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Durability Design of Concrete Structures: National and international Scenario

Published in Civil Engineering and Construction Review, April 2022

Article · April 2022

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Sustainable And Green Construction
Durability Design of Concrete Structures
National and International Scenario
P. N. Ojha
Joint Director & Head
Centre for Construction Development and Research
National Council for Cement and Building Materials
Ballabhgarh, Haryana
Puneet Kaura
Manager
Centre for Construction Development and Research
National Council for Cement and Building Materials
Ballabhgarh, Haryana
Brijesh Singh
Group Manager
Centre for Construction Development and Research
National Council for Cement and Building Materials
Ballabhgarh, Haryana
T
he performance of structure is its ability to meet functional
and time requirement. Concrete deteriorates with time
and results in gradual decrease in performance over time.
The time dependent degradation of concrete can be intrinsic to the
concrete or induced by the interaction between the service condition
and the concrete. Durability design is by nature is a multilevel task:
at whole structure level, at a level of structural elements and at
a material level.[1] At level of structure as a whole, durability design
is about selecting a service life of structure for given environmental
action and arriving at rational structural element assemblage and
their layout so that the transient performance of the structure can
always be maintained to an expected level. At the level of structural
element, the durability design is about fulfilling the selected design
service life through more specific technical requirements such as
section details, concrete cover thickness, material properties etc.
Technical requirements from other structural design considerations
such as design for structural loads or fire etc also interferes at this
level in the selection of section details, concrete cover thickness,
material properties etc. Then at third level, concrete mixture is
designed appropriately both in order to satisfy the specific material
properties transferred from durability consideration and other
structural design considerations such as design for structural loads
or fire etc.
42 CE&CR April 2022
Concrete Deterioration Phenomena
The deterioration of concrete materials under environmental
actions is fundamental knowledge for durability design. Concrete can
deteriorate from a variety of reasons, and concrete damage is often
the result of a combination of factors. Depending on basic nature
of deterioration, concrete deterioration can be classified into three
categories: chemical, physical or biogenic in nature. Deterioration
such as Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) or Alkali Silica Reaction
(ASR), Internal Sulfate attack (ISA), Delayed Ettringite Formation
(DEF), External Sulfate attack (ESA), Salt Crystallization, Carbonation,
Chloride Ingress, Leaching, Acid attack etc. are generally clubbed
into the first category. Reaction products might cause problems,
due to dissolution or expansion or adverse chemical reactions
between substances and components of the concrete. Carbonation
induced reinforcement corrosion and chloride induced reinforcement
corrosion are the electrochemical in nature, where chemical reactions
at the anode and cathode are combined with an electrical current
through the steel and through the concrete. Damages to the concrete
due to freezing and thawing, creep, shrinkage, thermal cracking,
abrasion, erosion, impact or excessive loading are generally clubbed
into the second category which is physical in nature. Damage due
to vegetation and biological growth, dirt and rubbish deposits etc.
are biogenic in nature and are clubbed into third category.[2-6]
The very reason of concrete deterioration stems from the fact
that concrete is a porous material and through the pore network,
aggressive agents can enter inside the concrete through various
transport process. Transport mechanisms (Ionic transport, Moisture
transport, Electrochemical potential, Temperature distribution)
govern the rate of ingress of the deterioration inducing species
in concrete and its understanding is fundamental to developing
service life prediction model of reinforced concrete structures.[4]
Understanding the transport mechanisms helps in transfer of lab
experiments on accelerated durability tests to the actual behaviour
of structures under field exposure. Transport mechanism explains and
provides ways and means to quantify the deleterious effects, helps
in developing mitigation strategies and assists in material selection
