 or x + 1 = 0.
Therefore, x = 4 or x = -1.
Hence the roots of the equation (x – 4)(x + 1) = 0 are 4 and -1.
Example 9.15
Factorize x2 + 7x + 6 = 0
Solution
x2 + 7x + 6 = 0
Factorizing, x2 +7x + 6, gives (x + 6)(x + 1) = 0.
Therefore, x + 6 = 0 or x + 1 = 0; which means x = -6 or x = -1
These are the only two values of x which satisfy the equation x 2 + 7x + 6 = 0. We can
check these solutions by substituting each of them in the equation.
Thus, when x = -6,
(-6)2 + 7(-6) + 6 = 36 – 42 + 6 = 0
And when x = -1
(-1)2 + 7(-1) + 6 = 1 – 7 + 6 = 0
Note: Every quadratic equation has two solutions.
Example 9.16
Solve: x2 + x – 72 = 0
Solution
x2 + x – 72 = 0
 (x – 8)(x + 9) = 0.  x – 8 = 0 or x + 9 = 0
 x = 8 or x = -9.
Example 9.17
Solve: x2 – x – 29 = 1
Solution
Always ensure that the quadratic expression is equated to zero. This is the only time
the method used in the examples above can apply.
Thus, x2 – x – 29 = 1 should be rewritten as x2 – x – 29 – 1 = 0. That is,
x2 – x – 30 = 0.
The factors of 30, whose sum is 1, are -6 and 5.
Therefore, (x – 6)(x + 5) = 0.
Either x – 6 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
 x = 6 or x = -5
The roots are -5 and 6.
Example 9.18
Solve:
(a) x2 – 49 = 0 (b) x2 – 6x = 0
(c) x2 – 16x + 64 = 0 (d) 6x2 + 5x – 4 = 0

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Solutions
(a) x2 – 49 = 0 can be written as x2 – 72 = 0
(x – 7)(x + 7) = 0
x – 7 = 0 or x + 7 = 0  x = 7 or x = -7.
The roots are -7 and 7.
(b) Factorizing x2 – 6x = 0 gives x(x – 6) = 0
Either x = 0 or x – 6 = 0
 x = 0 or x = 6
The roots are 0 and 6.
(c) x2 – 16x + 64 = 0
Factorizing x2 – 16x + 64 = 0 gives (x – 8)(x – 8) = 0
Either x – 8 = 0 or x – 8 = 0
 x = 8 or x = 8
The roots are 8 and 8.
Note: x2 – 16x + 64 is a perfect square and therefore it has identical factors. The
equation x2 – 16x + 64 = 0 has two equal roots.

(d) 6x2 + 5x – 4 = 0
When the coefficient of x2,(in this case it is 6), in the quadratic expression is
numerically greater than 1, we proceed as follows when factorizing:
- Multiply the coefficient of x2 by the constant term, i.e. 6 × -4 = -24.
- Find the factors of -24 whose sum is 5, (the coefficient of x), i.e. -3 and 8.
- Rewrite the equation as:
6x2 + (-3 + 8)x – 4 = 0
 6x2 – 3x + 8x – 4 = 0
 3x(2x – 1) + 4(2x – 1) = 0
 (2x – 1)(3x + 4) = 0
Then, either 2x – 1 = 0 or 3x + 4 = 0
 2x = 1 or 3x = -4
1
 x = 2 or x = - 3 . 4

Example 9.19
Factorize 3x2 – 22x + 7. Hence solve 3x2 – 22x + 7 = 0
Solution
3x2 – 22x + 7
Multiplying 3 by 7, gives 21. The factors of 21 whose sum is -22, are -1 and
-21.
Then, 3x2 – 22x + 7  3x2 + [-1 + (-21)]x + 7
 3x2 – 1x – 21x + 7
 x(3x – 1) -7(3x – 1)
 (3x – 1)(x – 7)
Hence, 3x2 – 22x + 7 = (3x – 1)(x – 7).
The equation 3x2 – 22x + 7 = 0 can be written as (3x – 1)(x – 7) = 0
Either 3x – 1 = 0 or x – 7 = 0
3x = 1 or x =7

110
 x = 31 or x = 7

Exercise 9.6: Solve.

1. (x + 4)(x + 2) = 0 2. (x – 5)(x – 3) = 0
3. (x – 5)(x + 7) = 0 4. (x – 9)2 = 0
5. (x + 13)2 = 0 6. x2 + x – 12 = 0
7. x2 + 9x + 14 = 0 8. x2 – 11x – 12 = 0
9. u2 + 6u + 9 = 0 10. t2 – t – 42 = 0
11. a2 – 2a + 1 = 0 12. y2 + 8y = 0
13. x2 + 10x = 24 14. x2 = 4x – 3
15. v2 – 36 = 0 16. 4x2 – 9 = 0
17. 1 – y2 = 0 18. 81 – 16q2 = 0
19. x2 = 6x 20. 5x2 = 45
21. 6x(2x + 3) = 0 22. -4x(3x – 5) = 0
23. (3x – 2)(2x + 1) = 0 24. 6x2 – 29x + 35 = 0
25. 6x2 – x + 1 = 0 26. (4x – 3)(3x – 4) = 0
27. 4y2 – 48 = 16 28. 3y2 – 24 = 3

111
Chapter 10
SIMILARITIES AND ENLARGEMENTS

SIMILARITIES
Geometrical figures are said to be similar if they are the same shape but different in
size. Everyday we see similar shapes. The following are some examples:
 A toy car and a real car,
 A photograph and the person,
 Drawn plans of houses to represent actual houses.
Properties of similar figures
Similar triangles
The figure below shows two similar triangles ABC and XYZ.

Triangles that have corresponding angles equal are said to be equiangular.

Two triangles are similar if:
(a) the angles of one triangle are equal to the corresponding angles of the other
triangle, for example, triangle ABC is similar to triangle XYZ because  BAC =
 YXZ,  ABC =  XYZ and  ACB =  XZY.
(b) The corresponding sides are all in the same ratio, for example, triangle KLM is
similar to triangle TUV because KLTU
LM  KM  2
 UV TV 3

(c) there is one pair of equal angles and the two sides including these equal
angles are in the same ratio. For example, triangle DEF is similar to triangle
GHI because  DEF =  GHI and GH DE  EF  1 .
HI 2

112
Similar triangles are named in the same order of corresponding vertices. For
example, in the figure below, triangle ABC is similar to triangle PQR.

