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  • 48- تفسير الكتاب المقدس في أبعاده المتعددة - (Christianlib.com)

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    48- تفسير الكتاب المقدس في أبعاده المتعددة - (Christianlib.com)

    Uploaded by

    Michel Baza

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    THE HERMENEUTICAL SPIRAL
    A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation

    Originally published by InterVarsity Press as The Hermeneutical Spiral


    (revised and expanded) by Grant R. Osborne. Copyright (c) 2006 by Grant R. Osborne.
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    :rta ,j*!-Jljl A Field Approach 1o Hermeneulics 52


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    Appendix I

    The Problem of Meaning

    Tup IssuBs

    Most readers of the Bible assume that it is possible to discover its intended meaning.
    Horvever, an extensive debate rages today over both the possibility and the importance
    of a critical examination of Scripture (or any other text) in order in order to ascertain its
    original message. Craig Bartholomerv speaks of a "crisis in biblical interpretation," pointing
    out that the dominant method has been historical criticism, grounded in posrEnlightenment
    modernity; but those philosophical assumptions have been radically questioned by
    postmodernity and shown to be merely traditions rather than accepted axioms of reading
    (2000:4-5). These challenges have throrvn the hermeneutical enterprise into disar:ray, for
    they have appeared from every side. Does lrcrmeneutics mean principles of interpretation
    or the act of appropriating a text's meaning for one's or'vn situation'l What is the meaning of
    meaning? These questions form the topic of this appendix.

    The process of discovering the "meaning" of a lvritten utterance has three foci: the
    author. the text and the reader.

    AUTHOR _.+ TEXT + READER

    The author "produces" a text rvhile a reader "studies" a text. Yet rvhich of the three is the
    primary force in determining its meaning? The focus has shifted from one to another of these
    as various theories of meaning have been propounded. Since an author is no longer present
    to explain the meaning of the text once it is lvritten. is the text autonomous from the author?
    And since the reader provides the grid by which the text is interpreted, what place does
    the text itself have in the process of understanding? Moreover, it is norv generally accepted

    christianlib.com

    ffiF" "qtilr
    =--- ti*

    that the very process of coming to understanding that we have all accepted must now be forth are impon":: .

    considered to be little more than another set of traditions bound by prejudices on our part in literary criricr.:
    (Bartholomew 2000:255-56). So we need a metacriticism of our very reasoning apparatusl from text to reaa-r :
    These are valid questions that demand answers. critical thinkin-c ., :
    ln 1961 the literary critic Paul de Man spoke of a similar crisis in criticism: "Well
    established rules and conventions that governed the discipline of criticism and made it a THE PROBLE]
    cornerstone of the intellectual establishment have been so badly tampered with that the entire
    The problt-:--.. :
    edifice threatens to collapse" (1971l.3). In defining this crisis, he spoke of "the incredible
    the reader tr;.:- :
    swiftness with which conflicting tendencies succeed each other," the extensive appearance -cet

    of books inaugurating "a new kind of novelle nouvelle critique," and the replacement of
    enough r.vhen ii: :i,
    philosophy by the social sciences at the helm of literary criticism (pp. 3-4).There is no sign
    slightly differer.: :e:
    that this incredible productivity is waning, and one is bervildered to discover that by the my wife and I ',r .. :
    time news appears regarding a "new" school, someone is already writing that the movement the problem frt ::- - -
    is pass6. In the appendixes of this book I hope to make sense of the scene and to attempt actually begin rc, ,. -
    a possible map for finding our way out of the maze to the kind of "field approach" that from biblical Iir:-:. :

    John Dominic Crossan suggested a few years back when things seemed so much simpler exist when the te:-,: .:
    (1917:39-49). The tendencr i. : .:
    that re-create: ::.; :
    The problem is indeed a serious one. Some have charged proponents of a readeroriented
    exceedingll dii:;-.:"
    criticism with undue skepticism, but the difficulties of objective interpretation are far too
    great for such a charge to be valid. The simple fact is that all of us read a text on the basis
    a cultural and the, .:
    of our own background and proclivities. It is not only impossible but dangerous to put our
    understandin-s i. : :'
    knorvledge and theological tradition aside as rve study a biblical text. That very knowledge of the problem , : ::-
    provides categories for understanding the text itself. At the same time, hor,vever, these creeds: thel be;-::
    traditions have potential for controlling the text and determining its meaning. This constitutes belief and idenr:i .

    reader-response interpretation- meaning produced by the reader rather than by the text. As a reading paradr::. :
    Werner Jeanrond says, texts are not so much objectively understood as they are read anerv truth but contbrr-.,:, :

    in each situation, a dynamic process that is often open-ended and produces a new image of Hans Frei h,. --
    reality in the act ofreading (1988:11-12).
    century.2 Biblic;. .-:
    The point I wish to argue is not whether this is ever the case; any observer has to admit text-oriented an. :. l
    that it is usuaily so. But I do challenge whether thrs mttst or even should be the case. This the issue has \ur:i-.:
    is the task of hermeneutics, not only to determine principles for interpretation but also to cast of hermener*:.-. :
    delineate the proper goal(s) of interpretation. Kevin Vanhoozer calls meaning a "theological historical-critica, :-. :-.
    phenomenon" and the hermeneutical task "a theology of interpretation" (1998;9-10). He interpretation in .:.
    argues for the "ethics of meaning," that is, the morality of seeking what the text \,vants to was rendered in-.:, ..
    convey. The thesis of these appendixes rvill support the priority and possibility of determining hermeneutical :v. .t- I'
    the author's intended meaning as the true core of biblical intelpretation. accessibility of ri: ::..
    Hermeneutics originated as a biblical discipline. Yet many fields of study have ofunderstandins,:'= :
    provided input. Until recent decades the primary influence rvas alr,vays philosophy. Then significance of th:. .-
    with structuralism, linguistics came to the fbre, and at the present time literary criticism creator of meanin: :,-:
    has seemingly assumed the throne. Of course. no single force is behind the hermeneutical an individual seit-;-.-
    enterprise, and each of these disciplines as rvell as sociology, anthropology, psychology and so now seen as entir.., ::

    1
    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    . :-.i::.\1 must now be forth are imporlant. Jane Tompkins provides a helpful summary of the historical development
    .' :-:. -.:i,e: on our part in literary criticism (1980:ix-xxvi). She describes the evolution ofthe focal center ofinterest
    ll" i:-r.,.lrllII9 apparatus! from text to reader to response, and it is illuminating to discover the parallels between literary
    critical thinking and biblical hermeneutics. I will trace this basic pattern.
    :... .:rtr.i:m: "Well
    -:: -.. t'. .ind made it a THE PROBLEM OFTHE READERAND THE TEXT
    rtr:;- ,..ri^. that the entire The problem of interpretation begins and ends with the presence of the reader. How does
    .l- r.; 'r "the incredible
    the reader get back to the perspective and message of an ancient text? The problem is difflcult
    - -.;,'., .1
    3 .. ,. r e appearance
    enough when we try to interpret one another in oral communication, for each of us has a
    :- - '1.: -cplueement Of
    slightly different perspective, and we use the same terms but with different content. Often
    ; :--: There is no sign my wife and I will discuss an issue for some time before we realize that we are looking at
    t. j '.,'\er that by the
    -:.- : t.'.,: :Itc nto\ement the problem from quite different vantage points. Only when we align our perspectives do we

    :-: .-::: -1nd to attempt actually begin to communicate. When we multiply this by two thousand years of development
    ,-- : ..: .lpproach" that from biblical times to the current period and by the fact that the culture of the Bible ceased to
    exist when the temple was destroyed inA.D.70, the problem becomes almost insurmountable.
    =:^'-- - r'tlUr'h simpler
    The tendency is to read modern issues back into the text, and a purely objective approach
    that re-creates the original situation without recourse to the modern preunderstanding is
    : a::. : .r reirrieroriented
    exceedingly difficult, indeed impossible.r The act of interpretation itself is done from within
    li;lll;.rlltrll afe faf tOO
    a cultural and theological framework.In fact, this framework is both positive and necessary if
    -:- - .. :-'\l rrn the basis
    understanding is to take place. Yet where does that leave the text? Anthony Thiselton speaks
    I-l -:"i.rirLl: to put our
    r.t I:-.,: '.er\ knowledge of the problem of tradition when biblical texts "become assimilated into the function of
    "r3 '. :- J . :],-,ri er er. these creeds: they become primarily institutional mechanisms to ensure continuity of corporate
    belief and identity" (1992:8-9). This is usually the case, in fact. People read Scripture within
    r:i:i- -i. Tnis constitutes
    a reading paradigm dominated by the denomination of which they are a part. They don't seek
    :'.,'.ii i..:rr br the text. As
    rl :. .-r'. .rrc read anew truth but conformity to their assumed theological position.
    'l .j-,r'. .r ne\\ ima_ge Of Hans Frei has shown most persuasively that this issue is hardly new to the twentieth
    century.2 Biblical scholars throughout history have struggled with the difflculty of literal or
    : " :.J:. ir has to admit text-oriented and nonliteral or cultural/theological approaches to the Bible. Nevertheless,
    ' -i thr' Ca:e. This the issue has surfaced in a new way in the last three decades. Frei states that the apologetic
    l.l:t.:-:i-:llrrlt but alSO tO cast ofhermeneutics has until recently eclipsed a realistic approach to namative because "the
    "theological
    ' : .* r:._: i1 historical-critical method was a powerful antidote to a serious consideration of narrative
    ,i r . e9S:9- 10). He interpretation in its orvn right" (1974:141; see pp. 124-54).In short, a true hermeneutics
    ', l.;i il3 te\t \\'ants tO was rendered impossible by an approach that failed to let the text speak for itself. The
    .- . :., i.itletermining hermeneutical switch from the text to the individual resulted from a switch of focus from the
    :_ : accessibility of the text (in terms of method for interpreting a text) to inquiry into the structure
    of understanding itself.3 The focus of interest has thus shifted from the text to the self, and the
    ] :-: -. r.i study have
    r",.., . nhrlosophy. Then significance ofthis shift is still being explored. The result is that the reader is now seen as the
    -.i :.::: lrterar\ criticism creator of meaning rather than the text, and the act of "coming to understanding" has become
    E: ,'r i ::a herrneneutical an individual self-discovery more than a process of decoding textual meaning. The author is
    f.,. . -.. . r>\ chology and so now seen as entirely removed from the text or the discovery of meaning.

    christianlib.com
    I . Author-centered henneneutics. Friedrich Schleiermacher ( 1768- 183,1) is the father approach inc:r.- -: .,

    of modern hermeneutics. For him the purpose of interpretation is the reconstruction of trvo-prongeti :.' :- :.: -:

    the author's original message. Interpreters. through historical and critical reflection on ofthe post.tr",:,:- -:
    the text, align themselves rvith that intended meaning. Schleiermacher wedded the spirit
    It $oul.l :J -.:.'-
    of the Enlightenment to the process of interpretation by escher.ving a dogmatic approach
    distinct er olu:. : :
    and treating the Bible like any other book. A German pietist and Lutheran preacher,
    century. the :.:. -
    Schleiermacher nevertheless refused to allow his philosophical system to triumph over his --:
    form and te\tr:. I
    religious consciousness. His response was to wed idealism (rvhich teaches that reality is
    intrinsic &pprrr:.: : --
    determined by the rational process) with romanticism. rvhich led Schleiermacher to say that
    the interprete: I-.
    religious faith is grounded in the feeling of absolute dependence on God. Yet for him this
    the scene thlr:. . : :
    "f'eeling" was a function of the intellect, and his hermeneutical system reflects this. The key
    much more u -. - .. .
    _,
    to interpretation, he believed, is a common ground of understanding betr'veen subject and
    path of reade:' : --': -
    object, between reader and text.a
    This is flot ttr .: '.-:t I

    Schleiermacher's system has two major factors, the grammatical and the psychological, a number tri,,--: -- , '
    rvhich correspond to the trvo spheres of knowledge-the external linguistic codes and the philosophie;r1,,.
    =: --.
    internal consciousness. Grammatical inquiry attempts to develop the linguistic dimension by reader. r&thc-: l::- -,,
    demarcating the meaning of individual concepts on the basis of the surrounding words. He
    Inreceni.:: - -*-
    rvas ahead of his time in demanding that meaning be seen in the r'vhole. not in isolated parts.
    Methol trpi::-:-.
    Yet he is best knor,vn for the psychological aspect. Schleiermacher taught that the interpreter
    .- . -:'
    three ntor e nrr''-
    should align himseif with the mind of the author and re-create the whole thought of the text
    emer-ring fro:: l '.-.
    as part of the author's life. The interpreter's task then is to reconstruct not only the text but -

    understandin-:.:-- -:
    the r.vhole process of creating the thought on the part of the author.
    and radical l::.-:-.: -:
    Wilhelm Dilthey ( 1 833- 1 91 1) takes this psychological approach to its logical conclusion. the "Nen Hr'r--'.:--:-- -
    Interpretation for him involves the union of subject and object in a historical act of "fusion ol hi': .' - -
    understanding. Dilthey called this the "rediscovery of the I in the Thou," by which he meant the thought r't ti: :i:
    that a person discovers his or her self in the act of reading (1969:235) . For this reason Dilthey "Being" ratirr': :. r- -
    r,vrote his Critique of Historical Reason as a corrective to Kant by developing a system that
    united science and life, theory and praxis. The process of understanding is a historical process of interpretal., . , ': - -
    that seeks objective knorvledge of an author's meaning. From Schleiemacher he borrorved uith the te\i .:- . :. r-:
    the idea of readers identifying with authors but went furlher by positing the possibility the author': r:'::::
    that readers are in a position to understand the meanings of texts better than the authors has underson; : r. - j
    themselves. Since readers intersect authors' minds from outside and bring to bear many Ianguage br, l:.: :r':*: -

    techniques. they can recreate meanings that go deeper than the authors themselves realized
    In other '.'. , -
    (see Bleicher 1980:19-26 for a good discussion).
    Romans - lr:- P- :l
    This approach has obvious weaknesses, and ferv have follorved Schleiermacher or Dilthey me in mr pr-.r-:: - :--
    this far. By making the author, more than the text, central to the hermeneutical process, they states. "To u::-.-:-:.: :
    have moved beyond the possible bounds of hermeneutical theory. They have been guilty of to have a pr3-::.: - '
    reductionism by simplifying a complex process of understanding into a psychologistic study be under:tt.'c .- .
    of the author. nriting ha. ie:,-..:
    2. The movement away from author-text: Gadamer. However, with the rise of the tiee fbr Df \\ ir' :i : --
    dialectical movement via Karl Barth and especially Rudolf Bultmann, this historical determinatrr-: : -:-'