and their quality control testing. Principal factors involved in transport
process in uncracked concrete are summarized in Fig. 1.[7] In cracked
concrete, more complex transport mechanisms are involved and are
still not clearly understood.
Sustainable And Green Construction
Fig. 1: Principal Factors Involved in Transport Process in Uncracked Concrete[7]
Performance Deterioration and Durability Limit States
Reliable transient performance of the structure is primary
requirement. Performance of structure has three components:
safety, serviceability and durability. reliability also has three
components: time (specific), condition (prescribed) and function
(predetermined). Therefore, Reliable structural performance has
three domains: structural safety, structural serviceability and
structural durability. Structural durability which is related to
material damage is not independent from structural safety and
serviceability. Structural durability is a special part of structural safety
or structural serviceability. For time-domain reliable performance
of a structure, structural safety and structural serviceability both
includes structural durability and corresponding limit states are
ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit state (SLS) and
these both limit states includes the condition limit state into
them.[8-10] Damage of concrete and associated physicochemical
phenomenon and mechanism of deterioration is the core content
whereas the effect of degradation on structural performance and
associated various limit states is main content of structural durability.
In the long run the load carrying capacity of structure depends on
the degradation of concrete and reinforcement inside the concrete.
The performance of structural elements is required to be evaluated
by first analyzing the rate of change in performance on the material
level. Concrete as a material degradation process modeling describing
the interaction of the material and environment with accuracy
(trueness and precision) is essential for prediction of durability.
The minimum acceptable values for performance (or maximum
acceptable value for degradation) are called durability limit state. [8-9]
Durability of concrete structure exposed to its environment
shall be such that it remains fit for use during its design service life.
44 CE&CR April 2022
These requirements are satisfied
in one, or a combination, of the
following ways [11, 13]:
–– by using materials that, if well
maintained, will not degenerate
during the design service life;
–– by designing protective and
mitigating systems;
–– by providing such dimensions
that deterioration during the
design service life is compensated
for;
–– by choosing a shorter lifetime for
structural elements that when
necessary are replaced one or
more times during the design life;
–– in combination with appropriate inspection at fixed or
condition-dependent intervals and appropriate maintenance
activities.
Standards and Codes for Durability Design
At International level, ISO 2394, General principles on reliability
for structures, [12] provides conceptual framework for risk and
reliability informed decision making for design and assessment of
structures over their entire service life and serves as a basis for the
task of preparing international standards, national standards or
codes of practice. ISO 13823:2008, general principles on the design
of structures for durability,[13] has been prepared in accordance with
the guidelines of ISO 2394, provides conceptual framework for
limit-states based method of evaluation and design of structures for
durability. This standard also provides framework for the development
of mathematical models to predict the service life of components
of the structure. The goal of this international standard is to ensure
that all analytical models are incorporated into the limit-states method,
the same as currently being used for the verification and design
of structures for gravity, wind, snow and earthquake actions.
This standard advocates taking the cause-and-effect process
into account in developing methods for the prediction of service
life. However, this International Standard does not address
design procedures for durability. The fib Bulletin 34: Model Code
for Service Life Design (MC SLD) (2006), [14] addresses Service
Life Design (SLD) for plain concrete, reinforced concrete and
pre-stressed concrete structures, for standardization of performance
based design approaches. ISO 16204:2012, Durability-Service life
design of concrete structures, is material specific standard based
on the principles given in ISO 2394, ISO 13823 and fib MC SLD.
This international standard treats design for environmental actions
 Sustainable And Green Construction