This means that  BAC =  QPR,  ABC =  PQR,  BCA =  QRP. And
AB  BC  AC or PQ  QR  PR .
PQ QR PR AB BC AC
Note: When comparing the sides of two similar triangles, the sides in the numerator
belong to one triangle and the sides in the denominator belong to the other triangle
throughout.

Example 10.1
Show that triangles ABC and RST in the figure below are similar and find the value of
x.

Solution
The pair of side including the given angles are AB and AC in ∆ABC and RS and RT
in ∆RST.
AB  18  3 and AC  12  3.
RS 6 RT 4
Since the pair of sides including the equal angles are in the same ratio, ∆ABC and
∆RST are similar. Therefore, BC  AB that is 9x  18
6
.
TS RS
18 9
x = 6 = 3 × 9 = 27 cm.

113
Example 10.2
In triangle ABC, M is a point on line AB and N is a point on line AC such that, AM = 2
cm, MB = 3 cm and AN = 5 cm.

Given that MN is parallel to BC,

(a) show that ∆AMN and ∆ABC are similar,
(b) calculate the value of y.
Solutions
 AMN =  ABC (corresponding angles).
 ANM =  ACB (corresponding angles).
 MAN is the same as  BAC since it is shared in both ∆ABC and ∆AMN. Therefore,
∆ABC and ∆AMN are equiangular and similar.
AM  AN . That is, 2  5
AB AC 5 5y
2(5 + y) = 25
5 + y = 12.5
y = 12.5 – 5 = 7.5 cm.

Exercise 10.1
1. In the figure below, AB is parallel to YZ. Show that ∆ABO is similar to ∆OYZ.

2. Find the length of BC

114
3. Find the values of x and y.

4. Find the lengths of lines TQ and PS.

5. In ∆LMN, MN = NL, X is the mid-point of MN and Y is the id-point of NL.

(a) write down the values of NY

NL
NX .
and NM
(b) Are ∆YXN and ∆LMN similar?
(c) Is XY parallel to ML?

115
6. In ∆ABC, PQ is parallel to AC. AB = 6 cm, BC = 10 cm and BQ = 4 cm.

(a) Find BP
(b) Write down the values of BP:PA and BQ:QC.

Other similar figures

Rectangles are similar if their lengths and breadths are in the same ratio. It is
important to remember that angles of a rectangle are all right angles.

Exercise 10.2
1. The pairs of figures are similar in each of the following cases.
(a)

Find VW.
(b)

116
 Find the value of x.
(c)

Find PQ.
2. A packet of cooking oil is in the shape of a cuboid 10 cm long, 8 cm wide and 4
cm high. The packets of oil are packed in a similar box 24 cm high. Calculate
the length and breadth of the box.

3. A cake is in the shape of a cuboid 10 cm long, 6 cm wide and 4 cm high. The

cake is packed in a similar box 24 cm wide. Calculate the length and the height
of the box.

4. A model of a house is 28 cm long and 20 cm wide. If the length of the house is

42 m what is its width?

5. A cylindrical tin has a diameter 36 cm. It is similar to a cylindrical tank with a

diameter 2m and a height 4.5 m. Calculate the height of the tin.
6. Mary’s height in a photograph is 5 cm. What is her actual height if the ratio of
her photograph to her actual height is 1 : 32?

7. A toy car, constructed to a scale of 1 : 140 is 1.6 cm long. What is the length of
the actual car?

ENLARGEMENT
An enlargement is a transformation which increases or decreases the size of an
object, in a given ratio. Under an enlargement:
(a) the object lines and their images are parallel,
(b) the lengths of the lines of the objects and their images are in the same ratio,
(c) the angles remain the same.
Under an enlargement, the object and its image are similar.

Constructing similar figures

Positive scale factor
The figure below shows triangle ABC and its image A1B1C1 under an enlargement
transformation.

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Line AA1, BB1 and CC1 meet at O. The point, O, where these lines meet is called the
centre of enlargement.
Note: ∆OAB and ∆OA1B1 are similar.
What other triangles are similar? What can you say about the ratios
OA1 , OB1 , OC1 ?
OA OB OC
The ratio OA
1

OA
is called the linear scale factor because it is the ratio of the lengths of
the line segments.
What other ratio would give the same scale factor?
The scale factor of enlargement is always positive whenever the object and its image
are on the same side of the centre of enlargement.
Note:
 When the scale factor is greater than 1, then the object is smaller than the
image and it lies between the image and the centre of enlargement.
 When the scale factor is positive and less than 1, then the image is smaller than
the object and it lies between the object and the centre of enlargement.
 The scale factor is a ratio and has no units.

Example 10.3
Using point C as the centre of enlargement, enlarge the following figures with a scale
factor of 2.
(a) (b)

Solutions
(a) The image of each vertex will be twice as far away from the centre as the object
is. The distance CM1 is twice the distance CM. Draw a line from C to M and
extend it to M1, a distance 2CM. Repeat for N1 and P1 to get the figure below.

118
(b) Measure line CQ. Extend line CQ to a point Q1 such that 2CQ = CQ1. Repeat
the same with points P and N to get the figure below.

Negative scale factor

Consider the following figure in which triangle ABC is taken as the object and
∆A1B1C1 as its image under an enlargement about centre O.

The object ∆ABC and the image ∆A1B1C1 are on the opposite sides of the centre of
enlargement, O.
Suppose OC = 4 cm and OC1 = 2 cm. Marking line C1OC on a number line with O at
zero and C at 4 units from O, then C1 is -2 units. See the figure below.

image distance from O

The scale factor = object distance from O .

Thus, OC  42   21 or OC1 =  21 OC.

1

OC
Therefore, the scale factor is  21 .