    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    approach increasingly came under attack. Here I will attempt to chronicle the attack from a
    -. :-, :i-,.':l\trUCtiOn Of two-pronged perspective, the phenomenology of Heidegger and Gadamer and the semiotics
    i.,J -: :.,-:. :cdection on of the poststructuralist school.
    l;- I : r .1 .'.:;ed the Spifit
    It would be instructive before I begin, however, to compare rvith this the parallel but
    - ::rrlii approach
    distinct evolution of literary criticism. Similar to Schleiermacher's influence at the turn of the
    ::rer-en preacher,
    century. the school of New Criticism dominated from 1930- 1960. With an emphasis on the
    r-r:lrph over his
    form and texture of the text rather than on its historical dimensions, the Ner,v Critics took an
    rr i:-:--r. ihat reality is
    intrinsic approach to the text that failed to consider adequately the subjective involvement of
    ir-: : :;--,r,he r to Say that
    the interpreter. The onset of phenomenological and structuralist concerns appeared later on
    ,:1r- \cttbrhimthis
    the scene than in biblical studies but accomplished a reorientation of the literary discipline
    c: ::.::.:. this. The key
    much more quickly, to the extent that literary criticism has now moved further along the
    -:-. .: iJn subject and
    .,,
    path of reader-oriented dynamics than has biblical hermeneutics (see Detweiler 1980:3-23).
    This is not to say that the school of New Criticism has been replaced. Indeed, it has spawned
    : :- - i-.-: P\\ Chological, a number of off-shoots, such as the neo-Aristotelian "Chicago School" with its stress on a
    . r: - - .: - aLrdes and the philosophically grounded "mimesis" or "imitation." Yet the scene today is controlled by the
    i r: - --. ':r. dintension by reader, rather than by text-oriented approaches.
    : --- .,::-ing \\'ords. He
    . .: . . .. r.,rlltet.l parts. In recent criticism we must begin r'vith Hans-Georg Gadamer, whose magisterial Truth and
    :-i .. i r.:i thr. interpreter Methodtypified the word-event theologians of the post-Bultmannian school. Thiselton posits
    ,i: : .:-. ,L!ht of the text three movements that led to "radical metacriticism": a sense of "radical historical linitude
    :*-' : ,l1r the text but emerging from Dilthey to Heidegger"; "the constitutive role of language" in the process of
    understanding; and the unease and struggle as hermeneutics intersected the social sciences
    and radical literary ideas (1992:318). What Ernst Fuchs and Gerhard Ebeling (founders of
    :. :..t1 conclusion. the "New Hermeneutics" school) label the "hermeneutical circle" is seen by Gadamer as the
    - -, :i.trrrtcal act of "fusion of horizons," namely, the horizon of the text and that of the interpreter. Building on
    . ^., hich he meant
    ',.1
    the thought of the later Heidegger, Gadamer argues that language is grounded in our very
    ' -: . r.a\on Dilthey "Being" rather than just in our thought life, and thus both language and text are autonomous
    : : i. :l a S) Stem that
    .
    entities with a life of their orvn (see Thiselton 1980:321 -56 for an excellent survey). The act
    ',, ::..l..rical process
    of interpretation does not so much unlock the past meaning of the text as establish a dialectic
    -',,-.-r: he borrorved rvith the text in the present. The psychologistic attempt (of Dilthey and others) to ascertain
    . : -.-: ,he possibility
    the author's intention is not a part of this, Gadamer argues , for in the act of rvriting "mean ing
    :::r- .:-..in thC aUthOrS has undergone a kind of selfalienation" and must be "stated anew" or rear.vakened to spoken
    r :-. r: tL) bear many language by the reader (l 975:354-55).
    - :: l::'..!'l\eS realized
    In other rvords, when I study those passages where Paul reflects on his past life- such as

    . jher or Dilthey
    - ::r-.-r
    Romans 7 and Phitippians 3
    - I do not study Paul but the texts he r,vrote, and the texts speak to
    me in my present situation rather than re-create the original author's past situation. Gadamer
    -' -"..! :ii process. they
    states, "To understand it does not mean primarily to reason one's rvay back into the past, but
    ..,, e been
    -euilty
    of to have a present involvement in what is said" (p. 353). This is because "texts do not ask to
    ,...rologisticstudy be understood as a living expression of the subjectivity of their writers.... What is flxed in
    writing has detached itself from the contingency of its origin and its author and made itself
    ::- ,,. r:i the rise Of the free for nerv relationships" (pp.356-57). The language ofthe text as presently constituted is
    -::..: :r. this historical determinative for meaning.

    christianlib.com
    ffi
    Yet at the same time, Gadamer insists, interpretation is not an "action of one's
    subjectivity" but historical act, a "placing of oneself within a process of tradition, in which
    a
    past and present are constantly fused" (p. 258). The key is the "temporal distance" between
    subject (interpreter) and object (text); this allorvs one to sift the preunderstanding or historical

    ##il
    tradition so as to select only those aspects that prove meaningful in understanding the text.

    Contrary to the Enlightenment's negative appraisal of preunderstanding as a barrier to


    interpretation, Gadamer makes it a positive factor, indeed the key to true understanding. Here 'uu*u* rfir'{
    Gadamer's use of "preunderstanding" is similar to Schleiermacher's: it is the common ground *rrulmrmur,,gr{
    between the interpreter and the world of the text, that store of knowledge which allows one ,** ,*,*,OUmrdffi{
    to grapple with the ideas in the text. The interpreter's prejudgments inteffogate the text and
    are interrogated in turn by the text. Thereby subjectivity and objectivity merge together, and
    interpretation becomes application as new horizons of possibility are opened.s In short, both
    text and interpreter take part in the historical process of interpretation. The openness of the
    text is paralleled by the openness of the reader and the historically conditioned horizons of
    both merge in the act of coming to understanding. Most importantly for Gadamer this process
    . : .. 1,:lYtdJ:imtxlil
    occurs in the present and cannot be controlled by the past subjective component of authorial
    "::.u.-J:: . .! tuLlullli
    intention.
    li-r" ,.u. - ,, d
    Gadamer follows Heidegger in orienting all understanding to language: understanding '"r..,i:.-
    comes not so much through the "methods" of interpretation (as in the classical schools of
    ,,.r tmfi
    hermeneutics) as in the act of "disclosure" (or "truth") within communication. Fufthermore,
    it is an aesthetic experience and occurs more readily in oral than in written speech. In the ",ll:'-' .-,:;," ::llil lM[
    1 ..N. , ,".,- *'.,lti,!]qGilil
    former one has a ready-made context within which to interpret the communication. With a
    'r ::iL 'r , llir'1llru*ll
    "text," however, the past thought world is missing, and the message is open to the subjective
    "lllr[. r'*::itiU" mMEfl
    perspective of the reader. The only solution is the universal basis of language. The interpreter
    comes to the text aware of his preunderstanding and utilizes it to ask questions of it. The .1li,'nmtd
    thought world of the text opens itself up and in the dialogue that follows reshapes the ,:.,*ru.:lruur,m::inumm'fl
    questions of the interpreter. This is Gadamer's version of the hermeneutical circle, called the * :Inr ;lut$ItruilMil
    "fusion" ofhorizons. The past (the text) and the present (the interpreter) merge. **':-i !r,:',,iilli]]li!,liJil
    -"tll!." mt :uL3llltf-tl
    It is important to realize here that Gadamer never denies the place of objective or scientific
    method. Rather, he argues that it can provide only a degree of certainty and can never truly re- r r ''rr..1 3Lu m[fU(f
    *1 *":u :-':m: ffiffn
    create the "intended" or "original" meaning of the text. There are not two (interpretation and il,.- m"

    understanding) or three (with application) separate aspects in the hermeneutical enterprise .l{!': :"lr l:Tx'flirwlliiG'il
    but rather one single act of "coming-to-understanding." Past and present are fused together. :''rUl -tll::U:..*,- J@( '&
    One cannot interpret "God so loved the world" merely from the Johannine perspective; John I i'r -.' I * llllll&
    3:1 6 is always considered from the perspective of one's present experience of divine love.

    In sum, Gadamer's aesthetic hermeneutic moves from the author and the text to a union
    of text and reader, with roots in the present rather than in the past. Gadamer has correctly seen , ,,u;lmu0 I
    the place of the reader in the hermeneutical process and the fact that the subject is always , 'l ,-,.,,,,,,,1,tti xilfiffi
    present in the study of the object. His "fusion of horizons" is an important correction to the f i" Llllt- ')tr flm@
    psychologist school. Yet there are several weaknesses inherent to this theory. As is true also
    of the New Hermeneutic, it is not so clear how Gadamer avoids the danger of subjective r - .. ,u"- ." 1:r: [!tr

    8
    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    .-l :r "iJtl0n of one's interpretation. For him there are two controls against subjectivity-the past horizon of the
    l:- : :-i-liiun. in rvhich text and the present community of the interpreters (the "tradition" that challenges subjective
    r r:. t..'.-rncc" between interpretations). However, there are no clear criteria for avoiding subjectivism. In fact, each
    -::-:-.- -::1_L r)r hiStOriCal moment of reading can produce a new and innovative understanding.
    -: ::r.:rriing the text. In addition, Gadamer does not develop a method for distinguishing true from false
    l.i:" i. t-t l: a barrier to interpretation. As Jeanrond points out, "systematically distorted communication" can
    ir-; - r. *:-r>tifl din,e. Here twist the meaning of the text (1988:14-16, 22-37; see also Thiselton 1980:314-16), but
    .: :. .:.. -,-\mmon ground Gadamer develops no criteria for noting inadequate understandings. Furthermore, he has
    ,.;-_.: ,,,:.:lh alloivs one an uncritical view of the role of the reader in intelpretation. It is difficult to see how he can
    ' .1:.- i-1te the text and avoid polyvalence (multiple meanings) since each present situation or perspective is free to
    '.. ^..:r3 t0gether. and
    ,: guide the text wherever it wishes. Anarchy could easily be the result. Vanhoozer points out
    e l,:: :-' In short. both that in such a method there can never be "one formula for hermeneutical fusion" because
    .,: l:r .,r!'nrless of the understanding is dominated by the differing horizons ofthe readers (1998:106-7).
    - - ;J horizons of
    :
    Finally, Gadamer gives tradition an uncritical role in the act of coming to understanding.
    t- I l--:i-:;:tc'r this process
    As E. D. Hirsch points out, "The reader rvho follows the path of tradition is right, and the
    : .L --.: :r3nt rli authorial
    reader r,vho leaves this path is wrong" (1967:250). However, there is no stability in this
    approach. for tradition is ever developing and changing depending on the community and
    ,:- . --.: lndcrstanding the data.
    '-l: -.-:..;!ri schools of
    -.-- - Moreover, this results in a radical change in the definition of truth since it would differ
    - Furthcrmore.
    .:. .i: ::i:-. :pcech. ln the depending on the tradition that develops it. Truth would have no universal or absolute basis
    that would bridge from one community to another. While this may indeed be the case, it does
    - 1'::--:l.JrtiOn. with a
    .: :,:':- :.,the subjective not have to be so, and in these appendixes I will attempt to establish the viability of seeking
    .r-. -:_.3. The rnterpreter the original intended meaning of a text.
    :)t. * -..iir)n5 of it. The 3. Structuralism. In France structuralism filled the vacuum left by a growing
    :n: : . .,.. reshapes the disenchantment rvith Sartrian existentialism; in biblical studies it fllled a similar void caused
    r,.-l -:. ,:rcle. called the by the disenchantment of many scholars with the results of form and redaction criticism.6
    Current biblical criticism, proponents of structuralism argue, is preoccupied with the historical
    i r: :..,:t\ e or scientillc traditions rather than with genre and plot development and as a result has produced an impasse
    :.. -- , -:'t nc\ cr truly re- in which the interpreter is unable to cross the chasm between meaning and significance.
    tr: :." ::'tsrpretation and Historical truth (Geschichte) rs sacrificed on the altar of history (Historie). Structuralism
    n,i :::r ; I: t..t i alil enterprise takes the opposite pole and argues that such diachronic (historicist) interests are a barrier to
    "ixri :r: iused together. true meaning and that the interpreter must consider only the synchronic (literary) presence
    i::. : : :er\pective; JOhn of the text as a whole.
    c:.-':.: ,.i dir ine love. A movement furlher away from the priority of the author and text occurs within
    , I :i i ile te\t to a union structuralism, or more accurately the poststructuralist school of semiotics.T The Russian
    il:n::-.3: : j\ Comectly Seen formalist Vladimir Propp developed a formal "grammar" of narrative in 1928 in his study
    r": .:.: .ubject is always of Russian folktales, showing how the common elements of the story (hero, villain, etc.)
    '-3 r::i l aorrection tO the controlled the interaction of the plot and generated meaning. Claude Levi-Strauss in the
    ir: '.ii,\rl, . As is true also 1950s was the true "father of structuralism" (Kurzweil's term). Although he was more the
    Ll3 l:r-.lir of subjective popularizer than the creator ofthe school, he developed the system that we know today. Two

    christianlib.com
    - v
    pilmary sources influenced him. First, Ferdinand de Saussure (1915) distinguished between ilr
    langtre (the language system) and parole (the individual speech act) and between the signifier ", -..,i[t{[!

    (the image) and the signifled (the concept behind it) in language. Aterm like /ove, for instance,
    means quite ditTerent things not only in various cultures but even to individuals within the
    same culture. It is not easy to move from the signifier (love) to the signilied (sacriflcial " ;.,ii

    giving, strong affection or lust) in a given speech act.

    Second, Roman Jacobson's formal system of binary opposites argues that a polarity
    exists betrveen metaphor (the vertical relationship or association between a term and its
    literal meaning) and metonymy (the horizontal or sequential relationships betrveen linguistic
    concepts, which lead to r'vord combinations). To use the same illustration (love), there is a
    tension betrveen the semantic range of the metaphor and its speciflc use in the individual set
    of word combinations within a speech act. One must decipher the code behind the surface
    relationships of the words, and often these are contradictory. Only then can one "understand"
    the "meaning."