leading to deterioration of concrete and embedded steel. Concrete
structures are designed in accordance with national or international
codes and standards such as Indian standard IS 456, Eurocode
EN 1992-2004, Eurocode EN 206, ACI 318-2011, RILEM, JSCE etc.
The structural design focuses on the structure’s ability to resist the
mechanical load imposed on the structure whereas durability design
Reliability and failures are addressed either in probabilistic terms
or through partial factor of safety.[11, 14] Common step in durability
design are:
Step-1
Selection of realistic model describing the process (to quantify

focuses on structure’s ability to resist the environmental impact and
associated deterioration and degradation imposed on the structure
during its entire life span. Service life design methods are similar to
the load and resistance-factor design procedure used for structural
design. Modeling of environment and deterioration mechanisms is
being developed on a probabilistic basis allowing reliability based
service life design.
the deterioration and resistance provided by the concrete):
Model should incorporate the environmental actions with statistically
quantified environmental parameters (e.g. temperature, relative
humidity, splash rain events etc.). From resistance side, model should
be able to be validated by realistic laboratory experiments and by
practice in the field.
Step-2

Approaches to Durability Design of Concrete Structures Definition of limit states: against which the structure should be
The service life can be designed by using two principles: designed for. Such as depassivation of reinforcement caused by
deem-to-satisfy rules, and performance-based design. The deem-to- carbonation, cracking due to reinforcement corrosion, spalling of
satisfy rules are based on specifying a certain concrete composition concrete cover due to reinforcement corrosion, collapse due to loss
and concrete caver, but the result is not a specified service life. of cross section of the reinforcement.
Traditionally, national and international concrete
standards give requirements to achieve the
desired design service life based on the ‘deemed
to-satisfy’ and the ‘avoidance of deterioration’
approach.
The performance–based design is based on
requirements of performance of the structure,
and the result will be a long specified service
life with limit states. Service Life Design (SLD)
or Limit State Design (LSD), also known as Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is based on
approach to resist (not to avoid) deterioration
caused by environmental actions. For SLD,
quantifiable models should be available on the
Load side (Environmental Actions) and Resistance
side (Resistance of Concrete) i.e. Deterioration of
concrete, its impact on physical performance
of structure and associated uncertainty and
variability should be quantifiable. [11, 14]
Limit
State of Durability is defined as:

Time needed for the

Design value
aggressive agent to
produce a significant > of the service
life
degradation

The theory of durability design is in

principle based on the theory of safety (or
structural reliability) used in structural design. Fig. 2: Summary of Service Life Design Approaches (ISO 13823, 2008)

CE&CR April 2022 45

Sustainable And Green Construction
Step-3
Apply the models: described in step-1 to calculate the probability
that the limit states defined in step-2 above occur (determination
of the probability of occurrence) or use of appropriate partial factor
of safety on environmental loads and resistance provided by the
concrete.
Step-4
Define the type of limit states: (SLS, ULS) of the limit states described
in step 2. Depending on the type of limit state (SLS, ULS) and the
consequences of a failure.
The flow of decisions and the design activities needed in a rational
service life design process are given in fig. 2.
Partial Factor Method
The partial safety factor approach is a deterministic approach
where the probabilistic nature of the problem (scatter of material
resistance and environmental load) is taken into account by partial
safety factors. [11, 14]
To take care of possibility of unfavourable deviations of action,
design value of an action is obtained by multiplying the representative
value by the partial factor. To take care of possibility of unfavourable
deviations of materials and product properties from the representative
values, design value of material or product property is obtained by
dividing the characteristic value by a partial factor.
Deterioration Mechanism, Mathematical Modeling and Service
Life Design for Durability
A mathematical model is suitable for SLD when parameters of
the models applied and their associated uncertainty is quantifiable
by means of tests, observations and/or experience. [11, 14]
Widely accepted mathematical models exist for following
deterioration mechanisms and therefore, Service Life Design (SLD)
approach of durability design is possible and have been dealt in
ISO 16204 and fib MC SLD [11, 14]:
–– Caronation induced corrosion
–– Chloride induced corrosion
–– Freeze/thaw attack
Widely accepted mathematical models do not exist for following
deterioration mechanisms and therefore, the problem may not be
possible to address using Service Life Design (SLD) approach.[11, 14]
–– Chemical attack;
–– Alkali aggregate reactions;
–– Fatigue caused by dynamic loading and leading to time
dependent material degradation and corrosion;
–– Fatigue caused by dynamic loading and simultaneous corrosion
caused by environmental action is not treated.
46 CE&CR April 2022
In national and international concrete standards and codes,
presently, durability design for these deterioration mechanisms can
only be possible through traditional way of design i.e. “deemed to-
satisfy” or “avoidance of deterioration” approach.
Provisions in IS 456 in Comparison to International
Standard for Durability Design
So far in IS 456:2000, [15] the standard practice is to design
concrete structures on the basis of deemed to satisfy approach.
The codal provisions/clauses in the code ensures durability on
the basis of parameters like minimum cover, crack width control,
maximum spacing of rebars, minimum concrete grade, minimum
cement content, maximum w/c ratio, selection of cement and
cementitious material etc. Most of these limiting values largely
based on short-term experience obtained for significantly less severe
exposure conditions, considering a reference design life of 50 years.
In IS 456:2000, the general environment to which the concrete will
be exposed during its working life is called ‘exposure condition’
and classified as mild, moderate, severe, very severe and extreme.
Concrete mix designs are carried out in line with the prescriptive
provisions of Table 3 of IS 456:2000. This classification of exposure
condition is according to aggressiveness in general, irrespective
of aggressive agent characteristics and type of deterioration of
concrete. Unlike to IS 456:2000, The fib Bulletin 34: Model Code for
Service Life Design,(EN 1990:2002) and other International standards have
made provisions to select the design service life as produced in Table 1.
Table 1: Design Service Life Table for Different Types
of Structures
Design Service Examples
life tSL(Years)
10 Temporary structures (structures or parts of structures
that can be dismantled with a view to being re-used
should not be considered as temporary)
10 – 25 Replaceable structural parts, e.g. gantry girders,
bearings
15 – 30 Agricultural and similar structures
50 Building structures and other common structures
50-75 High rise structures, critical/important buildings such
as hospitals
100 or more Monumental buildings structures, bridges, and other
civil engineering structures
Unlike to IS 456, Eurocodes(EN 1992, EN206-1) prescribes the durability
related requirements for concrete both on the material level and on
structural level. The environmental actions are defined into different
environmental classes and intensity degrees according to the
respective deterioration mechanism as illustrated in Table 2.
 Sustainable And Green Construction