Locating the centre of enlargement

In order to locate the centre of enlargement when given an object and its image, join
at least two points on the object to their corresponding points on the image with
straight lines. The two straight lines intersect at the centre of enlargement.

119
Example 10.4
Find the centre of enlargement of the squares given below.

Solution
We join at least two points on the object, for example, C and D to their corresponding
points on the image, that is, C1 and D1 as shown below.
Therefore, the centre of enlargement is O.

Exercise 10.3
1. Copy each of the following figures. Using point O as the centre of enlargement,
enlarge it with a scale factor of 2.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

2. Repeat question 1 using a scale factor of -2.

120
3. Copy the following figures and make enlargements at the stated point and scale
factor given.

(a) [A, 3] (b) [X, 1 21 ]

(c) [N,  21 ] (d) M,31 

4. In each of the following pairs of figures, the figure in broken lines is the image.
Using the centre of enlargement, O, state the scale factor.
(a) (b)

5. Trace the following figures and in each case locate the centre of
enlargement.

121
(a)

(b)

Enlargement on the Cartesian plane

Triangle PQR, with vertices P(1, 1), Q(1, 4) and R(3, 1), undergoes an
enlargement, centre (3, 3), with a scale factor of -2. Find the coordinates of
the vertices of P1, Q1 and R1. From the diagram, R1(3, 7), Q1(7, 1) and
P1(7, 7).

Note: All the lines joining each vertex on the object to its image pass through
O, the centre of enlargement.

122
Exercise 10.4
1. On graph paper, plot the points A(1, 3), B(3, 3) and C(3, 1). Join the points to
form ∆ABC. Find the coordinates of A1, B1 and C1 after an enlargement of:
(a) scale factor 2 with centre (0, 0).
(b) scale factor -1 with centre (0, 0).
(c) scale factor 3 with centre (2, 2).
(d) scale factor -4 with centre (2, 2).
2. Triangle PQR is such that P(0, 0), Q(0, 2) and R(1, 0). It is enlarged to form
triangle P1(2, 2), Q1(2, 8) and R1(5, 2). Locate the centre of enlargement and
state the scale factor.

3. Points A1(-3, 0) and B1(-1, 0) are the images of A(6, 6) and B(2, 6) under an
enlargement. Locate the centre of enlargement and the scale factor.

4. A square with vertices A(-2, -2), B(-2, 2), C(2, 2) and D(2, -2), undergoes an
enlargement with the origin as centre and a scale factor of k. Find the
coordinates of the vertices of the image when k is:
(a) 1 (b) -1
2
(c) 2 21

5. A semicircle has a diameter MN. The coordinates of points M and N are M(1, 4)
and N(5, 0). The semicircle is enlarged about point (3, 2) by a scale factor of -1.
Construct both the object and its image on the same pair of axes. State the
coordinates of M1 and N1.

Areas of similar figures

The four squares in the figure below are similar. The smallest square has a
Side of 1 unit length and an area of one square unit. The ratio of the lengths of
their sides is 1:2:3:4. Counting the number of squares in each figure gives the
ratio of their areas as 1:4:9:16.
We know that 1:4:9:16 = 12:22:32:42. Thus the ratio of the areas is equal to
the ratio of the squares of the corresponding lengths.
In general, if two figures are similar and their corresponding lengths are in the
ratio a:b then their areas are in the ratio a 2:b2.

Example 10.5
Two similar triangles have their corresponding lengths in the ratio 2:3.
(a) Find the ratio of their areas.

123
(b) Given that the smaller triangle has an area of 20 cm 2, calculate the area
of the larger triangle.
Solution
(a) Ratio of the corresponding lengths = 2:3
Ratio of the corresponding areas = 4:9
(b) Let the area of the larger triangle be x
Then, 20x 9
4
x = 94  20 = 45
The area of the larger triangle is 45 cm 2.

Example 10.6
Triangles ABC and DEF are similar. If the area of ABC is 9.8 cm 2 and the area of
∆DEF is 5.0 cm2, find the value of AB:DE.
Solution
Area of ΔABC 9.8 98 49
   .
Area of ΔDEF 5.0 50 25
Area of ΔABC 2 2 49
But Area of ΔDEF  AB . Therefore, AB  25
DE2 DE2

AB2  AB  49  7
DE 25 5
DE2
AB:DE = 7:5
Note: We obtain the linear ratio by finding the square root of the area ratio. It is
important to simplify the area ratio to its lowest terms before finding the square root
to avoid tedious calculations.

Exercise 10.5
1. For each pair of similar figures below, write down the ratios of their areas.
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

124
2. Find the linear ratios for each of the following pairs of figures:
(a) (b)

3. Triangles PQR and XYZ shown below are similar. Find the area of ∆XYZ

4. The length of a model car is 12 cm. If the actual length of the car is
2.16 m:
(a) what is their linear scale factor?
(b) what is the area occupied by the actual car if the model car occupies an
area of 72 cm2?

5. A plan of a building is to the scale 1:50. What is the actual area of the
room that is 2 cm2 on the plan?
6. The radii of two balls are in the ratio 2:3. Calculate the surface area of
the smaller ball if the bigger ball has a surface area of 28.8 cm 2.

7. The heights of two similar cylinders are in the ratio 1:4. What is the:
(a) ratio of their base radii?
(b) surface area of the larger cylinder if the smaller cylinder has a surface
area of 12.5 cm2?

8. A picture is reduced by a scale of 1:12. If the original picture measured

48 cm by 72 cm, what is the area of the new picture?
9. Given that the ratio of the areas of two similar solids is 9:25,
(a) what is the linear scale factor between the two solids?
(b) what is the length of the bigger solid, if the length of the smaller solid is
1.11 m.

125
Volume of similar figures
The three cubes in the figure below are similar.

The smallest cube has all its edges as one unit length. Therefore, it has a
volume of one cubic unit. The ratio of the lengths of their edges is 1:2:3.
Counting the number of cubes in each figure gives the ratio of their volumes
as 1:8:27 = 13:23:33.
The ratio of the volumes of similar solids is equal to the ratio of the cubes of
the corresponding lengths.
In general, if two solids are similar and their corresponding lengths are in the
ratio a:b, then their volumes are in the ratio a 3:b3.