    From this base Levi-Strauss forged his theory that linguistic phenomena must be
    understood not in the sense of conscious but unconscious meaning determined not by
    individual terms but by the unconscious systems within which they are encoded or found
    ( 1963: 1 :32-34'). A structuralist will not be interested in the surface message of Romans 5:8

    but in the underlying codes of Romans 5 and the hidden message behind the surface text.
    The interpreter must apply general laws to this closed system of signs in order to determine
    the deep structure or unconscious (mythopoetic) meaning underlying the surface structure.

    For structuralists the human mind structures thought via a closed system of signs or
    codes that are organized according to universal patterns in the brain. These patterns bridge
    from one culture to another and basically determine the writer's view of reality (worldview).

    Therefore. this system subsists at the subconscious level. Meaning has both horizontal
    (syntagm) and verlical (paradigm) aspects, with the syntagm representing the thought
    development r.vithin the surface context and the paradigm the thought world to which each
    idea corresponds. The interpreter studies the structure of all the elements in the rvork taken
    as a whole; these elements become the clue or "code" that points to the deeper meaning
    structure behind the writer's surface words.8 In the many books and Semeia articles devoted
    to an application of these principles, the story as a whole is first of all decomposed or broken
    up into its basic narrative units (called "actants"). Then these units are examined in terms
    ofthe structural codes or namative sequence in the actantial (narrative sequence) units; this
    yields the composition or structure of the configuration of the codes. Finally, the structure
    is recomposed on the basis of transformational rules (follor.ving Chomsky), from which the
    underlying message for today is determined.

    This school is very confusing to the general reader (indeed to most scholars!). Perhaps an
    illustration-again from John 3-would help. The structuralist would deny that the surface
    statement from John 3:16 can impart the text's meaning to the individual. Rather one must
    consult the entire dialogue between Jesus and Nicodemus in John 3:l-15, in particular the

    10
    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    :r.tr ngLrrshed betrveen binary codes of the above (Jesus) and the below (Nicodemus), then further apply these to
    {,j tr't\\ r'e fl the signifier the editorial addition of John 3:16-21, with its own codes of sending-receiving, judgment-
    r ,..' ,', ,1 ,, . tbr instance.
    :
    salvation, believe-reject, light-darkness and truth-evil. These symbols are then deciphered to
    . .:-.', iduals rvithin the discover the deep structure or underlying message and then transformed on the basis of the
    :: : .ri:trrlc.d ( sacrificial codes of our or'vn day. The background or the surface grammar does not speak, but rather the
    oppositions within the text itself communicate meaning. These, moreover, speak directly to
    every reader.
    : rr:.1e. that a polarity
    :€:'",,-ian a term and its For structuralists one cannot utilize a diachronic approach to the text in order to delineate
    .i.1. rir\\ een linguistic what it meant in the past but must take a synchronic approach in order to decipher what
    li::. :t lrr\e). there iS a it means in the present. Therefore, this method (like phenomenological approaches) is
    !'. r: t:e individual set unconcerned with the author's intended meaning and seeks only to uncover the structure
    : .;: r:rind the surface behind the rvriter's expressed thought, the "common world" of the underlying codes that
    ll -: i L,ne "understand" address us directly. Since appearances do not lead to reality, the interpreter can enter this
    common world only by uncovering the structures behind the whole rather than behind the
    parls, the plot development and plurisigniflcation (many meanings) of the text rather than the
    -:ac:lrllllena mUSt be
    past meaning of the surface statements.
    ::.: ,-:e.errnined not by
    ; i:. ;Iaoded Or found In addition, structuralism opposes the stress on the subject or self proposed by
    T:..-:i;' oi Romans 5:8 phenomenology or existentialism. Humankind is seen as a rvhole rather than as individuals.
    :(: :i t:e surface text. and the universal laws of the mind are said to structure reality in such a way that the individual
    -.. .: .t-.ler to determine "is automatically devalued insofar as human thought functions everylvhere according to the
    : ::J .-r-iaae structure. same logic" (Harari 1979:20). Experience and reality are no longer continuous but must
    be reordered or structured in terms of a deeper meaning, hidden from one's perception of
    ,:--* . , \tL-r-n Of signS or
    phenomena. Thus one constructs models or code structures that go beneath the perceived
    : T..:..- patterns bridge
    world to its underlying true nature. "There is, therefore, a discontinuity, a break betrveen the
    : :,: i:\ [r'orldview).
    diversity of the real and the formal abstraction of the structure that signifies it, the movement
    -r.i i-,. both horizontal from one to the other implying a passage from diversity to simplicity, from the concrete to
    l:r":rtt:tS the thought the abstract" (0.ZZ1.
    i: , :..t to rihich each
    A dissatisfaction rvith basic structuralist concerns arose quite quickly, and inherent
    l.:::. ::t the \\'ork taken weaknesses in the system led to what is now called "poststructuralism." In fact. it is now
    : : .: Jeeper meaning often stated that structuralism per se has been superseded or is even "dead." replaced first
    -{. ,,;, ... rnicles devoted
    by semiology (the early Barthes) and then by semiotics (Derrida and the later Barthes).e It
    ::. :lprr:ed or broken
    r'vould be helpful here to summarize the weaknesses of the earlier structuralism that led to
    ;: :r.irnrned in terms this shift:ro
    '": .r'-L-iltCe ) units; this
    . F.:t,,llr. the structure L A preoccupation rvith linguistics and a failure to lay a secure philosophical foundation.
    r-..r. , . irrrm rvhich the This is considered to be one of the major distinctions betr.veen the old structuralism anil
    the poststructuralists; all the other difflculties are connected.

    ': .::l,,-.1r\:). Perhaps an 2. Adenial of history. Many poststructuralists realize that aradical denial of history leads to
    ,; J::-.\ that the surface the dissolution ofmeaning. The progress ofideas dare not be replaced by a concern only
    ::-.,. Rather one must for the moment, lest understanding itself be lost.
    ; ,- . -i. in pafiicular the 3.The loss of human freedom. If individuality is replaced by a closed system of codes,

    1t

    christianlib.com
    determinism results. There is no meaning in the individual; understanding adheres only in
    the group mindset. This is too great a price to pay.

    4. Overstatement of the place of a closed system of sign codes and of binary dualism. They
    have extended partial truths to covering laws. Most today reject rigid views of a closed or
    universal system of lar,vs and recognize that while the human mind does at times employ
    semantic opposition (such as good-evil, light-darkness), thought structures cannot be
    forced into so limited a category. -,"-rd
    flti{I
    5. A reductionistic tendency. The system forces the ideas and plots of a text into arlificial
    -:" dl
    theoretical constructs and ignores the complexities of individual surface expressions.
    JXU
    Today poststructuralists realize that the school is more an ideology than a science and
    l-, -- --'- -:,r-t5
    that it yields tentative classifications (what Barlhes calls a "hypothetical model") rather
    than covering laws.
    prtrr ides onlr i-,:-:-"
    rehind the :t0r'. ' .: ,
    6. Failure to recognize the necessary link between deep narative syntax and surface
    structure semantics. The surface structure determines the underlying principles, and
    usually the deep structure is based on conscious rather than unconscious meaning. There
    is inadequate evidence for the separate existence of "deep structures" in the mind.

    7. The difficulty of the quest for a text's world representation. It is not so easy to determine
    how universal truths can be discovered by means of the sign system, since the normal
    hermeneutical principle of mimesis or imitation is ignored in favor of the synchronic
    moment. The results of structuralist interpretation are even more subjective and diverse
    than those of historical criticism.

    8. The radical denial of intentionality. The refusal to consider a text's historical horizon or
    context actually denies the synchrony ofthe text itself, since it arose in a past era. not out
    of the modern era. Saussure's distinction between langue and parole hardly demanded so
    radical a step.

    4. Poststructuralism. There is a growing realization that structuralism itself can discuss -:,
    L
    i-
    .;:..:
    - - -
    -

    only how a text communicates meaning, not what or why it does (see Perpich 1984; Harari
    1979:22-23). The lack of a rigorous methodology has thereby led to a reappraisal. One of
    the first attempts has been to wed poststructuralist concerns and phenomenology, primarily
    aligned with the work of Paul Ricoeur. This movement has been influential to the extent that
    Norman Petersen concluded his article "Literary Criticism in Biblical Studies" by coining
    the term "phenomenological semiotics" (1980:42) to cover what I will label "the ner,v literary
    criticism." The key shift is the movement from the signs embedded into the text to the reader
    as the generator of meaning. So the new semiotic movement has turned from the signs
    themselves to the perception of those signs in the mind of the reader.

    Robert Detweiler (1978), Petersen (1978) and Edgar McKnight (1978) simultaneously
    attempted to bring together the formerly opposed disciplines of historicalcritical study and
    structuralist concerns. The hermeneutical problem relates both to extrinsic concerns (relating
    the text to other similar texts) and to intrinsic methods (dealing with the text itself). Since

    t2

    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    language is a direct semantic system and the meaning of the surface level determines the deep
    structure message, the "intentionality" of the consciousness as deflned by phenomenology is
    ::..:,. Jualism. They essential. Only by "bracketing" or considering the surface or conscious meaning can one get
    \ of at the reality behind it.
    . .:'',. a closed or
    -;-. -rI tintes employ The phenomenological perspective dealing with man's existence and perception of the
    .:-.. tJres cannot be world is wedded to the poetic dimension (Jacobsen). The resultant interaction with the text
    as text is made possible by the perspective of Ricoeur's "second naivet6," a "postcritical"

    .: tr'rt irlto artificial attitude that allows one to enter the imaginative thought world of the aesthetic work. The
    biblical rvriter(s) and original readers are bracketed, and the intelpreter speaks only of the
    -.::.rce e.rpressions.
    "implied author" and the "implied reader" (see pp. 203-4,211-12). The text speaks for itself.
    i:..ln a science and
    The author and reader cannot be known with certainty. One has only the text and the author
    ..-,1 nrcldel") rather
    provides only glimpses of himself, primarily via the "narrator" who becomes the presence
    behind the story and the actual source of information. He is the visible element in the text.
    r'": at,1\ and Surface
    .,.

    !.i:i,. i.. onnciples, and A further result is "polyvalence," or "plurisignification" (multiple meanings). Since the
    perspective of the reader is crucial for the interpretation, polyvalence naturally results when
    r.:., -. rneaning. There
    various contemporary worldviews are employed to examine the grid of the text. Susan Wittig's
    .::: ,:l t:e nlind.
    programmatic essay "A Theory of Multiple Meanings" follows the poststructuralist essays
    -, : . 3,1>\ to determine
    in Semeia 9 interpreting the parable of the prodigal son from the perspectives of Freudian
    ' ::ir:. inae the normal
    .
    psychoanalysis, Jungian archetypes and strict structuralism. She argues that the situation
    :".: :thesvnchronic as it is (that readings of a text by different individuals produce a multiplicity of meanings)
    : .-r .-tl\e and diverse demands a theory to explain the phenomenon (1911:84-92). She then suggests a semiotic
    approach to both reader and text, and states that this demonstrates that ultimate signi{icance is
    ..,)rlaal horizon or derived not merely from the interplay of the linguistic text but from a "second-order system."
    ,- >. : ; p,tSt era. not out This system involves an unstated signilicance that compels the interpreter to complete it.
    .'::rr Since readers complete the meaning of the text within the constraints of the surface structure
    demanded so
    itself, their mind or belief system determines the unstated signified (the meaning of the text)
    more than the signifier/text itself. The analytic system employed "generates" or reshapes the
    r.. : .:- . t..- lf c an discuss interplay of text and interpreter, and plural meanings result-meanings determined not by the
    = !:;..'h 198;1; Harari text but by its dialogue with various faith communities.
    .,, : ::':tCt&iSal. One Of
    l: :'.:trrlrrg\ . primarily
    .'
    John Dominic Crossan follorvs Wittig's article with his "Metamodel for Polyvalent
    i3ri r irr the extent that Narration" (1911l.119-21 ,133-34). Following Jacques Derrida he applies the Nietzschean
    concept of "play." arguing that "freeplay" in the text removes the possibility of any final
    -.r \:-:ie:" by' coining
    i: ..::l 'the nerv literary or ultimate deciphering of its meaning. Since all sign systems have their origin in play, all
    interpretation is ludic rather than mimetic, open-ended rather than representative. The text as
    i: ::: :e\t to the reader
    a sign system is in this light an arena open to many games. and each interpreting community
    :*;--:i1 from the signs
    is free to "play" on that field according to its own rules. Different "games" in a text lend
    themselves to different meanings. Crossan applies this theory to the two textual aspects of
    i . r-r :intultaneously plot and metaphor, asserting that "plot manifests story as play," and that metaphor becomes
    i,:::.; ;:itical study and allegory and therefore is plurisignificant at the core. A1l literature is read on different
    ir:-- . rrflCefils (relating levels depending on the "perceived perceivers" (the readers) and their perspectives. Since
    i: :.-3 ie\r itselt). Since all language is metaphor, and since metaphor is "dead of meaning at its core," language is

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    characterized by "absence" (the absence of literal meaning and of hermeneutical constraints). \\rl[ten COnln]J:--::. -
    Therefore. multiple meaning necessarily results, as the perceiver provides the content for the the neces:arr D:.. - :-
    autonomous and empty metaphor. H ..,.- '-
    Wittig and Crossan would argue that each person r'vill interpret the message of John 3, I .eet' :,, , r- r'-- -:::
    fbr example. on the basis of his or her orvn belief system. Moreover, each one's interpretation '.:..1 . - -- .--E-

    ivill be a valid "truth" fiom within these different perspectives. There is something to be said
    tbr this. For instance, Calvinists and Arminians often interpret "God so loved the lvorld"
    quite differently, especially in comparison to other Johannine passages (such as Jn 6:31-40
    15:1-6). Some Calvinists stress John 6:37-40 and emphasize the sovereign side of divine
    predestination in salvation; the world becomes the elect. Arminians emphasize John l:4,7,
    "tl
    9: l5:l-6 and the individual responsibility in faith decision. Every person in the "r,vorld" is
    given a charge to respond to God's love. The debate is whether both sides are equally correct
    and whether or not an extended dialogue between the various systems (in this case between
    Calvinists and Arminians) can help the interpreter to "bracket" the systems and allorv the text
    to speak for itself. I believe that the latter is indeed the case.