Class Description of the Informative Examples In its most recent version of ACI 318 -11, environmental actions
Designation Environment are classified into several categories. Eurocode and ACI 318 strictly
No Risk of Corrosion or Attack follow a prescriptive approach of durability design, however certain
X0 For concrete without Concrete inside buildings provisions for performance based design is also there. Unlike Eurocode
reinforcement or for with very low air humidity
very dry concrete and ACI 318, the JSCE guidelines adopts mainly a performance based
with reinforcement approach for durability design. ISO 16204: 2012 which is based on
Corrosion Induced by Carbonation the principles given in ISO 2394, General principles on reliability
XC1 Dry or permanently Concrete inside buildings for structures, ISO 13823, General principles on the design of
wet with low air humidity;
Concrete permanently structures for durability and fib “Model Code for Service Life Design”
submerged in water treats design for environmental actions leading to deterioration of
XC2 Wet, rarely dry Concrete surfaces subject concrete and embedded steel.
to long-term water contact;
foundations Durability Design Concrete against Carbonation Induced
XC3 Moderate humidity Concrete inside buildings Reinforcement Corrosion
with moderate or high air
humidity; External concrete The decrease in pH of the concrete interstitial solution linked to
sheltered from rain the penetration of atmospheric CO2 into the porosity of the concrete
XC4 Cyclic wet and dry Concrete surfaces subject is carbonation and the induced corrosion is carbonation induced
to water contact, not within
exposure class XC2 reinforcement corrosion. For the purpose of durability design,
Corrosion Induced by Chlorides Other than from Sea Water the ingress of the carbonation front is assumed to obey the following
XD1 Moderate humidity Concrete surfaces exposed equation:
to airborne chlorides
C (t) = W. K. tx
XD2 Wet, rarely dry Swimming pools; Concrete
exposed to industrial waters Where C is Depth of carbonation in mm at a given time t (in years)
containing chlorides
W is weather coefficient takes into account the varying
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry Parts of bridges exposed to
spray containing chlorides. meso-climatic conditions for the specific concrete member during
Pavements, Car park slabs the design service life, such as humidity and temperature.
Corrosion Induced by Chlorides from Sea Water
K is carbonation coefficient, a factor reflecting the basic resistance
XS1 Exposed to airborne Structures near to or on the
salt coast
of the chosen concrete mix (like water/cement ratio, cement type,