Example 10.7
Two similar cylinders have their lengths in the ratio 3:5.
(a) Find the ratio of their volumes.
(b) Given that the bigger cylinder has a volume of 750 cm 3, calculate the
volume of the smallest cylinder.
Solutions
(a) The ratio of the corresponding lengths is 3:5. Therefore, the ratio of the
volumes is 33:53. = 27:125.
(b) Let the volume of the smaller cylinder be v. Then,
v  27 . This means,
750 125
27  750 = 162 cm3.
v = 125

Example 10.8
The volume of two similar cones are in the ratio 1:27.
(a) Calculate the volume of the smaller cone given that the volume of the
larger cone is 64 cm3.
(b) What is the ratio of their base areas?
Solution
Volume of the smaller cone 1 . This means,
(a) Volume of the larger cone
 27
Volume of the smaller cone 1
64
 27
1  64 = 64 cm3 = 2.37 cm3
Therefore, the volume of the smaller cone = 27 27

126
(b) Volume ratio = 1:27
Linear ratio = 1:3
Area ratio = 12:32
= 1:9

Example 10.9
The radius of a spherical balloon increases by 4%. Find the percentage
increase in its:
(a) surface area, (b) volume.
Solution
(a) let the original radius be r. The new radius is given by
104  r = 1.04r
100
new radius
Therefore, old radius  1.04r
r = 1.104
New surface area  2 = 1.0816
 1.04
Original surface acrea 12
Therefore, the new surface area = 1.0816 of the original surface area.
Expressing the new surface area as a percentage of the original surface area
we get 108.16%. The surface area has increased by 8.16%.

(b)
New Volume  2
 1.04 = 1.1249 (to 4 d.p)
Original Volume 12
New volume = 1.1249 of the original volume which gives the percentage
of the new volume as 112.49%. Therefore, the volume has increased by
12.49%.
Note: We did not need to know the original radius of the balloon.

Exercise 10.6
1. The radii of two similar cylinders are in the ratio 1:4. What is the ratio of
their volumes?
2. The heights of two similar cuboids are in the ratio 3:5. Find the ratio of
their capacities.
3. The volumes of two similar jugs are in the ratio 8:125. What is the ratio of
their heights?
4. The volumes of two similar pyramids are in the ratio 216:27. What is the
ratio of their:
(a) heights?
(b) base diagonals?
5. A soap bubble has a radius of 2 cm. If its radius increases by 1 cm, find
by how much does its volume increase.
6. The heights of three cylinders are 3 cm, 9 cm and 15 cm. If the larger
cylinder has a capacity of 725 milliliters, calculate the capacities of the
other cylinders.
7. 1 of the actual
All the linear dimensions of a model house are 50

127
 dimensions of the house. Find the ratio of:
(a) the area of the kitchen,
(b) volume of the space occupied by the garage.
8. Two similar bottles are such that one is thrice as high as the other. What are the
ratios of their:
(a) surface area?
(b) volumes?
(c) number of bottle tops
9. Two similar jars hold 2131 litres and 9 litres respectively.
(a) Find the ratio of their radii.
(b) If the smaller jar has a radius of 12 cm, find the radius of the larger jar.
10. The height of a rectangular water tank is 2.4 m. When full it contains
8,000 litres. How many litres would fill a similar tank that is 9.6 m high?
11. The top surface areas of water in two similar swimming pools are 140 m 2
and 210 m2. What volume of water does the smaller pool contain if the
larger one has 54,000 litres of water?
12. A statue of volume 30,720 cm3 is represented by a model of volume
480 cm3.
(a) What is the ratio of their lengths?
(b) What is the ratio of their surface areas?
(c) If it costs sh. 1500 to paint the model, what would be the cost of painting
the statue?
13. The radius of a spherical soap bubble increases by 20%. Find, correct to
the nearest whole number, the percentage increase in its:
(a) surface area,
(b) volume.
14. The surface area of a cone increases by 300%. Find the percentage
increase in its:
(a) slant height,
(b) volume.

Applications of scale factors

Example 10.10
In a plan of a house, the scale of the length is shown as 1:50. Calculate:
(a) the length of a room which is 8.5 cm on the plan,
(b) the height of a door on the plan if the real height is 2 m.
Solutions
The scale of 1:50 means 1 cm on the plan represents 50 cm on the ground.
(a) If 1 cm represents 50 cm, then 8.5 cm represents 8.5 × 50 = 425 cm
or 4.25 m.
(b) 50 cm is represented by 1 cm on the plan. Therefore, 200 cm is represented
1  200
by 50
 4 cm . The height of the window on the plan is
4 cm.

128
Example 10.11
The scale of a map is 1:5,000. On the map, the area representing a building is
2 cm2. What is the actual area, in square metres, occupied by the building?
Solution
Linear scale is 1:5,000
Area scale = 12:5,0002
1
= 1: 25,000,000 or 25000000
Actual area
 25000000
1
2 cm2
Which means, actual area = 25,000,000 × 2 = 50,000,000 cm2
But, 10.000 cm2 = 1 m2. Therefore, the area occupied by the building is
5,000 m2.

Exercise 10.7
1. A girl whose eye is 1.5 m above the ground can just see over the top of a wall
2.4 m high and the top of a tower which is 450 m beyond the wall. If the girl is
22.5 m from the wall, what is the height of the tower?

2. Two similar vases have their heights in the ratio 3:2. What is the ratio of:
(a) their surface areas?
(b) their volumes?
3. The size of a picture is reduced so that it is one-tenth of the original size. What
was the original width, if the reduced width is 6.8 cm?

4. A plan of a building is to a scale of 1:50.What is the area of a room which is 8

cm2 on the plan?

5. A map is drawn to a scale of 1:100,000. What is the area on the map of an

estate that is 80,000 m2 on the ground?

6. 1 of the dimensions of the actual

The linear dimensions of a model car are 16
car.
(a) What is the area of the windscreen of the actual car, if the windscreen of
the model car has an area of 3 cm2?
(b) If the capacity of the boot of the model car is 12cm 3, find the capacity of
the boot of the actual car.