    With structuralism and poststructuralism we have moved even further from the object/
    text to the subject/reader. Barthes states, "As an institution, the author is dead: his civil states,
    his biographical person have disappeared; disposed, they no longer exercise over his work
    the formidable paternity rvhose account literary history. teaching, and public opinion had the
    responsibility ofestablishing and renerving."11 Vanhoozer points out that for poststructuralists
    like Stephen Moore the act of reading a text to discover the author's intended meaning
    is an "immoral interpretive act" since the ethical obligation of the reader is to go against
    the grain of the biblical text at times (1998:81-82). The key is the autonomy of the text.
    Modern literary critics believe that the text as an entity becomes independent from the author
    as soon as it is r'vritten down, and therefore it cannot be restricted to the original author
    or readers. The proper place of the reader/perceiver/interpreter in the hermeneutical task
    introduces an epistemological and ontological dimension that distances the reader from the
    historical situation of the original rvriter. The hermeneutical circle thus established between --'- i - -----r---
    text and reader involves the constant intrusion of the reader's orvn interpretation . lndeed, the : p. -,:- r-,.\ib.

    autonomous nature of the text demands that the reader enter its common world and complete
    its meaning. This interaction between perceiver (reader) and perceived (text) opens the text
    to endless interpretive possibilities.

    We are again at the heart of the problem. You, the reader. do not know me, the author. The
    text ofthis book does not truly reflect my personality. That is, ofcourse. obvious; the question.
    horvever, is r.vhether it adequately reflects my thoughts on the possibility of meaning. Can
    r ou as reader understand my opposition to polyvalence. or is this text autonomous from my
    vieu,s'l At this moment I am writing in the library of the theology faculty of the University
    of Marburg. Certainly many of the professors here, schooled in the existential or historical-
    critical approaches and having grown up in the German culture, will read these arguments
    from a quite different perspective. The question is not r,vhether they will agree but whether
    ther can understand my arguments. I rvill not be around to clarify my points, so certainly this

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    The Problem of Meaning

    r3:,. .i: t,-al constraints). written communication lacks the dynamics of oral speech. Moreover, those readers without
    .J:- :h. .ontent for the the necessary philosophical background will delinitely struggle with the concepts herein.

    However, does this mean that no amount of clarification can impart the meaning that
    ::. :lll'..age of John 3. I seek to communicate in these paragraphs? I think not. This issue has two aspects: can
    r- : :l !' '\ nterpretatiOn
    r we know what another person meant in a written account, and is it important to know that
    :. . ::erhins to be said original intended meaning? Both questions must be considered.
    :.t - ' .,)\.'d the world" Most poststructuralists look at the text as "art" rather than as "work," since art has a life
    :. .-.:h as Jn 6:37-40: of its orvn after it is completed while work is merely "displayed" (Barthes 1919 14-15') . The
    r',.Ir-.,irt .ide of divine old relationships between author, reader and observer have experienced what Barthes calls
    3:-.::t.r.ize JOhn 1:4, 7, an "epistemological shift." With respect to this, he provides seven propositions: (1) The text
    r:. :r n thc "rvorld" is is experienced only as activity, as the production of a work that does not stop. (2) The text
    . ji- r:3 equally correct
    is paradoxical or even subversive with respect to attempts to classify it generically; it cuts
    --' . -. :::l\ CaSe between
    across all hierarchical distinctions and so is open-ended. (3) The held of the text is that of
    .i; r. ' -::rd allow the text
    the signifier, r'vhich has an infinite number of possible meanings; as such the text is radically
    symbolic and without closure. (4) The irreducible plurality of meaning possibilities centers
    :-::::: irom the object/ on difference and intertextuality; that is, the text contains r,vithin itself other texts in terms
    -- of its multiple meanings.r2 (5) Unlike a work of art. the text is not linked to "the Father's
    -:'.LJ his civil states,
    3\.;:..\e orer hiS wOrk signature," that is, the author's intentions; the author comes back, if at all, as a "guest" who is
    : r..:l.- ,rpinion had the no longer necessary in the interpretive task. (6) The distance between writing and reading is
    ni: :': :\)\tStfUCtufaliStS removed when reader and text are linked "in a single signifying process" in rvhich the reader
    :, :'. r'.reniled meaning is asked to collaborate in producing a new r'vork with the text. (7) The text participates with
    i3:i:r i. to go against the reader in producing aesthetic pleasure via the "transparency oflanguage relations"; at the
    l :''i r'. -,nrr of the text. moment of reading the interpreter makes it his or her own work (pp. 7 4-81) . Think of the text
    r-ir -;'i'.i irom the author playground. On such a field a person can play rvhatever game they rvish-kickball, hide
    as a
    : : ::-i .rrrginal author and seek. volleyball, softball. The field has only the possibility of play; the group decides
    ::.;' :-..:ltL'neutical task which game they wish to play and rvhat rules they want to govern the game. So it is with a
    :.r'- :l-.. ic'eder from the text according to this vielv. A text has only a possibility of understanding. The actual process
    :,. :':-,bl i:hed betr'veen and result of interpretation is decided by the reader not the book.
    i3: rr'l.rlir'rn. Indeed, the 5. Reader-response criticism. Two final schools remain (reader-response and
    : : ,, ':,J and complete deconstruction), and each in quite distinctive fashion culminates the movement arvay from
    ,3I i:'\l r opens the text the author/text to the reader (for an excellent brief history of this move fiom Augustine to
    the present, see Van der Weele 1991 127-32).rr Reader-response criticism goes beyond the
    .:. ,. i:'.1'. the author. The poststructuralists by positing not only the autonomy of the text but the veritable union between
    d . r '. .,-\ !l \ : the question, text and reader at the moment of response. Several essays in Reader-Response Criticism
    ,-:...:'. ,,i nreaning. Can (Tompkins 1980) demonstrate this. Norman Holland argues that response involves a merger
    \: i-.: ,:'.\ritlous ffom my between author (note the presence of "author"!) and reader as the latter "mingles" his or her
    ':. i'. ,.ri basic self rvith the text (pp.70-100). This act is reader-centered rather than text-centered.
    -. the University
    .r. .l:'rlirll or historical- David Bleich goes fufiher, positing a subjective criticism in rvhich even the autonomy of
    r.- :.-,; these arguments the text is denied and replaced by individual identity (pp. l3a-63). The text is an object
    . ,i . -itreL' but rvhether only in a physical sense; as "meaning" it exists only in the mind of the reader. Therefore,
    . :. .:'.:\. .o cerlainly this "response" unites the person with the text and is a subjective act, a process in which the

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    ,s.{:

    rvhole community of interpreters produces meaning via a dialogue regarding the text. Note --!t ::ilsi!!!t!n il
    : .: i rn' trtliifffil
    that with reader-response criticism subjectivity in interpretation is no longer something to be
    avoided but is to be welcomed and encouraged. " -rr'.urm ]trb,m
    Stanley Fish deflnes meaning itself via phenomenological categories (1980:177).
    Understanding does not arise via experience; there is no epistemological choice between
    alternate meanings but an ontological union between the reader and the text. In other words,
    the text disappears and the reader "creates" meaning. Formal features such as style and .," i: -1 a-Jf , .1

    authorial intent interpenetrate the reader's awareness, Ieading to Fish's basic thesis "that
    the form of the reader's experience, formal units, and the structure of intention are one,
    : r- - ' :l l6llr
    that they come into view simultaneously, and that therefore the questions of priority and
    independence do not arise." His major question is how one begins.If the text has no existence
    : "rlE - Ilt
    apart from interpretation, what does one interpret? Fish answers the dilemma by pointing to
    _.. - -':-l nf,t
    the prior existence of "interpretive strategies" that stem from the community of interpreters.
    The reading strategy, developed within an interpretive community (similar to Gadamer's
    "tradition"), unites with the text and produces meaning.ra : --- r;,5
    : r- r :-i:1:trfr
    Yet there are important differences between the proponents of reader-response criticism.rs
    : -. . - -: -:-i-"' l:
    Some, like Wolfgang Iser, center more on the text and maintain links with the formalism
    of the text-centered New Criticism. For Iser the themes of the text bridge to the readers - -." :-r: !
    and guide as well as correct their interpretation. Iser speaks of the "indeterminacies" or - .-,-:: t)
    gaps in the text that force the reader to become involved in its textual "world." Thus it is
    in the dialectic between the indeterminate signs of the text and the perspective supplied by -' . - -:{::
    the reader that "understanding" occurs (1978:24-25). However, for Iser the text provides
    the impetus, engaging readers and drawing them into its narrative world. It does this via a
    textual "repertoire" or conflguration that provides an intemal sequence (plot, dialogue and
    so forth) perceived by the reader. The actantial units or developing sentence structure sets up
    a series of anticipations that involve the readers in the plot line and force them to complete -.: -, -:.n
    its textual meaning. The readers do this on the basis oftheir reading strategy and experience, i - -:----
    and therefore the text is plurisignificant at the core; nevertheless, for Iser the text controls - -: - -'11-
    the reading process (pp. 93-11 1). The modern readers in this way align themselves with the -: rl(

    implied reader (see pp.2ll-12) to grasp the reading strategy of the text. Thus the readers
    "complete" the meaning of the text.

    Most biblical studies of the reader-response type (such as Culpepper, Fowler, Rosseguie)
    flt into this category. These latter scholars seek to blend reader-response rvith historical-
    critical perspectives and study how "the author of the gospel has underlaken to direct and
    control the reader's experience andreading" (Fowler 198 l:149; quoted in Porter 1990). In
    this sense most of us are reader-response critics of a type. As a Gospels specialist, I tell my
    students that they need to perform a "reader identiflcation" rvith the original readers in order
    to study the significance of a story for our day. That is, they ask what Mark or Luke are telling
    their original readers to do rvith the story and then align themselves with that action and ask
    how it applies to our day.

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    The Problem of Meaning

    :.ir:dlng the text. Note Yet many literary practitioners of reader-response fit a second type, exemplified in
    Stanley Fish. For Fish the reading strategy is not a component in the production of meaning
    ":,-..:fer \omething to be
    butthe component. The reading situation dominates the text, which guides but has no identity
    outside the mind of the reader. The text supplies only potential meanings (note the stress on the
    .i:3sLrries ( 1980: 177).
    plural, "meanings"), and these are then actualized by the readers, who select those meanings
    ,--,,-, ::,.r1 choice between
    that flt their interpretive strategies. It is not a text's intention but "readers performing acts"
    i::: :er.t. In other words. that produce meaning (1980a:1 l-14). In fact for Fish the text as a formal entity does nor exist
    ui-:i. >uCh as style and apart from the reader's interpretive act. Preexistence belongs to the community that shapes
    F:.: . L,asic thesis "that
    the reader's experience.
    ..i:: . I lntention are one.
    lL..::.'n\ of priority and The relationship between interpretation and text is thus reversed: interpretive strategies
    i r::.: :.'rt has no existence are not put into execution after reading; they are the shape of reading and because they
    e :r.errna by pointing to are the shape of reading, they give texts their shape, making them rather than, as is
    -^ -::ir\ ol inlerpreters. usually assumed, arising from them.16
    :-, .::r:l,lr to Gadamer's In other words. the Sermon on the Mount as a text is called into being as the reader
    experiences it. Moreover, there is no objective interpretation of Matthew 5
    - 7 but rather a
    subjective act as the reader chooses a reading strategy and approaches the text accordingly.
    3J.- :-r-.ponse criticism.rs
    ,.:.i.- ,'.irh the formalism For this reason readers may experience a text differently each time they read it.
    :..: :::-se to the readers For Fish dialogue and critical inquiry can proceed only from within a set of reading
    ::. .::ieterminacies" or interests with shared assumptions. Therefore, debate and understanding are possible only
    f.i*-,, ,.r trrld." Thus it is within a literary community. Those from differing comrnunities use the same r.r,ords or
    I :..:.:!'.-tl\e supplied by symbols but assign them differing meanings; there is no literal meaning, oniy a plurality of
    ' : l.:: lnL' text provides meaning possibilities that are actualized in the act of reading (pp. 356-76). The goal is not
    .i :,.1 it does this via a to discover rvhat the text is saying but flrst to experience what it does and then to persuade
    .r.:-. plot. dialogue and others regarding the validity of your perspective on the text (pp. 303-21). The synchronic or
    tt.;t-r- >tructure sets up present moment of reading alone can be called "interpretation." The past act of interpretation
    . : :-3 thent to complete (that of the original readers) belongs to a community that remains forever lost and cannot be
    I :lr;.ii\ end experience, recovered. So for Fish the reader can exult in the present moment of discovery and creative
    . -: 1.rr lhe text controls experience in reconstructing the text. It is the reading strategy adopted from the paradigm
    .1.: ::enrselves with the community of which one is a part that provides the methodology for interpreting a text, and
    :: :.\.: Thus the readers the understanding that results will necessariiy be different from the understanding arrived at
    within other communities. N{y understanding of the book of Revelation will be very different
    if I belong to a dispensational or a Reformed cornrnunity.
    t::"; . Ff \\ ler. Rosseguie)
    :.-: r.- *ith historical- In sum, neither text nor interpreter has autonomy, for both fuse at the moment of reading
    -:,*-:::lr'ien to direct and and cannot exist apart from the other. As Jane Tompkins states. we should not separate
    - ::; n Porter 1990). ln the "formalist theory" of the New Criticism from the "institutional praxis" of the reader-
    ,.;q.. .pccialist. I tell my response school (1980;201-32). Since both actually identify criticism/ interpreration with
    : ':.-.i-..r1 readers in order issues of explication/meaning, they partake of the same rules. At the same time, however,
    ! \ 1:rr trr Luke are telling their radical denial of the text and espousal of its autonomy places them further along the
    . ;i.::. :hat action and ask spectrum away from author and text and toward the reader/community as the generating
    force in hermeneutics.

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    Much can be commended in reader-response criticism, especially among those following
    Iser. Hermeneutical theory has not dealt sufficiently with the place of the reader and of
    the interpretive community in the act of coming to understanding. Similarly the influence
    of preunderstanding or the reading strategy on so-called objective interpretation must be
    considered more carefully after interacting with this school. In fact, the basic approach of
    chapter seven on narrative analysis stems in large part from this school.