XS2 Permanently Parts of marine structures additions) under reference conditions and the influence of the basic
submerged environmental conditions (like mean relative humidity and CO2
XS3 Tidal, splash and Parts of marine structures concentration) on ingress of carbonation. It also reflects the influence
spray zones
of the execution.
Freeze/Thaw Attack
X is the exponent indicating change of rate of carbonation w.r.t
XF1 Moderate saturation, Vertical concrete surfaces
No salt (rain and freezing ) binder type.
XF2 Moderate saturation, Vertical concrete surfaces ( For the design of a new structure, the weather coefficient
Salt freezing and salt)
W can be taken in between from 0.9 to 1.25 depending upon
XF3 High saturation, No Horizontal concrete surfaces
salt (rain and freezing ) how the environmental action is conducive in the progress of
XF4 High saturation, Salt Concrete surfaces exposed carbonation front. The carbonation coefficient K might be derived
to direct spray from literature data or existing structures where the concrete
Chemical Attack
composition, execution and exposure conditions have been similar
XA1 Slightly aggressive Exposed to natural soil and
to those expected for the new structure. A relationship between
ground water
carbonation coefficient K and electrical resistivity of concrete made
XA2 Moderately Exposed to natural soil and
aggressive ground water with different type of cement may be developed experimentally
XA3 Highly aggressive Exposed to natural soil and and can be used for further design purpose. For very important
ground water
structures (Service life more than 50 year), carbonation coefficient K

CE&CR April 2022 47

Sustainable And Green Construction
shall be determined through accelerated carbonation test during
the concrete mix design stage. Time for initiation of corrosion (ti) in
years, shall be calculated using the model equation. The propagation
time (tp), which is time from initiation of corrosion to initiation
of crack shall be taken appropriately. It shall be ensured that,
tsl (design service life)≤( ti+tp).
Durability Design against Chloride Induced Reinforcement
Corrosion
The three most important variables that govern the chloride
intrusion into concrete and the corrosion of the reinforcement
are concentration of chlorides at the surface (Cs), concentration
threshold value which initiates corrosion of steel, and the transport
rate of chloride ions in the concrete cover layer[16,17,18]. The penetration
of chloride ions into concrete is a complex nonlinear dynamic
phenomenon including several transport mechanisms (ionic diffusion,
capillary sorption, permeation, dispersion, etc. The ionic diffusion is
considered to have the most dominant effect under the assumption
that concrete cover is fully saturated.
The ingress of chlorides in a marine environment may be assumed
to obey modified Fick’s second law of diffusion.
 x  Cx,t ≤ Cth ( threshold chloride content).
C ( x, t )  C s  (C s  C i )  erf  
 2  D (t )  t 
 app 
Where:
C(x, t) is the content of chlorides in the concrete at a depth
x (structure surface: x = 0 mm) and at time t [% by mass of binder];
Cs is the chloride content at the concrete surface [% by mass of binder];
Ci is the initial chloride content of the concrete [% by mass of binder];
x is the depth with a corresponding content of chlorides C(x, t) [mm];
Dapp(t) is the apparent coefficient of chloride diffusion through
concrete [mm2/year] at time t;
t is the time [years] of exposure; erf is the error function
 sea water and cements. Sulphate attack on concrete has been
t 
Dapp (t )  Dapp (t 0 ) 0 
t 
D app (t 0 ) is the apparent diffusion coefficient measured
at a reference time of t0;
α is the ageing factor giving the decrease over time of the
apparent diffusion coefficient.
Depending on the type of binder and the micro-environmental
conditions, the ageing factor is likely to lie between 0.2 and 0.8.
48 CE&CR April 2022
For the design of a new structure, the parameters Cs, Ci, α and
Dapp (t0) may be derived from existing structures where the concrete
composition, execution and exposure conditions have been similar
to those relevant for the new structure.
Design value of surface chloride content, Csd shall be taken for
different exposure classes from the existing literature. Design value
of threshold chloride content/critical chloride content may be taken
0.4% by mass of cement for concrete made with OPC and 0.3% by
mass of cement for PPC and PSC as recommended in various existing
literature. Initial Diffusion coefficient Da(t0) can be determined
from established equation between Da(t0) and W/C ratio for OPC,
PPC and PSC and then a design value of chloride diffusion coefficients
(Dd(t)) for service life (exposure period) t will be calculated. At concrete
mix design stage, for a known w/c or w/cm ratio, performance based
accelerated test such as RCPT/Electrical Resistivity shall be conducted
as applicable. For important structures, Da(t0) shall be determined
through unidirectional diffusion test, which is a long duration test.
RCPT/Electrical Resistivity shall be conducted as for determining
the values to be considered for acceptance during quality control.
The service life is determined on the basis of critical surface chloride
content and threshold chloride content value. It will be ensured that
For durability design of RC structures,
deterioration of concrete, its impact on physical
performance of structure and associated uncertainty
and variability should be quantifiable. Reliability
and failures are addressed either in probabilistic
terms or through partial factors of safety.
Durability Design against Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack is the most common chemical form of concrete
deterioration. Sulphates are commonly found in soil, aggregates,
reported to be the cause of severe damage to concrete for over
a century. Sulphate attack can lead to expansion, cracking, strength
loss, and disintegration of the concrete Sulphate attack is generally
attributed to the reaction of sulphate ions with calcium hydroxide
and calcium aluminate hydrate to form gypsum and ettringite.
IS 456 gives recommendations for the type of cement to be used,
maximum free water/cement ratio and minimum cement content
required at different sulphate concentrations in near-neutral ground
water having pH of 6 to 9. IS: 456-2000, provides conditions as well