7. In a photograph, a boy has a ball which is 15 times smaller than the

actual ball.
(a) If the diameter of the ball in the photograph is 1.2 cm, what is the
diameter of the actual ball?
(b) What is the boys height in the photograph if his actual height is 150 cm?

129
Chapter 11
THE PYTHAGORAS’ THEOREM

Deriving the Pythagoras’ theorem

Draw a right angled triangle ABC in which  ABC = 900, AB = 3 cm and
BC = 4 cm. Measure the length of the hypotenuse. On sides AB, BC and CA
respectively, construct squares as shown in the figure below.

Find the area of each of these squares.

From the figure, you will find that:
 The area of the square constructed on side AB = 3 cm × 3 cm = 9 cm2.
 The area of the square constructed on side BC = 4 cm × 4 cm = 16 cm 2.
 The area of the square constructed on side AC = 5 cm × 5 cm = 25 cm 2.
The sum of the areas of the squares drawn on sides AB and BC = (9 + 16) = 25 cm 2.
Therefore, the sum of the areas of the squares on sides AB and BC is equal to the
area of the square on side AC. Thus, AC2 = AB2 + BC2.
This relationship is known as Pythagoras’ theorem.
In general, if the length of the hypotenuse in a right angled triangle is h and the other
two sides are a and b respectively, then
h2 = a2 + b2.

130
Applying the Pythagoras theorem
Example 11.1
Find the lengths of each side of the right angled triangles labeled in letters.
(a) (b)

Solutions
(a) Using Pythagoras’ theorem,
a2 = 52 + 122
= 25 + 144 = 169
a = 169 = 13 cm
(b) Similarly,
152 = 92 + b2
225 = 81 + b2
b2 = 225 – 81 = 144
b = 144 = 12 cm.

Example 11.2
If the lengths of the sides of a rectangle are 4.8 cm and 3.5 cm, find the length of its
diagonal.

Solution
Let the length of the diagonal be k cm.

Then, k2 = 4.82 + 3.52

= 23.04 + 12.25
= 35.29  k= 35.29 = 5.940.
Exercise 11.1
1. All the triangles in this question are right-angled. The three sides are x, y, z
such that x is the hypotenuse.
(a) y = 24 cm, z = 10 cm, calculate x.
(b) x = 2.5 cm, z = 1.5 cm, calculate y.
(c) y = 36 m, z = 15 m, calculate x.

131
 (d) x = 37.08 cm, y = 23.26 cm, calculate z.
2. The sides of right-angled triangles are a, b and c, where c is the hypotenuse.
Work out the following giving your answer correct to two decimal places.
(a) a = 3 cm, b = 3 cm, calculate c.
(b) a = 7 cm, b = 8 cm, calculate c.
(c) a = 6.5 cm, c = 11.5 cm, calculate b.
(d) c = 9 cm, b = 6 cm, calculate a.
(e) c = 7.5 cm, a = 5 cm, calculate b.
(f) c = 16 cm, b = 15 cm, calculate a.
3. Triangle ABC has AB = AC, BC = 10 cm and  BAC = 900. Calculate the
lengths of sides AB and AC to the nearest millimeter.

4. The diagonal of a square is 15 cm. Calculate its perimeter.

5. The longest diagonal AG of a rectangular box is 12.5 cm. Diagonal AC of its
base is 10 cm.

Calculate the height of the box.

6. In a right angled triangle, the hypotenuse and one its shorter sides are 2.5 m
and 1.5 m respectively. Determine the length of the third side.

7. A 2.6 m ladder has its foot 1.0 m from the base of a vertical wall. How far up the
wall will it reach?

8. The length of a diagonal of a rectangular flower bed is 24.7 m and the length of
one side is 19.8 m. Find the perimeter of the flower bed.

9. The area of a square field is 12,321 m 2. Find the length of the diagonal.
10. A room is in the shape of a cuboid.

132
 If it is 5.5 m long, 4.9 m wide, 3.5 m high, find the distances from a corner of the
floor to the opposite corner of the ceiling, WQ.

11. The figure drawn below shows a ball of radius 15 cm placed at a corner of a
room.

Find, to the nearest millimeter, the shortest distance from the corner of the room
to the ball.

12. In each of the following figures, find the lengths of the sides marked in letters.
(a) (b)

13. In triangle PQR,  PRQ = 900, PQ = 14 cm and PR = 8.9 cm. Calculate RQ.
14. A point P on the ground is 10 m from the base of a telephone pole. A wire from
point P is attached to the pole at 12 m above the ground. Find the length of the
wire.
15. A rectangular frame is made of metal bars. The length of its diagonal is 2.5 m.
Find the length of the frame if the width of the frame is 1.5 m.

16. The diagram below shows part of a roof of a building.

If AB, BC, and AC are beams, find the length of BC.

133
Chapter 12
THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Trigonometric ratios express the relationship between the size of one angle
and the lengths of two sides in a right-angled triangle.
The tangent of an angle
Draw an acute angle using a protractor. Take any three points on the slope
and draw lines from them which are perpendicular to the horizontal line as
shown in the figure below.

Point O is the intersection of the two lines which makes an angle θ, read as
theta. Measure AK and OK. Determine the ratio OK AK . Similarly, determine the

BM and CN .
ratios OM ON
You will find that the values of the three ratios are approximately the same.
This constant ratio for a given angle θ is called the tangent of θ and is
denoted as tan θ.
Notice that triangles OAK, OBM and OCN whose sides have been used to
find the ratios are right angled triangles. Our study of the tangent of an angle
in this chapter will apply to right-angled triangles only.
Consider triangle ABC shown below.  BAC is θ. Side BC is opposite angle θ
and AC is adjacent to angle θ.

Side AB is the hypotenuse of the triangle. In a right-angled triangle, the

tangent of an angle is the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side.
o p p o sit e
Thus, tan θ  a d ja ce n t.