    Nevertheless. there are several serious drawbacks. Primarily, there is a reductionism in


    saying that the reader rather than the author or text produces meaning. Not all reader-response
    critics posit this radically. Edgar McKnight says that "a literary approach to the Bible in the -:
    - ini.
    -:-!r- ::if
    context of contemporary literary study, however, allows- even requires-a vielv of the text
    --- -ri'it
    as both an ancient document with original meaning and a living message with contemporary
    significance" (1988:107). He sees continuity between the message for the original readers
    "3to1
    -
    and for modem readers. At the same time, however, he denies any necessary link between
    : ::r''

    those meanings. The modern reader is free to flnd his or her own meaning in the text apart
    from consi<lerations of historical or original meaning.
    :- _r: , r*
    Fufther, there is a radical and unnecessary skepticism inherent in the approach. While this
    is manifest more in Derrida than in Fish, it is nonetheless present in some degree in all these
    adherents. McKnight defines "postmodern" reading as one that challenges the assumption
    (pp'
    that a text has an objective or referential meaning. Rather, meaning is found in the reader
    14-15). However, when these critics posit radical discontinuity between text and reader, they
    are guilty of disjunctive thinking. Text and reader are not completely autonomous' Rather
    they address one another (the hermeneutical circle) as the reader seeks understanding' While
    :,1

    I, the reader. perceive the meaning of a text like the Sermon on the Mount from the standpoint
    of my preunderstanding, I can still allow the text to address, challenge and if necessary
    change that perspective. In other words, there is a dialogue, indeed a trialogue' betrveen
    author, text and reader leading to the meaning of the text. The exact place the author and text
    have in this system will be the subject of appendix two; here I want to make the simple
    point
    that both have a place in the process of discovering meaning' We, like the original readers,

    can also approach the text via a close or informed reading, discerning the intertextual and
    historical dimensions of the stories as well as the unfolding plot'

    Moreover, while reader-response critics like Fish have a skeptical attitude toward
    the author and the text, they have an uncritical and docetic attitude toward interpretive
    communities and reading strategies. No critical apparatus exists for a critical dialogue
    that
    between communities, only for dialogue within a community. Fish has created a system
    has free play but never the type of truth that can bridge between communities. In the infinite
    possibilities within a text it is difflcult to see how he escapes relativism.rT Controls exist
    only within a reading community, and there are no controls to guard against relativizing
    communities, especially since the relativized reader is free to choose from an infinite number
    of communities. The kind of community envisioned by reader-response critics is at one and
    the same time too large (a macrocommunity encompassing a language system or culture as
    a

    whole) and too small (microcommunities with infinite combinations from rvhich readers are

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    The Problem of Meaning

    iti :n'rnr those tollorving free to choose any number at any time). It is hard to see how there is any cohesion with so
    ii;e c': the reader and of indistinct and confused a concept of community.
    e Sr:r.larlr the influence
    Thiselton calls Fish a "socio-pragmatist," one who looks at both text and reader as
    \. .:lii:pretation must be
    controlled by differing cultural contexts that can never intersect (1992:537-39). There is no
    f.i. i:.. :;rsic approach of
    : -' objectivity but only an inner subjectivity that controls the interpretive process. Fish's "fatal
    error" is his refusal to find a middle ground between formalism and a radical pragmatic
    ::.=:i ., rcductionismin antiformalism (which he espoused). Thiselton then compares Fish to Wittgenstein (1992:540-
    :s \ - t r11 reader-response -50). In his concept of "language games" Wittgenstein found the middle ground, but Fish
    ,!r ;-r. :rr the Bible in the (probably due to his lack of philosophical depth) has not. The truth is that there can be
    a vierv of the text dialogical interaction between differing communities. Thiselton has five criticisms from the
    \. --i-i: -
    d))r.3 \\ ith contemporary standpoint of biblical communication: ( 1) if textual meaning is a community product, texts
    :i i,,i :he ori_einal readers can never transform readers "from outside"; (.2) prophetic address has lost its power and in
    i :.!--a:\ar\ link between fact achieves the opposite, for its message is constructed by the very community it purports
    rr,::r.r! in the text apart to address; (3) notions like grace or revelation are illusions, since there are no givens; (4) the
    "message of the cross" becomes no more than the "linguistic construct of a tradition"; (5)
    nothing can ever be counted as error in the development of doctrine, for it is all little more
    r'..-r; .,f prucch. While this
    than a social construct (pp. 5a9-50).
    Ii :, r-.3 Je_sree in all these
    :;i e:ie> the assumption 6. Deconstruction. Iacques Derrida has developed an approach that takes the most
    ,r : ,..rJ in rhe reader (pp. radical tack thus far, for he questions the very possibility of theological or philosophical
    ',i 3.r :-\t and reader, they criticism as we currently define it. Derrida is the product of a direct line of continuity from
    :::., rJl,-rnOmOUS. Rather structuralism to poststructuralism to deconstruction. Each school built on the strengths and
    :ei:. -lderstanding. While sought to correct the weaknesses of its predecessor. Poststructuralism (Barthes) reacted
    rl: -r: :rr.nt the standpoint against the structuralist assumption that the linguistic codes provide a direct line to the
    :.-.rr.-re and if necessary meaning of a language or a text, arguing that every language, even the second-order discourse
    lerc : trialogue, between of structuralism, is open to another metalanguage behind it. Deconstruction then goes further
    I :,:l: ih.- author and text to challenge the communicative power of language itself. It is indeed difflcult to describe the
    : 1 ' :ri\L- the simple point thought of so complex a thinker in a few paragraphs, yet the very number of works that have
    . l.r.: ::e orisinal readers, appeared testifies to Derrida's impact on theological studies (Detweiler 1982; Culler 1982;
    rltrl i]r. intertextual and Ellis 1989,Burke 1992;Critchley 1992;Rutledge 1996).In facr, it is indeed srrange thar it
    has taken so long to "discover" Derrida due to his impact on the scene of structuralism since
    the mid- 1960s. especially after the simultaneous publication in 1961 of three major works:
    .r.t::,.;l attitude toward
    't:,;3 '(.r\\ De la Grammatologie, L'Ecriture et la clffirence and La voix et le phdnomine .18
    ard interpretive
    :: : : : critical dialogue Derrida attacks the very foundation of Western philosophical thinking, arguing that
    r :".
    .:ealed a system that philosophy no longerholds an unassailable, privileged place as the overseer of truth. He builds
    ):r:'r:rlties. In the inlinite on Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) in arguing for a rhetorical rather than a philosophical
    -
    ri::l'.:.m. Controls exist approach to epistemology. At its heart deconstruction attempts to free language and rhetoric
    gu::.1 lgainst relativizing from the constraints of philosophical thought. In Derrida's inaugural address (in which
    :e :: 'rt an inflnite number the movement was launched) at Johns Hopkins in 1966 ("Structure, Sign and Play in the
    3',':..3 Jritics is at one and Discourses of the Human Sciences") he argued that philosophy deconstructs itself because
    rai. :i Sterr or culture as a there is no true center outside itselfthat can act as a "transcendental signifled," because it is
    r"i: irLtrfl \\'hich readerS are part of the universe of signs and therefore needs more signs to justify its claims. Due to the

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    christianlib.com
    ilrllffim!@!-'r'
    -:-l
    endless chain of signif,cations it decenters itself. provisional and characterized
    All discourse is

    by instability (see Jacobs 199l:175-19). Here Nietzsche is essential as the precursor to


    Derrida. Nietzsche takes a skeptical look at Western metaphysics, arguing that it stemmed
    from the Socratic rejection of the metaphorical basis of language. Since Socrates and Plato,
    Nietzsche and Derrida assert, rational thinking has maintained a tyrannical hold over human
    understanding. Since all logic pretends to be rational but is actually metaphorical, attempts to
    determine meaning are doomed to failure, and truth is radically relative. Philosophy claims
    to be logical, but in fact it is rhetorical and so is both an illusion and a fraud. This can be
    exemplified in Nietzsche's definition of truth:

    What, then, is truth? Amobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms-


    in short, a sum of human relations, which have been enhanced, transposed' and
    embellished poetically and rhetorically, and which after long use seem firm' canonical
    and obligatory to a people: truths are illusions about which one has forgotten that this is
    what they are: metaphors which are worn out and without sensuous power; coins which
    have lost their pictures and now matter only as metal, no longer as coins.re

    Derrida coined the term logocentrism to describe philosophical reasoning; this term
    ref'ers to the "myth" that the spoken rvord or rationality provides the central fulcrum behind
    the quest for understanding. Denida deconstructs this presupposition. In "Violence and
    Metaphysics," he argues that encounter with the text must always be defined by "negativity"'
    for "the infinitely-other cannot be bound by a concept, cannot be thought of on the basis
    of a horizon; for a horizon is always the horizon of the same" (1978:92-109)' Encounter
    can only transcend and separate itselffrom negativity via interrogation, that is, the reader's
    ,.play" in the text. The Platonic logos (the rational communication of meaning) is negated by
    the inside-outside superstructure of metaphor and the unity of thought and speech. In other
    words, metaphor controls both the internal meaning and the external sign system behind
    language. One can never differentiate any distinct "meaning" in philosophical discourse, and
    so the latter becomes nonphilosophy, seen in "the inability to justify oneself, to come to one's
    own aid as speech" (P. 152).

    Derrida defines deconstruction as a "decentering" process in which the central locus of


    a structure, that which gives it meaning, coherence and presence. has been disrupted
    and has
    (p.
    become "a nonlocus in which an infinite number of sign-substitutions come into play"
    280). The metaphysics of "presence" in Western thought has been deconstructed by the dual
    concepts of sign (with the signified both identifled with and "expelling its signifier outside
    itself') and of play as the Nietzschean destroyer of metaphysics by way of discourse (pp'
    280-81). Derrida means that there is no actual "presence" of meaning in a text, because the
    symbols can no longer be identified with their original meaning. In the act of writing,
    the

    author's intention (indeed his very presence) has been "expelled" from the autonomous text,
    .,plays" in whatever interpretive playground the reader brings to it. A text like the
    which now
    resurrection narrative of Mark 16:1-8 no longer has any connection with the original author
    or readers. It consists of a series of signs that draw the reader into "freeplay" in its textual
    arena.

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    The Problem of Meaning

    ', l:1-,rlr, and characterized Derrida specifically attacks the concept (from Saussure) of "presence" in spoken
    :l'":r. i> the precursor to language, arguing that "writing" has priority over speech. and that "absence" and "difference"
    . d:!i.rls that it stemmed characterize language. He is especially opposed to "closure." the search for a central meaning,
    Sr:.i Srr.rates and Plato, because according to him the text becomes locked up in the single meaning and ceases to
    rL.rr.-;:i hold over human exist as text. Moreover, for Derrida. closure is impossible because when we unlock the door
    ::re.:: :lOrical. attempts tO to the signs, we hnd the room empty: thereis no central or original meaning. Rather. a text is
    -::- :" Philosophy claims "open" or free to be reproduced in the reader's experience.
    ":-; , ::aud. This can be
    "Difference" arises from Derrida's attack on the priority of spoken over written language
    in philosophy. For Derrida the tension between speech Qtarole) and "language as system"
    :-- i::irr'pomorphisms - (langue') is deconstructed in writing, which substitutes a depersonalized sign system for the
    ir.e;. transposed, and so-called presence in speech. Writing introduces a free play that displaces meaning; in this
    *r>e .-ent hrm. canonical sense the spoken word is a kind of "generalized writing," a writing in the mind. Thus writing
    r L:- i',r{urtlen fhat thiS iS precedes speech and determines speech; this then disrupts the Western approach to language.
    iui:,L> :rr\\ er: coins rvhich "Difference" for Derrida is the resultl this concept signifies an interplay between the French
    q
    :I l: a.-':n\. terms differ (pointing to the basic opposition between signifier and signified, which breaks
    down the concept of meaning) and defer (pointing to the fact that meaning is "deferred" by
    r:;i- :easonirlg; this term
    the endless play between text and reader). Since language (parole) can never yield complete
    l-.: -::r::;l fulcrum behind
    access to the "self-presence" or thoughts (langue) that lay behind it, absence characterizes
    r)-tt,-':r. In "Vioience and
    the search for meaning.2o
    ne ::.:.eJ bi "negativity."

    e : -i:ri of on the basis For Derrida and his f<rllorvers. there is never and cannot be any true transfer of meaning
    I v-" ql- 109). Encounter or the signified. Rather, the signified is transformed in the act of reading, and difference is
    nI., :..:hrr rs. the reader's conceived both in spatial (lack of contiguity) and temporal (meaning as deferred or excluded
    t'i r.:u,ng t is negated by from the present) categories. Derrida states that one cannot know the "original meaning" of
    u!i.: j]lc speech. In other any text. The meaning derived by the interpreter differs radicaliy from that of the author.
    e-;i >tgn Svstem behind The latter simply cannot be transferred. Here the outside-within tension comes to the fore in
    r-,::, pr.ical discourse, and Derrida's thought:
    , a,::';-f. Io come to one's Writing is the outlet as the descent of meaning outside itself within itself: metaphor-
    forothers- aimed-at-others-here-and-now, metaphor as the possibility of others here-
    ;irrJl :lie central locus of andnow, metaphor as metaphysics in u,hich Being must hide itself if the other is to appear.
    I-: :'i3:1 ,lisrupted and has ... For the fraternal other is not first in the place of rvhat is called inter-subjectivity, but
    ,1.r,r::. .ome into play" (p. in the work and peril of interrogation; the other is not certain within the place of the
    ;..,-,:rstructed by the dual response in which two afflrmations espouse each other, but is called up in the night
    el^r:.r rts srgnifier outside by the excavating work of interrogation. Writing is the moment of this original Valley
    bi ,'.:) of discourse (pp. of the other within Being. The moment of depth as decay. Incidence and insistence of
    rr! -r. a lext. because the
    inscription.2l
    In :i-.e a.-t of writing, the Deconstruction is not a formal school (though it is a "form") but a perspective on
    ri-i:r :re autonomous text. discourse and reading. Josue Harari describes the system by relating it to Demda's later
    !n:i> iLr it. A text like the article "The Supplement of Copula." For Derrida the sign is a "supplement" (the written
    1:i the original author
    lt'] 1i word) to discourse but as such never completes itself: "the supplement is added to make
    o "rreeplay" in its textual up for a deflciency, but as such it reveals a lack, for since it is in excess, the supplement
    catT never be adequate to the lack ... a supplement to the supplement is always possible"