as requirement to safeguard concrete against sulphate attack.
In case of very high sulphate concentrations i.e. Class 5 conditions,
use of lining such as polyethylene or polychloroprene sheet;
or surface coating based on asphalt, chlorinated rubber, epoxy;
or polyurethane materials have been recommended so as used to
prevent access by the sulphate solution. For durability design against
sulphate attack, national and international concrete standards
and codes, presently adopts traditional way of design i.e. “deemed
to-satisfy” or “avoidance of deterioration” approach.
Durability Design against Alkali Aggregate Reactivity (AAR)
The chemical reaction between alkali hydroxides from Portland
cement and specific category of aggregates is known as alkali
aggregate reaction. The swelling and cracking due to aggregate
alkali reaction appears after many years of construction. Even though
the deterioration due to it is a slow process but is progressive and
combined with other causes can lead to complete failure of structure.
The AAR can be subdivided to two types viz, Alkali silica reaction
(ASR) and alkali carbonate reaction (ACR). Currently, in IS: 456-2000
“deemed to-satisfy” or “avoidance of deterioration” approach is
recommended for durability design against AAR.
Durability Design against Freeze Thaw
Deterioration of concrete exposed to freezing generally occurs
when there is sufficient amount of internal moisture. The transition of
water to ice results an increase in volume. When the saturated pores
in the concrete freezes, it can cause severe cracking and disruption.
Widely accepted mathematical models exist for freeze thaw and
Service Life Design (SLD) approach of durability design against
freeze thaw can be adopted in IS: 456-2000 in similar lines to
ISO 16204 and fib MC SLD.
Conclusions
In the recent decade, owing to the ageing and often premature
deterioration of infrastructure in India, the durability design of
concrete structures has increasingly received attention. There is need
for suitable and reliable performance based approaches which can
relate to the shortcomings of the traditionally prescriptive design
methods for concrete durability. The prescriptive approach therefore
often fails to offer a rational basis for the selection of suitable materials,
design procedures, quality assurance etc. which hampers the service
life of structure. The application of a performance approach for
concrete durability shifts a large portion of the responsibility from
the design engineer to the concrete supplier and contractor,
who have to work as a team to produce a structure that meets
the required durability characteristics.
CE&CR April 2022 49
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