134
Exercise 12.1
1. Name the sides which are opposite and adjacent to the angle marked θ in each
of the following triangles:
(a) (b)

(c)

2. Express tan θ as a fraction in each of the following triangles:

(a) (b) (c)

The table of tangents

When the angles are known, we use the table of tangents to find the ratios of
the opposite to the adjacent sides. Angles in the table of tangents are
expressed in degrees and points of degrees. They are also given in minutes.
There are 60 minutes (60’) in 1 degree (1 0). Thus, 60’ is equivalent to 10.
There are three major groups of columns in the table of tangents as in table
12.1.

135
 Table 12.1: An extract of the table of tangents
0' 6' 12' 18' 24' 30' 36' 42' 48' 54' Differences
θ 0.0
0
0.1
0
0.2
0
0.3
0
0.4
0
0.5
0 0
0.6
0
0.7
0
0.8
0
0.9 1' 2' 3' 4' 5'
0 0.0000 0017 0035 0052 0070 0087 0105 0122 0140 0157 3 6 9 12 15
1 0.0175 0192 0209 0227 0244 0262 0279 0297 0314 0332 3 6 9 12 15
2 0.0349 0367 0384 0402 0419 0437 0454 0472 0489 0507 3 6 9 12 15
3 0.0524 0542 0559 0577 0594 0612 0629 0647 0664 0682 3 6 9 12 15
4 0.0699 0717 0734 0752 0769 0787 0805 0822 0840 0857 3 6 9 12 15
5 0.0875 0892 0910 0928 0945 0963 0981 0998 1016 1033 3 6 9 12 15
6 0.1051 1069 1086 1104 1122 1139 1157 1175 1192 1210 3 6 9 12 15
7 0.1228 1246 1263 1281 1299 1317 1334 1352 1370 1388 3 6 9 12 15
8 0.1405 1423 1441 1459 1477 1495 1512 1530 1548 1566 3 6 9 12 15
9 0.1584 1602 1620 1638 1655 1673 1691 1709 1727 1745 3 6 9 12 15
10 0.1763 1781 1799 1817 1835 1853 1871 1890 1908 1926 3 6 9 12 15
11 0.1944 1962 1980 1998 2016 6035 2053 2071 2089 2107 3 6 9 12 15
12 0.2126 2144 2162 2180 2199 2217 2235 2254 2272 2290 3 6 9 12 15
13 0.2309 2327 2345 2364 2382 2401 2419 2438 2456 2475 3 6 9 12 15
14 0.2493 2512 2530 2549 2568 2586 2605 2623 2642 2661 3 6 9 12 16
15 0.2679 2698 2717 2736 2754 2773 2972 2811 2830 2849 3 6 9 13 16

1. The column headed θ gives angles in degrees.

2. The next 10 columns headed 0.00 to 0.90 or 0’ to 54’ give the tangents of angles.
Angles increase in steps of 6’ or one-tenth of a degree which is 0.10.
3. The last five columns headed 1’ to 5’ are called differences and indicate
hundredths of degrees.

Example 12.1
Find tan 12.80.
Solution
To find tan 12.80, proceed as follows:
In the column headed θ, look for the row headed 12. Move along this row until you
reach the column headed 0.8. The number at the intersection is 0.2272.
Therefore, tan 12.80 = 0.2272.
Note: 12.80 = 12048’
In order to find tan 12048’ read the number where the row headed 12 0 meets
with the column headed 48’.
Example 12.2
Find tan 12045’
Tan 12045’ cannot be read directly from the table because there is no column for 45’.
12045’ lies between 12042’ and 12048’ both of whose tangents can be directly read
from the tables.
Since 12045’ is 3’ more than 12042’, the difference between their tangents is the
number at the intersection of the row headed 120 and the column headed 3’, that is,
0.0009. This difference is then added to the value of tan 12 042’. Thus, tan12045’ = tan
(12042’ + 3’)
= 0.2254 + 0.0009
= 0.2263

136
Note: 12045’ is also 3’ less than 12048’.
The corresponding difference in their tangents is also 0.0009. This difference is
subtracted from the value of tan 12048’.
Thus, tan12045’ = tan 12048’ – tan 3’
= 0.2272 – 0.0009
= 0.2263

Exercise 12.2
Use tables to find the tangents of the following angles:
1. 180 2. 800
3. 370 4. 50
5. 15.30 6. 44.90
7. 54.20 8. 7015’
9. 63050’ 10. 72035’
11. 88048’ 12. 20058’

Using tangents in calculations

Example 12.3
Find length AB in triangle OAB

Solution
AB  AB
Tan 400 = OB 15
0
AB = 15 tan 40
= 15 × 0.8391 (from the tables)
= 12.6 cm.

Example 12.4
Find length PQ in triangle PQR.

137
 Solution
Tan 70021’ = 45
PQ
Hence, PQ = 45
tan 700 21'
45
= 2.800
= 16.07 cm.

Example 12.5
Find the size of angle θ in the figure below.

Solution
Tan θ = 3.5
7.6
= 0.4605
We need to find an angle, θ, whose tangent is 0.4605. In this case, the process of
finding the tangent of an angle is reversed. From the table of tangents, locate the
number 0.4605 or if it is missing, locate the nearest number smaller than it. The
closest smaller tangent to 0.4605 is 0.4599, the tangent of 24042’. The difference
between 0.4605 and 0.4599 is 0.0006. Look for 6 (or the closest number) in the
difference columns along the row headed 24. The number closest to 6 is 7 in the
column headed 2’. Thus, the angle whose tangent is 0.4605, is 2’ more than 24042’.
Therefore, θ = 24042’ + 2’
= 24044’

138
Exercise 12.3
1. Use tangents to find the lengths of the sides marked x in each of the following
right-angled triangles:
(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

2. Use tangents to find the values of θ in each of the following right-angled

triangles:
(a) (b)

139
 (c) (d)

3. In  ABC,  ABC = 900. Find:

(a) AB, if BC = 182 cm and  ACB = 33040’,
(b) BC, if AB = 12 cm and  BAC = 68026’,
(c)  BAC, if BA = 26 mm and BC = 13 mm.
4. Find the values of the length marked in letters.