    2t
    christianlib.com
    (1979:34). For instance, metaphysics is a supplement to the concept of presence in Descartes' .r lra 1]urisu@ft
    Cogito ("I think, therefore I am") and as such must be deconstructed and recast apart from its r"l' :-lt ilrn ,ffl
    historical referent (original intended meaning). Harari labels the task a "desedimentation"- t-:r.: "r@
    not a deconstructing and restructuring of a text but the exposure of "forgotten and dormant -:".-,r::llis :Uu f*
    sediments of meaning which have accumulated and settled into the text's fabric."22 A text N, "-* *rr* ," nfUfi
    is neither past nor present; it has no father-author but is a "fabric of grafts" that is "always *--r ifl frrl
    already: repositories of a meaning which was never present, whose signified presence is ".- : - ,iu: irl!&illli
    always reconstituted by deferment" (p . 31 ; quoted from 1972:92) . : r1"':-* lu: .Unffi
    In sum, Derrida seeksto "decenter" or deconstruct Western metaphysical reasoning 1lt.llil
    by pointing out its radically metaphorical nature. Philosophy, like language in general, is
    characterized by "absence" ofmeaning. However, writing precedes spoken language because : :- *-l-rr $il"'il
    _-r"r--l]l1-_ *l
    it expresses the true sign system behind speech and language. There is no "presence" in --
    writing, and therefore none in language as a whole. Rather, there is "difference," the absence ':
    :.- "-ilf,
    of any literal meaning signified behind the codes of language. As a result the interpreter must i - -:,:- :" tu @l
    deconstruct meaning and engage in a sort of free play with the signs in the text. Moreover, " t:':
    readers deconstruct not only the original author-text referent but also all "understandings" of i- Fd
    : l-.-.
    the text throughout history. Only then will the "field" of the text be open for the readers to " :-: l--- ]am
    "construct" their own understanding. There is no extratextual referentiality, for texts simply
    point to other texts (intertextuality) and words point to other words (metaphoricity), not to
    any external world behind the text. Yet it must be stressed that proponents do not consider
    deconstruction a negative movement that destroys any possibility of communication. They
    are not hermeneutical anarchists but seek to free the reader/interpreter from the "false"
    constraints of Western thinking and from the search for final meaning in a text. From their
    viewpoint, they are liberationistst. ln 1992 Cambridge University sought to award Derrida
    an honorary doctorate, and it led to unprecedented controversy, for Derrida has sought to
    undermine virtually the whole structure and thought behind the university system and indeed
    of Western culture itself (Vanhoozer 199820,49).

    John P. Leavey describes a two-step process or strategy for the interpretive side of
    deconstruction, stemming from the view that "writing according to the latter wants-to-say-
    nothing, means-nothing... at the point rvhere meaning runs out of breath" and that one must
    thereby "enter into the play... of difference" (1982:50; quoted from Derrida 1981:14). First,
    -ii
    "reversal" overturns the hierarchy of the text and its intertexts on behalf of the concepts
    suppressed in the speech/writing opposition. Second, "reinscription" displaces or dislodges
    the new hierarchy so that a continual openness results. Displacement occurs though
    "undecidables" (concepts that do not fit philosophical oppositions and demand a new reading
    of the text) and "paleonymy" (the use of the old term for the new concept), involving the
    erasure of the term, the transformation of the old concept and the intervention of the new.
    This then constitutes the act of writing, which itself is characterized by absence and difference
    (pp. s0-55).

    Deconstructionists would do two things to Mark 16. First, they would radically reject the
    historical referent that ties the text to first-century Christianity and would look for codes that

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    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    ,r,f p:a>ence in Descartes' unlock the narrative to new meanings. Second, they would delineate the multiplicity of new
    ; r-rrl :e.ast apart from its concepts that lay under the surface codes. At the level of original meaning they would detect
    :r, .'ic.edimentation"- nothing but "absence" and therefore would stress only the present interaction of the reader,
    ,f -': ':-Jotten and dormant who re-creates the text in newness.
    :'le :3\.!'i t'abric."r2 A text
    What then are we to make of this movement? Its importance, both as challenge and as
    r:r: l::iI\" that is "always possibility, cannot be overstated. It does little good to react with anger or contempt as so
    . - - :nitled presence is
    many have done. Such is often the result more of ignorance than of knowledge. The problems
    in developing an architectonic schematic (a blueprint for understanding) for the interplay of
    i .:.::ph\ sical reasoning author-writing-interpretation are very real and must be considered carefully. There are no glib
    t : - j...rLr' in general. is answers, and scholars from the traditional and the postmodern camps must avoid labeling.
    i:. !.i:r iansuage because Detweiler argues that the legacy of Derrida (1982:11) and the other poststructuralists is not
    l::: i. no "presence" in "critical bankruptcy," because
    '"
    ;.r :l::ence." the absence
    [one] plays with the text to draw in other dimensions and expand its significance. . . .
    :3)'-.: :re interpreter must
    Rather, I think that it recalls for us the delight . . . that literature and its interpretation
    ::. .r :he tert. Moreover, should inspire. . . . One takes perverse joy in uncovering, or creating, a meaning for the
    nL:, j-
    "r-nderstandings" of
    text that is original, at the boundary line of credibility, and yet compelling. Through
    :€ . :,.r. ior the readers to
    intertextuality Derrida's vision of a metaphoric criticism finds incipient realization.
    :.:-:.:1.:\ . lirr texts simply
    ;: :ri:;phoricity), not to I might note that a great deal of what the deconstructionist argues actually occurs in
    ,1:., :::.1: dO nOt COnSider some modern preaching and Bible study groups. The tendency has often been to ignore the
    ,,: -. ;:rnrunication. They historical dimension of biblical texts and to ask directly, How does this relate to my situation?
    3itr:'l:: lrttnt the "false" The difference of course is that Derrida denies the historical referent while many evangelicals
    :-:.: ,:'. r lext. FrOm their merely are unaware of it. However, the result (namely, subjective interaction with the text)
    is quite similar.
    :., --i..: ttr il\\'&Id Derrida
    :,-: --t:-...1r ha. sought tO Deconstruction has many strengths. The metaphorical nature of language is for the most
    i .:\. . , \'\ \tem and indeed part correct. While I would not give such a radical deflnition in terms of its closure and the
    absence of literal meaning (see the discussion of Ricoeur on pp. 490- 92) , there is little doubt
    r ::. :l:.rpretive side of that any valid hermeneutic must deal rvith the metaphorical and rhetorical dimensions of
    :-,:-:: .rtk'r \\'antS-tO-Say- Ianguage. The process of deriving a core of meaning in a text is every bit as complex (though
    !:i.'.:- ;nd that one must not so impossible) as Den'ida asserts. The question is whether we are forever locked out of
    n Dt::'J" l9E 1:14). First, the external reference behind an utterance or rvhether the attainment of original meaning,
    r:- :'-:. jil of the concepts though difficult, is indeed a possible goal. I believe that it is. and appendix tr.vo will center
    ':.- :..:irces or dislodges on my reasons tbr this position. Here I will restrict myself to some tentative concerns with
    )lj.::l'.int OCcurS thOugh respect to deconstruction.
    c:;. :;:rintl a new reading Derrida's views have been hammered out largely in interaction with Nietzsche, Husserl,
    .i . :'.-r'ptt. involving the Saussure and Heidegger. Acentral core of his polemic regarding these figures is his theory that
    I .::::" ention of the new. writing precedes speech and disrupts the presence of langue in parole. Yet one wonders if this
    b., .:.en.e and difference is entirely true. Is thinking merely a "writing in the mind" and does this demand a view that
    assefis the absence of meaning at the core of thought? I think not. The removal of the Kantian
    ;i ,- -..r mdically reject the subject-object distinction is not nearly so easily accomplished. Certainly the hermeneutical
    * - : iook for codes that circle blends subject and object. Derrida has taken a half-truth (an inconsistency or problem

    23

    christianlib.com

    --/i
    \Fmi
    in epistemology) and elevated it into a covering law. Each step is problematic. Does writing
    really have ontological priority over speech and thought? Is the subject (the Cartesian I) really
    missing in the act of language? Does the metaphorical nature of langue actually decenter the
    referential dimension behind parole? My argument is that so-called inconsistencies need not
    impiy error. These are all viable problems but do not necessarily lead to so skeptical a view of
    literal meaning. In fact Derrida breaks his own rule when he accuses John Searle of "avoiding
    reading me and trying to understand" (1988:113, in Benson 2004:184).

    Derrida is correct if one posits a first reading of the text. His problem is his demand for
    complete and immediate access to the meaning that lies behind speech. It is a question as to
    whether one stresses the lack of completeness and time span necessary to grasp meaning (thus
    "difference") or the resultant meaning achieved. If one is optimistic rather than skeptical,
    Derrida's critique fails to convince. A "close" reading can overcome these difflculties. The
    argument of this book is that a lengthy "spiral" from reading and study to interpretation is
    needed, that is, going over and over the material using all the hermeneutical tools (within the
    context of critical realism) at our disposal and gradually coming to conclusions. With this
    methodology Derrida's radical skepticism is unwarranted.

    "Difference" is indeed true in essence, for there is often a great gap between signifier and
    signified. The question is whether it is as insurmountable a gap as Derida argues. Here the
    pragmatic or commonsense argument is helpful. We all communicate in speech and writing
    as if the hearer/reader can decode the signs of that individual communication. The key is
    the context. Many deconstruction examples look at metaphor apart from context. If I say, "I
    love the big apple," you do not know whether I mean New York City or a large apple. But
    in a proper context you will know exactly what I mean. When the average Christian reads
    a passage of Scripture, he or she often deconstructs its meaning, lbr there is often no search
    (or even cognizance that one should search) for the "original meaning." However, this is not
    the issue. The question is whether one couid (or should) search and discover its meaning.
    This introduces the ethical question. I agree with Vanhoozer that the reader has an ethical
    responsibility to consider the intended meaning of a text, especially if that text in essence asks
    us to do so ( 1987). As I will show in appendix two, this is certainly true of the Bible. Norv, if
    deconstruction and reader-response critics are correct that such is an impossible dream, the
    ethical aspect would not be quite so strong a case. However, the absence of meaning has been
    ciaimed but (in my estimate) not proven.

    Finally, the concept of "freeplay" in the infinite number of sign potentials or meaning
    possibilities must come under the same scrutiny. Again I agree that this is usually the case,
    especially with a casual reading, but it does not have to be the case with a close reading.
    While scholars will disagree regarding interpretive details, usually a 70 to 80 percent
    consensus regarding the basic parameters of a passage exists. Moreover, I believe that the
    very conflict of communities regarding the meaning of a text can and should drive scholars to
    a reexamination of that text and thereby closer to its "meaning." In other words, "difference"
    does not demand free play.

    Thiselton provides a fourfold critique of deconstruction: (l) critique and interpretation

    24

    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    ](--it.:rt:i1C. Does ivriting can come from outside a community and correct false understanding, so all interpretation is
    *.: -.l-3 Cinesian I) really not the result of purely internal factors; (2) an "inflnite chain of signs" is not mandated in
    ji!: :,t:elir decenter the the hermeneutical process, and the arbitrary nature of signs does not demand that suspicion
    I ::-- ,:-.:.tencies need not be turned into a worldview; (3) the rules for human communication do not swim in a sea of
    C :- ., \rieptlcal aviervOf subjectivity but are based on human judgments in which linguistic signs relate to common
    i,l -..: Serrle of "avoiding experience, and the "speaking/ writing subject" is part of Wittgenstein's "public world of
    ! behavior," communicating in a decipherable way; (4) "textual play" cannot merely be linked
    i-rl.;rt i. his demand for to the aesthetic pleasure of listening to a concert or observing a painting, for this is not a
    general theory ofreading but a specific theory for reading some texls (1992:124-32: see also
    =::. l: r. a question as to Carson 1996:102-36 for further reflections).
    rr-. : j.r\p meaning (thus
    ,::, :tr::.r than SkeptiCal. Nicholas Wolterstorff in two strong chapters lvrites "In defense of authorial-discourse
    i. ::.3.e difnculties. The interpretation: contra Ricoeur" and "contra Derrida" (.1995:130-11). Ricoeur differentiates
    :t,i-. :a) rnterpretation is between sense and reference, arguing that texts have the former but not the latter; that is, they
    :ri-i -;i iLrols (within the have similar meaning (a being-in-the-world) but differ depending on context (e.g., the ancient
    :. - ,lii:ions. With this author and the current reader). In a dialogical situation the author is present to clarify rvhat
    he or she means, but in a textual situation the author can only be inferred. So referentiality

    i,F :,3:.i een signilier and is impossible. Wolterstorff responds that the reader does not have to be content rvith only
    the sense. "Why not interpret with the aim of discerning the authorial discourse of which
    De:::. rrgues. Here the
    the text is the medium-its illocutionary stance. its noematic content (sense), its designative
    a:: .: .:eech and writing
    content (reference)?" (p. 149). The author performed ceftain speech acts, and these can be
    :-i:t:-.:-rtion. The key is
    studied. Ricoeur assumes the distanciated subject is irrecoverable, but that is not the case.
    :: :-. :'rntert. If I say, "I
    When a sentence is placed within a distinct linguistic context, the authorial discourse can be
    l::-, ': ; large apple. But
    understood. Derrida argues that authorial discourse interpretation is completely untenable,
    r :i:r:li Christian reads
    but while he rejects metaphysics, that is, the concept of transcendent presence in human
    r::::a -. triten nO SearCh
    discourse, he cannot disprove it. For even he admits that the very language he uses is
    r,j 'H,r',\e \er. this is not
    metaphysical; so all he can do is reject it. Nevertheless, there is a fundamental presence
    :J -..- '. cr it\ meaning.
    behind the very possibility of human discourse, and within this authorial discourse is viable.
    li.; i::-r'r has an ethical
    i ir.:t ii\i in essence asks In fact Alan Jacobs says that "while it (Deridean deconstruction) seemed a juggernaut
    -j-*: : :re Bible. Now, if bearing down on literary study," it now seems "little more than another rejected, or
    ::-: .:-.: -,::ible dream, the outgrown, approach to literary study" ( I 99 1 : I 89; see pp. I 89-97). There are several reasons:
    ::-: : ::teaninghasbeen since the nihilism of the 1960s has passed, deconstruction has lost its edge and seems
    somewhat "innocuous," just one more way to read texts. Moreover, the movement ends
    up deconstructing itself, for while it dismantles present structures, it will of necessity also
    I:r :, ::trills Or meaning
    dismantle the structures it sets up to replace thern. Marx is just as subject to deconstruction
    i t-:,.. t. uiually the case,
    as is the Republican right. It would be good to be in a course taught by such a scholar, for
    r>i '.i t::t a close reading.
    your "true" would be just as viable as the professor's "false," an automatic A+. Further, the
    r;'" r -r t to 80 percent
    movement can give no good reason for abandoning the intellectual enterprise, for debate
    :-,,.', :r. I believe that the
    on issues is something deconstruction is involved in as well.It simply has too little to offer,
    : :i. *,ii drive scholars tcr
    asking us to surrender the world of truth and meaning, then offering us only "freeplay" in
    :,'::: ,-.rds. "difference,,
    .,,
    turn. It too is a power game, but it replaces the power of the text with the power of the
    individual to do rvhatever he or she wants. The point is that other literary modes present
    r::::: and interpretation "better games than any deconstruction can offer. In short, however different it may seem the

    25

    christianlib.com
    first ferv times you try it, deconstruction in the long run is boring" (p. 196). disciplines. The t',' " -'
    7. Conclusion. In this first major section I have attempted to trace a line of continuity into this section. j
    au'ay from the traditional concept of hermeneutics as a historical search for authorial understanding" o:'i.r!
    basis of the "inte...: :-,
    intention.23 On the basis first of phenomenology and then of structuralism the emphasis has
    preliminarl' schtr.:: r
    shifted further and further from any such possibility to a stress flrst on preunderstanding and
    acquaintance \\,::. ::. :
    then on an ontological displacement of original meaning by the reader's encounter with the
    text. This has culminated in reader-response criticism, in which the reader recreates his or her
    critical) shoultl : :-- .
    another. (3) Bt::. :.-.,
    own text, and in deconstruction, in which reader and text are deconstructed in the openness
    hermeneuticall'' -..: .:
    resulting from "difference."
    This latter poir:: .- .,. :
    The attack on objective interpretation has a certain validity. Hermeneutic theorists in the
    Like Polzin. :- .-
    past have all too easily ignored the central importance of the reader in the interpretive process. ".

    position in uh:.-- . :
    Thiselton finds four levels at which the "illusion of textual objectivism" becomes apparent:
    terms of influen;. ' -
    (l) Hermeneutically, the phenomenon of preunderstanding exerts great influence in the
    interpretive act. This subjective element cannot be denied. (2) Linguistically, communication 1. Paul Ricoe ur. ?.

    demands a point of contact between the sender and the recipient of a message, and this oppositionto stru.:-::
    distanciation provides a major barrier to recovering a text's meaning. The differing situations of the will" har l::: --=
    of the hearers remove any possibility of a purely objective interpretation. (3) These problems ( 1971:xiii-xr ii ,. :.: :,

    are magnified at the level of literary communication, where other factors such as narrative Man) to his cur:.:: ::
    time, plot development , characterrzation and dialogue enter the picture. Philosopht. Tlt, C ''.-
    he has moved in:, :..::
    Before we can interpret, we must note the literary conventions operative in the
    communication; this is the heart of the debate: whether it is possible to re-create the original Ricoeur ag.-.i ",.

    literary context behind a text. (4) Philosophically. meaning is never context free but is based Therefore. the a;: : ::
    on a large list of unconscious assumptions between sender and receiver (1982:1-4). When of self-understan..: :. :
    these connecting links are not present, "literal meaning" becomes extremely difficult if not to rise above ni::..::
    impossible, for meaning can never be context free. We dare not ignore either the subjective the Aristotelian ', .: .i
    "life world" of the reader or the "intersubjective social world" of the text. Meir Steinberg betlveen metaph.: - :
    provides a good conclusion when he speaks of the results of all too many narrative critics by definition (metai:.- : .-
    noting in an ontologicu. J.::::
    that is. it deal: \,.r.: --:.
    the incredible abuse of this resource for over two hundred years of frenzied digging into
    For Ricoeur fire l;r r. - i
    the Bible's genesis, so senseless as to elicit either laughter or tears. Rarely has there ever
    and "sense" (th. .r:-.:
    been such a futile expense of spirit in a noble cause; rarely have such grandiose theories
    event." The her:-.. =-:
    of origination been built and revised and pitted against one another on the evidential "c-...,
    an ontolo-eical :
    equivalent of a head of a pin; rarely have so many worked so long and so hard with so -
    this world" 19-::
    (
    little to shorv for their trouble. (Sternberg 1985:13)
    This rvorld :::.:. :

    objective and \L:-.-:


    MEDIATING POSITIONS
    contemporar\ re.a', -,-.,
    Robert M. Polzin provides an excellent overview of the situation (1980:99-114). when consider€d -:r::
    Recognizing many of the problems of structuralism already enumerated (problems I do not genre and snle: ::-:- -.'
    believe have been adequately solved in poststructuralism), Polzin correctly realizes that fore, but in u t,...14 ..-
    neither diachronic nor synchronic methods by themselves can properly be called scientific a discourse e\en:. : ,i

    )6
    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    i lt' disciplines. The two are complementary and interdependent. Polzin's three assertions lead
    ru-: ; lire of continuity into this section: (l) A historical-critical analysis is necessary for "an adequate scholarly
    :r .3r:ih fbr authorial understanding" of what a text means, the extralinguistic context cannot be obviated on the
    .::.-.:' :ne emphasis has basis of the "intentional fallacy." (2) A competent literary analysis is necessary "for even a

    :: ::; :lderstanding and preiiminary scholarly understanding"; most historical-critical failures stem from a lack of
    acquaintance with proper literary analysis. In fact, the two (historical-critical and literary-
    a:r'. 3:tarrunter rvith the
    i:*: I --'-Ir'0te q his Or her critical) should form a type of hermeneutical circle in which they continually reflne one
    another. (3) Both disciplines uncover lacunae that dispute the supposition that either is
    .)::--:.i in the OpenneSS
    hermeneutically scientiflc, or that either interprets the Bible in the way it interprets itself.
    This latter point is rvhere Polzin believes the "crisis" exists.
    t:--::-:1. theorists in the
    . ':: -:,'Jrctir e process.
    Like Polzin, many other modern scholars are trying to forge a middle ground or mediating
    .1 ^,'.r 'meS apparenl: position in which all three elements-author, text and reader-play a role.2a Foremost in
    terms of influence rvould be Paul Ricoeur.
    : ::::: -nfluence in the
    I:i--:,..-rrnlmunicati0n 1. Paul Ricoeur. Ricoeur has been central to all of these poststructural enterprises. His
    : i :-.e\\age. and thiS opposition to structuralismper se is r,vell known,and the developmentofRicoeur's own "poetics
    I:.: *ttferins situations of the will" has prepared him for this enterprise. As Ricoeur chronicles his own development
    ::, : .. These problems (1971:xiii-xvii), he moved from eidetics (Freedom and Nature) to phenomenology (Fallible
    i,L-: :. -.r,-h as narrative Man) to his current preoccupation with hermeneutics (The Symbolism of Evil, Freud and
    Philosophy, The Conflict of Interpretations) and semantics (The Rule of Metaphor). Recently
    he has moved into nar:rative criticism as well and has applied all of these areas to the task.2s
    n!: .. .tferative in the
    : :, r: .:ef,te the original Ricoeur agrees with phenomenologist thinkers that language forms the core of being.
    - -,r::i.: ::ee but iS baSed Therefore, the act of reading or understanding the symbolic expression of a text is a moment
    1...i: -e\l:1-4). When of self-understanding, and the experience of a meaning event in the act of reading allows one
    :t::.:::lr difiicult if not to rise above finitude (1980:234-48). In his still-developing "poetics of the will" he revives
    ,':i:i . r::.3: the subjective the Aristotelian vier,v of metaphor as mimesis (contra Derrida) and argues for a dialectic
    'j-,: :.'.: \leir Steinberg between metaphor and text. His "semantics of metaphor" redefines the normal rhetorical
    r-::. . :.;irati\ e critics by deiinition (metaphor as displacing literal meaning with figurative or second-level meaning)
    in an ontological direction: metaphor takes place at the level of statement rather than wordl
    that is, it deals rvith the whole statement rather than with the individual term (1975:75-78).
    ,,,: ::;:.zied dieging into
    For Ricoeur metaphor bridges the gap between "reference" (the objective content of the text)
    -r': R::r.lr has there ever
    and "sense" (the interpreter's response to the text) by becoming a living entity, a "semantic
    : :--:. i:indiose theories
    event." The hermeneutical circle thereby is not an interpenetration of author and reader but
    jl ,i--.:'r ,rr the evidential
    an ontological "dialectic between disclosing a world and understanding oneself in front of
    .rrl :r.i :o hard with so
    this world" (191 4b:107 -8; 1975:81-88).

    This world referential aspect of hermeneutics is Ricoeur's answer to the conflict between
    objective and subjective tendencies in interpretation. Theoretical history (objective) and
    contemporary relevance (subjective) are essential aspects ofinterpretation but are inadequate
    irr-:r..,rt r 1980:99-1 14) when considered separately. Since the text/discourse is a "work," it contains composition,
    t-::ii :rrrble-s t do not genre and style; this syntactical configuration causes the author's intention to come to the
    i: ;, 1e.-tlv realizes that fore, but in a world referential sense, not as an end in itself or as a hermeneutical text. As
    :r:.', :e called scientific a discourse event, a work is also distanced from the author and surpasses itself in the act

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    of coming to understanding. "Distanciation" (the distance between the historical text and discltr:.:,: '-'
    sense bv
    Vanhoozer 199:. .
    --i
    the present reader) becomes a barrier between reader and author. but in the text the worlds
    or horizons come together. Therefore, interpretation is text-centered, not author-centered. 2.Canon'cincoJ c;
    Even though the speaker-hearer relationship is missing in written works, one can still share interdependena3 :'::..' :::
    the world of the text. So rvhile objective determination of authorial intent remains always a task. Certarnlr.','.: --
    theoretical construct, the referential world, created by the author. grasps the reader (Ricoeur proper relation 1-:1: -:
    1 97 3 :135 -41 ; 191 5 :1 4- 17 ). the same time.::.e:: ::
    Ricoeur stresses the text rather than the author. As Stephen Prickett says (1986:70), develoPment tri ; 'r 1.'

    Ricoeur centers on the poetic function of the text, with three basic functions: the autonomy of the result: t'l :::;-:
    of the text, the textual work as an external force, and the world of the text as a transcendental Following Brer.:: l:
    reality that draws the reader into its "multiple worlds." "the concrete F\i:l.: --r
    recognizes it. :1,:.'- -
    At the same time, however, metaphor as a discursive process contradicts normal criticism pror ic:' ::-: -
    interpretation by establishing a semantic incongruence, that is. a new world of meaning that
    challenges the reader. The literal meaning of the term is disrupted by the metaphor, which There is nr' :...: : i

    forces the hearer/reader out of the normal channels of meaning and draws him or her into the I will note it: ::::. :.
    new textual world created by the metaphor. Imagination provides the key to this extratextual this respect is "T-:..' S:

    new world, assimilating the symbol and reorienting the meaning in a "reality-shaping" mode discovering the l::::. '
    (Ricoeur 1978:8-10). The role of hermeneutics is to discover this new rvorld. experience it its historical rere:::: .'
    and thereby unite objective meaning with existential relevance by pointing toward the rvorld demand a ne\\ ::::--:
    of the text and the world of the self at the same time. Metaphor disengages readers from their integrity and ,.igr::. - "--,
    orvn world and reengages them at the focal point of interpretation. This preoccups::,r:. .:' -'
    reconstructions -: l:
    For Ricoeur the key is to place oneself in front of the text rather than behind it, to allow between historic"- :::-
    the textual world to control the hermeneutical process. The interpreter dare not ignore the completely an.i,-:.'J
    historical dimension, for the latter draws the reader into the world of the text, forging a shaping of the b::-.-'
    unity between the two. To utilize John 3 once again, the historical dimension of the Christ- past to Presenl.
    Nicodemus discourse and of John's editorial clarilication forces the readers out of their
    preconceived world and into union with the message of the text on the "new bifih" as an One imPone:-: :::
    act of divine love. Moreover, the metaphors themselves control the readers'reaction. To this
    (seePP.359-6f' S,:,:
    extent Ricoeur would agree with Gadamer. Both accept a limited version of the autonomy of canonical collts' \ I ::'-i'
    rhe text from the author. that the "histori;.- :::
    (1980:180). San.::.'"
    For Ricoeur interpretation is the appropriation of a text's meaning for current Childs stresses :i-.:3 :
    understanding. The internal world of the text is a self-contained entity that has priority over Thus Sanders :ir3':i:
    the reader, who is drawn into its sign world and by critical reflection gains understanding the message i1-r1 i':-:''
    (see Bleicher 1980:229-34). Interpretation in this way is a dialectic betrveen two levels of
    that this "does nc'l ;:' .
    understanding: a preliminary naive understanding and a deepening comprehension. The s much more re:i::-"
    decomposition of the segments of the text (here Ricoeur follows structuralism) leads to
    observation of its symphonic arrangement. This leads to self--understanding, as a new event RaYmond B: "-
    of textual criticism and selfcriticism develops and merges (see Jeanrond 1988:49-52). He is Means," builcis ,r--. : .
    similar to Gadamer and Iser in holding that the text is a self-referential world that draws the words" (1981.1-:-:-
    reader into its literary reality and guides the reader in interpretation, yielding the possibility aligned rvith au::.'- :l
    of understanding. It is autonomous from the author but still referential in a second-order he asserts. one n-:: :

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    The Problem of Meaning

    r ::- htstorical text and sense by disclosing its own reality and giving the reader a new way to look at the world (see

    ;i ,:, the text the worlds Vanhoozer I 998, 107-8).