(a) (b)

(c)

5. Calculate the acute angle between the diagonals of a rectangle that measures
20 cm by 14 cm.

6. An isosceles triangle has a base 80 cm long. Its height is 13 cm. Find the size of
its angles.

Applications of tangents

140
Elevation and Depression
Angles of elevation and depression give the direction of one point with respect
to another in a vertical plane.

Angles of elevation and depression are always taken with the horizontal.

It can be seen that the angle of elevation from the ship to the top of the cliff is
equal to the angle of depression from the top of the cliff to the ship
(alternate angles).
Example 12.6
A boy, 120 cm tall, is standing 50 m from a flag post on a level ground. He
finds that the angle of elevation to the top of the flag post is 150. Calculate the
height of the flag post.
Solution
Tan 150 = BC
50
(see diagram below)
Therefore, BC = 50 tan 150
= 50 × 0.2679
= 13.4 m.
This is the height of the flag post above the boy’s height of 1.2 m. Therefore,
the height of the flag post is 13.4 + 1.2 = 14.6 m.

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Example 12.7
A girl lying at the top of a cliff, 120 m high sees two rocks whose angles of
depression are 100 and 300. If the rocks are in line with the foot of the cliff, find the
distance between the rocks.

Solution

F is the foot of the cliff. A and B are positions of the rocks. We notice that
 NMB =  MBF and  NMA =  MAF since they are alternate angles.
In  MFA, tan 300 = 120
FA
Therefore, FA = 120 120 = 208 m.
= 0.5774
tan 300

In  MBF, tan 100 = 120

FB
Therefore, FB = 120 120 = 681 m.
= 0.1763
tan10 0
The distance between the rocks is
AB = FB – FA = 681 – 208 m = 473 m.
Alternatively, in  MFA,  AMF = 600.
Thus tan 600 = MFAF = AF
120
Therefore, AF = 120 × 1.132 = 208 m.
FB
And in  FMB,  BMF = 800. Thus, tan 800 = MF
Therefore, FB = MF tan 800 = 120 × 5.671 = 681 m.
AB = FB – AF = 681 – 208 = 473 m.

Exercise 12.4
1. An angle of elevation of P from Q is 620. What is the angle of depression of Q
from P?

2. What is the angle of elevation of the top of a building, 30 m tall, from a point on
the ground 80 m away?

3. A ladder leans against a vertical wall making an angle of 15 0 with the wall. If its
foot is 4 m from the wall, calculate the height above the ground of the top of the
ladder.

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4. A vertical tower, 40 m tall, casts a shadow on a level ground. Calculate the
angle the rays of the sun make with the ground.

5. The angle of elevation to the top of a tree from a point on the ground
70 m from its foot is 180. Calculate the height of the tree.

6. Calculate the angles of a rhombus whose diagonals are 14 cm and 8 cm.

7. P is 15 km north of Q and R is 26 km west of P. Calculate the bearing of R from
Q.
8. From the top of a rock, a boy sees a pawpaw tree 30 m away. He measures the
angle of elevation of the top of the tree as 15 0 and the angle of depression at the
bottom as 40. Calculate the height of the pawpaw tree.

9. Two boys standing on opposite sides of a tree 24 m tall, measure the

angles of elevation of its top as 360 and 230. Calculate the distance
between the two boys.
10. A tree that is 20 m from a busy path is being cut down. The angle of
elevation of the top of the tree from the middle of the path is 50 0. Is it
safe for the tree to fall in the direction of the path?
11. How far from the base of a 25 m cliff must a ship be so the angle of
elevation of the top of the cliff from the ship is to be 70?
12. The angle of elevation of the top of a building is 70 0 from a point on the
ground 50 m away.
(a) How high is the building?
(b) What would be the angle of elevation of the top of the building from a
point on the ground 25 m away?
13. The angle of depression of a crossroads from an aero plane flying at
400 m is 200.
(a) What is the horizontal distance of the plane from the crossroads?
(b) What would the angle of depression have been if the plane had been
flying at 600 m at the same horizontal distance away?

14. The angle of elevation of the top of a chimney on a house from a point
on the ground 50 m away is 220.
(a) How high above the ground is the top of the chimney?
(b) If the angle of elevation of the roof of the house from the same point is
200, how tall is the house?
(c) How tall is the chimney?
15. The angle of depression of a house from the top of a 175 m hill is 75 0.
(a) How far is the hill from the house, horizontally?
(b) If the angle of depression of a church from the top of the hill is 620,
How far is the hill from the church, horizontally?
(c) Assuming that the hill, house and church are all in the same straight line,
how far is it from the house to the church?

16. (a) The angle of elevation of the top of a cliff from a ship at sea level is 12.30.
If the ship is 2.3 km out to sea find the height of the cliff.

143
 (b) A 50 m lighthouse stands on the top of the cliff. Find the angle of
depression of the ship from the top of this lighthouse.

The sine of an angle

We have seen that for any right-angled triangle ABC, the ratio of the opposite
side to the adjacent side is a constant fro a given angle, θ.

Similarly, the ratio of the opposite to the hypotenuse is a constant for any
given angle, θ. This constant is called the sine of angle θ, abbreviated as sin θ
and read as sine theta.
o p p o sit e
Thus, sin θ = h yp o t e n u se.

The table of sine

The table of sines is read in the same way as the table of tangents. For
example, sin 240 = 0.4067 and sin 43046’ = 0.6909 + 0.0009 = 0.6918

Exercise 12.5
1. Write down the sines of each of the following angles:
(a) 130 (b) 760
(c) 44.30 (d) 50024’
0
(e) 32 19’ (f) 18016’
2. Write down the angles whose sines are:
(a) 0.8746 (b) 0.3272
(c) 0.8398 (d) 0.3555
(e) 0.6000 (f) 0.9927

Applications of sines
Example 12.8
Find the length of PR in the following diagram.

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 Solution
Sin 380 = PR = PR
80
RQ
Thus, PR = 80 sin 380
= 80 × 0.6157 = 49.3 cm.
Example 12.9
Find the size of angle θ in the following diagram.

Solution
6 = 0.4615
Sin θ = 13
θ = 27029’

Exercise 12.6
1. Find the length of the side marked x in each of the following right-angled
triangles:

(a) (b)

145
 (c) (d)

(e)

2. Find the size of the angle marked θ in each of the following right-angled
triangles:

(a) (b)

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 (c) (d)

3. In triangle ABC below, find the length of BC.

4. An isosceles triangle with its base 18 cm long, has each of the identical
angles as 430. Find the lengths of the identical sides.
5. In the figure below, triangles ABC and ABD are right-angled.

Find: (a)  BAD, (b) the length of BC.

6. Find the base length of an isosceles triangle whose vertex angle is 50 0
and the equal sides are 10 cm long.
7. An isosceles triangle has a base of 6 cm and the equal sides are each
8 cm long. Find the angles of the triangle and its height.
8. Find the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius 5 cm by a
chord of length 3 cm.

The cosine of an angle

In any right-angled triangle, the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse is
a constant for any given angle, θ. This constant ratio is called the cosine of
angle θ, abbreviated as cos θ.

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 a d ja c e n t
Thus, cos θ = .
h yp o t e n u se

The table of cosines

You will have noticed that the sines and tangents of angles increase as the
angles increase. In the table of cosines, the cosine of angles decrease as the
angles increase.
The cosines of angles are read in the same way as the sines except that the
values in the columns of differences of the cosines are subtracted instead of
being added.
Example 12.10
(a) Find cos 35022’.
(b) Find the angle whose cosine is 0.6890
Solutions
(a) From the tables, cos 35022’ can be found by getting cos 35018’
Cos 35018’ = 0.8161
35022’ – 35018’ = 4’
Therefore, cos 35022’ = 0.816 – 0.0007 = 0.8154
(b) From the tables, 0.6890 lies between 0.6664 and 0.6896 in the row headed 46.
0.6896 is 0.0006 more than 0.6890. We look for 6 or a number nearest to 6 in
the differences column on the row headed 460. The number 6 is in the column
3’. The angle whose cosine is 0.6890 is 46024’ + 3’ = 46027’.

Exercise 12.7
1. Find the cosine of each of the following angles:
(a) 230 (b) 48017’
(c) 6709’ (d) 83034’
(e) 42.60 (f) 15.70

2. Use tables to find the angles whose cosine are:

(a) 0.2554 (b) 0.0870
(c) 0.8895 (d) 0.5978
(e) 0.4970 (f) 0.9998

Applications of cosines
Example 12.11
Find AC in the following diagram.

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 Solution
AB = 40
Cos 28014΄ = AC AC
AC = 40 40 = 45.4 m.
= 0.8810
0
cos 28 14

Example 12.12
Find the size of angle θ in the following diagram.

Solution
Cos θ = 14
26
= 0.5385
θ = 57025΄ (from tables)

Exercise 12.8
1. Find the lengths of the sides marked x in the following right-angled triangles:
(a) (b)

(c)

149
2. Find the value of θ in each of the following right-angled triangles:
(a) (b)

3. A diagonal of a rectangle is 20 m long and makes an angle of 40 0 with one of

the sides. Calculate the lengths of the sides of the rectangle.

4. A rectangle 12 cm wide has a diagonal of 20 cm. Calculate the acute angle

between the diagonals.

5. A ladder 8 m long is leaning against a vertical wall, with its foot 2 m from the
wall. Calculate the angle the ladder makes with the floor.

6. A chord of a circle 13 cm long subtends an angle of 1180 at the centre.

Find the radius of the circle.
7. A girl starts from village P, walks 300 m on a bearing of 038 0 to village Q, and
then walks 60 m on a bearing of 0730 to R. Find how far east R is from P.

8. An isosceles triangle ABC is such that AB = BC = 16.5 cm, and ABC =

80024΄. Find the length of its altitude.

Tangents, sines and cosines

Consider a right-angled triangle PQR.

150
In the diagram above, sin θ = QR and cos θ = PR .
PQ PQ
sin θ QR QR PQ QR
Therefore, cos θ = ÷ PR = × PR = PR
PQ PQ PQ

Also, tan θ = QR
PR
.
sin θ
Therefore, co s θ  t a n θ

Example 12.14
A metallic pipe 12 m long is leaning against a vertical wall, with its foot 3 m
from the wall.
(a) Find the angle the pipe makes with the horizontal.
(b) Find the height of the wall where the pipe reaches.
Solution
Let the angle be θ and the height be h.

(a) 3 = 0.25
cos θ = 12
Therefore, θ = 75031΄
(b) h
sin 75031΄ = 12
That is, h = 12 sin 75031΄ = 12 × 0.9682 = 11.6 m.
The ratios of sine, cosine and tangent are best remembered by the acronym
SOHCAHTOA.
Opposite
Where, SOH means, Sine = Hypotenuse
Adjacent
CAH means, Cosine = Hypotenuse
Opposite
TOA means. Tangent = Adjacent .

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Example 12.15
Find without using tables, the value of sin θ and tan θ, if cos θ = 54 and θ
is an acute angle.
Solution
adjacent
Cos θ = hypotenuse .
Draw  ABC and indicate the sides as in the following diagram.

AB = 4 units and AC = 5 units. Using Pythagoras’ theorem,

BC2 = AC2 – AB2
= 52 – 4 2
=9
BC = 3
Sin θ = BC
AC 5
 3 and tan θ = BC 3
AB 4
sin θ
Also, tan θ = cos θ = 35 ÷ 54 = 35 × 54 = 34 .

Exercise 12.9

1. Given that tan x = 34 , find cos x and sin x.

2. 8 , find sin x and tan x.

Given that cos x = 17

3. 5 , find cos x and tan x.

Given that sin x = 13

4. Given that tan x = 12

5
, find cos x and sin x.

5. 5 , evaluate cos x  sin x

If tan x = 12 sin x  cos x

6. The shadow of a building, on a horizontal ground, is twice as long as its height.

If its height is 25 m, calculate the angle of elevation to the sun from the ground.

7. In the figure below, calculate the lengths of lines:

(a) AD (b) AB
(c) BC

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