    rd. :c,t author-centered. approaches. Many recent biblical scholars are wrestling with the proper
    2 . Csruon-critical

    "rrr:. Lrrt€ can still share interdependence between the diachronic and synchronic aspects of the textual interpretation
    .:.:::t ienrains always a task. Certainly, we must agree with Bernard B. Scott that the "critical essay defining the
    i.:- ::rc reader (Ricoeur proper relation between historical and literary criticism has yet to be written" (1982:314). At
    the same time, there have been great strides forward; Bernard Anderson traces the historical
    P:-;..e:t sa1 s (1986;70), development of a critical perspective, arguing fbr a "post-critical" stance that remains aware
    :---: :.: the autonomy of the results of traditio-historical criticism but deals with the canonical text as a unity.
    I i: ,.1 :. J transcendental Following Brevard Childs he calls for a "transhistorical" approach that anchors the text in
    "the concrete parlicularity and historical referents" of the life of the original community yet
    recognizes its relevance for future generations. Canon criticism as clarified by rhetorical
    ri:. .,rntr&dicts normal criticism provides the means for accomplishing this (Anderson 1981:5-21; cf. 1974:ix-xviii).
    ,.r ',,.,:.d of meaning that
    :i. ::.3 nletaphor, which There is no need here to describe the process ofcanon criticism (see pp.359-61); rather,
    ::rii. \ :irm or her into the I will note its implications for the author-text-reader problem. One of Childs's essays in
    e i.e '. l.r this extratextual this respect is "The Sensus Literalis of Scripture," in which he discusses the difficulty of
    1 ':i jL.t\ -shaping" mode discovering the literal sense ofthe text in light ofthe separation between the literal sense and
    'le,.i '.i .rrld. experience it its historical referent in historical-critical research (197'1 90-93). For Childs, four problems
    r1:t-'..:-.! I.,tvald the world demand a new approach: (l) Identifying literal with historical meaning would destroy the
    :rtri:. :.aders from their integrity and significance of the former since it would depend on historical research alone. (2)
    This preoccupation with origins is highly speculative, controlled by innumerable theoretical
    reconstructions. (3) The community of faith that shaped the traditions is lost. (4) The gap
    r ::rr behind it. to allow
    between historical reference and modern relevance cannot be bridged, for the text has been
    ra::: i:re not ignore the completely anchored in the past. The solution, Childs says, is to recognize that the canonical
    .i ,. : lie tert. forging a shaping of the biblical text is the hermeneutical key to later interpretations as one moves from
    .tr:r-:-,'rt ,-rf the Christ- past to present.
    '-il: :::rders out of their
    l:l :..r' 're\\ birth" aS an One important difference between Childs and James A. Sanders is apropos to our purpose
    r'3:i:r: reaction. TO thiS (see pp. 359-60). Sanders agrees that one must study a passage in terms of its full literary or

    '::r : \t the autonomy Of canonical context rather than merely its original historical context (1977:.157-62) but argues
    that the "historical context that is really important is that of the present (whenever) reader"
    ( I 980: I 80). Sanders would thereby give equal weight to the current community of f aith , while
    '- .rir:iing for cnrrent
    Childs stresses more the past community of faith as decisive for the present interpretation.
    '-ri', ii.:r has priority over
    Thus Sanders stresses the historical shaping as rvell as the multivalent recontextualizing of
    :, -,:.
    -:i.ni understanding the message for today (he calls this "resignification"; 1980:192-93). Childs demurs, arguing
    -. :::'.'..'!'n t\\'O leVelS Of
    that this "does not do justice to the theological role of canon" (1980:201). As a result, Sanders
    :r--: -,'nprehension. The s much more reader-oriented in his hermeneutic.
    : :l:i.iuralism) leads to
    "!::-:i-llg. aS a new event Raymond Brown, in a chapter titled "What the Biblical Word Meant and What It
    r::,:.1 - 9S8:,19-52). He is Means," builds on his earlier contention that the Bible is "a divine communication in human
    ::.i. ,i '.rld that draws the worcls" {1981:23-44: cf. 1968:606-i0). As such, the literal meaning (though not completely
    :.;ing the possibility
    :r. 1. aligned with authorial intention) is a valid quest of historical criticism. At the same time.
    :erri.:i rn a second-order he asserts, one must note several aspects of "meaning": (1) the literal sense it had when it

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    left the author's pen; (2) the sense it took on when later redactors modified it; (3) the sense and later \\'iii:c: -::
    it had when codified into a canonical relationship with other books; (4) the sense it has for can be de:"'n:'e: =. -.
    members of later communities. Brown transforms the "canonical sense" into the sum total logical po:iti'.:.:-. : :
    of these aspects of meaning. This involves a modicum of the autonomy theory, but Brown in Wittgenstein'. - --:
    believes that historical criticism should maintain a controlling force. Never-theless, the stages (objective realit" :--. :
    of church interpretation from then to now are also formative of meaning. Brown makes three his Philosoph lc,;. .:': :

    observations to this effect: (1) the church's interpretation might differ greatly from the literal over general rrl-:-.:i
    meaning; (2) the role of church authority concerns more what the Bible means than what it differentlf in r.: -- -
    meantt (3) the tension produced is a proper one. The church speaks to its own time, but the abstract princip.:.
    literal meaning must be in constant dialogue as a control over exaggerations ( I 98 I :35-43). To distin-suish ::. : .
    This dichotomy is further demonstrated in David Kelsey's discussion of biblical theory with the r'-'.:::::
    authority. He argues for a "conceptual discontinuity" between textual meaning and aspect of mean.:.: .-
    theological formulation, since "translation" is a dynamic act that transforms the "semantic communicatior:
    structure" of Scripture first into the church's affirmation and then into the further semantic Twoker hS'':-. :=
    structure of the contemporary world. It is the "aptness" rather than the accuracy of theological emphasis that r',::- :
    transformations that really counts ( 1 975: 1 86-87 , 192-93) . Exegesis is thus not decisive for sentences u ithir :' ,.

    theology, although it is relevant. The decisive factor is one's "imaginative" judgment, which he posited three .: ' :. -
    controls the perspective and thereby the creative use of Scripture as normative.26 illocutionarr. in '.,. :- .

    3. Wittgenstein and his followers. The scholars previously mentioned are united in the cau.:: :
    an eff'ect is -

    view that while intended meaning is possible and is a legitimate goal of historical-critical "action theorr ." .:.: :
    investigation, such an enterprise cannot be the primary goal of hermeneutics, since the enhanced. Sec..:J..r :.:

    contemporary world must construct its own meaning. A group of scholars who apply insights act" theor). Hi- :.;-: r

    garnered from the later Wittgenstein move closer to the centrality of the author/text for complex) rule-q,r'' ::- :
    meaning. learn and have n-.,-:::=.

    An interesting bridge to this level of interpretation theory is Mary Gerhart's attempt to set
    theconvention\':- -
    Ricoeur and Hirsch side by side via Ricoeur's "Diagnostics," which describes the dialogue Two recent -:: r
    between empirical/object language and commonsense/subject language in the pursuit of First, Anthonr I: -: :
    knowledge, in other words, a hermeneutical circle: objective knowledge is attained through games occur in : : ':-
    subjective experience and yet provides the data by which that experience is understood. (2) the meaninS ,': . :
    Gerhart notes three stages in text interpretation: (1) a reflective and critical awareness ofthe or universal r lai :--
    text and its literary meaning; (2) a sifting process by which potential meanings are analyzed utterances. CIa.: - :: -
    via the text, thereby reconstructing a model of the text by judging the adequacies of particular information but ..::.:.
    possibilities within its multiple "meanings"; (3) the determination of new vistas of meaning, Class two descii:<- :
    as the "self' (subject pole) and "world" (object pole) encounter existential significance (Wittgenstein r. ::. j: .:
    and the text becomes a model not behind but "in front of' (Ricoeur's concept) the reader rather than cultur., : :
    (1976:137 -56). While one could dispute the validity of Gerhart's attempt to blend Ricoeur's that apply "instii-:. :.'
    phenomenological concerns with Hirsch's distinction between meaning and significance, her is the "paradisni -....
    system itself does mediate between the two, adding an important dimension to the developing and Gentile. A> " ::.-.
    dialectical approach lo hermeneutics. metaphor; it tun;:: -- .

    The towering figure behind much of the current debate is Ludwig Wittgenstein. As Second. Ke-'.:.',-
    with Heidegger, there is considerable debate regarding the development between the early postmodem flo:'li:- .l

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    {_"-
    T w
    The Problem of Meaning

    r,:nlried it: (3) the sense and later Wittgenstein, between his Tractatus and Philosophical Investigations. The former
    . -: tl.c \ense il has for can be described as having a "picture" view of language, the latter a "game" theory.27 The
    <:--" irtu the sum total Iogical positivism of the early period gave way to semantic pluralism, yet with continuity
    'i,--:'.
    " iheor\'. but Brown in Wittgenstein's concern to elucidate the limits of language, to define what may be said
    \:.. e:rheless. the stages (objective reality) and what can be "shown" or stated indirectly (subjective experience). In
    r:r-l Brtrrr n makes three his Philosophical Investig,ations Wittgenstein argued the priority of particular descriptions
    r: _i:irii\ trom the literal over general observations. The multifaceted character of language causes it to speak
    J,:.; ::reans than rvhat it differently in various semantic situations or "games"; therefore, it cannot be expanded to
    -- '. ,)\\ n time, but the abstract principles or universals but can be applied only to specific contexts (1953:sec. ll).
    :e:::.,,ni i 1 981 :35-43). To distinguish the two phases of Wittgenstein's thinking, we might link his early "picture"
    theory with the referential aspect of meaning and his later "game" theory with the functional
    i,.,'u::ton of biblical
    aspect of meaning. The actual use of language in various contexts came to be the key to
    : l:..tlrrl meaning and
    communication.
    :i:.::,r:rls the "semantic
    r-:-' :ie iurther semantic Two key flgures developedWittgenstein further. First,J. L.Austin continuedWittgenstein's
    i :. - *rJs-\ of theologicai emphasis that words have meaning not by themselves but when they are embedded in
    r r: it;: not decisive fof sentences within oral/written contexts. In his critical How to Do Things with Words (1962)
    i.:i.. i judgment, which he posited three levels of language: locutionary, in which meaning is presented ("go home");
    i - ::r-.rti\ e.16 illocutionary, in which an action occurs (a command or request); and perlocutionary, in which
    ::- :3J are united in the an eff-ect is caused on the hearerlreader (departure). As a result Thiselton calls his approach

    i,:,r,,: nr:torical-critical "action theory," and the possibility of understanding a communication event is greatly
    i-.::::titeutics. since the enhanced. Second, John Searle took Wittgenstein and Austin to the next level in his "speech
    1.;,.:. ri no apply insights act" theory. His best knorvn statement is, "Speaking a language is engaging in a (highly
    i-, : :re author/text for complex) rule-governed form of behavior. To learn and master a language is (inter alia) to
    learn and have mastered these rules" (1969:12). Knowledge of such a speech act comes from
    the conventions of communication that author and reader share.
    j C:':r jn'\ attempt to Set
    :. ;j..:lres the dialogue Two recent scholars in particular have applied these insights to biblical hermeneutics.
    I!r; ji: rl the pursuit of First, Anthony Thiselton emphasizes two aspects of Wittgenstein's theory: (1) language
    1e;:: r. attained through games occur in a dynamic, changing context subject to historical and temporal change; and
    \:c:,ir;e is understood. (2) the meaning of a concept depends on its utilization in speciflc contexts and so is not fixed
    .:.i...:l r$ areness of the or universal (1980376-78). From this Thiselton develops three "classes" of grammatical
    r il-.ir:lings are analyzed utterances. Class one comprises "universal" or "topic-neutral" statements that do not provide
    : -rricies of particular information but clarify the concept as a whole, pursuant to the reader's understanding.
    "::i
    'i :.'",. i rstas of meaning, Class two describes foundation statements that act as "the scaffolding of our thoughts"
    i' .\.r.:ential significance (Wittgenstein), that is, they are unshakable axioms, theological (for biblical interpretation)
    3..1:. J,rncept) the reader rather than cultural or rational in origin. Class three speaks of "linguistic recommendations"
    :ii'.:: :Lr blend Ricoeur's that apply "institutional facts" to force a reappraisal of one's views. An example of the latter
    '.r:: ::-J. .ignificance, her is the "paradigm case," the shifts in Jewish categories within the universal church of Jew
    :.i:..r-,:t to the developing and Gentile. As a result, Thiselton argues, we can no longer maintain a monolithic view of
    metaphor; it functions differently depending on the language game (pp. 386-407).

    -Li,t..g \\-itt_eenstein. As Second, Kevin Vanhoozer says, "Wittgenstein, Austin, and Searle respond to the
    rrir-<r.t bc't\\'een the early postmodern masters of suspicion by showing how language ordinarily works and by claiming

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    that ianguage ordinarily works well enough" (1998:213). He builds on this by adding the intrinsic language !.--:,=
    theological dimension, calling his approach a "hermeneutics of humility and conviction." in the context: anc ::.. -.
    in particular a "Trinitarian hermeneutic," built of the triadic patterns of author-text-reader; how the writer rn::- -= -
    metaphysics,epistemology, ethics; realism,rationality,responsibility; and locution, illocution, culture bound." rr.::::-: :
    perlocution. This stems from the key point that God is primarily a "communicative agent" to force their os r r- ::
    who has established a "covenant of discourse" in which he speaks to his people. of W. K. Wimsati .-: \1
    this latter is the ;: :',: :
    Postmodern thought has developed an "altheology" built on the premise that the
    the author's intenc.: -.=
    author/Author is dead, leading to a pluralistic hermeneutic. However, speech act theory in
    that which has th: :-,.:
    a Christian interpretive approach recognizes that "the Father is the locator, the Son is his
    author's meaninq. ::,= :.
    preeminent illocution... (and) the Holy Spirit-the condition and porver of receiving the
    sender's message-is God the perlocutor, the reason that his words do not return to him The problen: - -:,
    empty" (Vanhoozer 1998:455-57'). -:-
    interpretation ch'
    Hirsch one sele.:: . :,
    4. The return of the author: Betti, Hirsch, Juhl. Thus far we have moved ever closer
    meaning. Hou er -:. : -
    to the centrality of author-text in the hermeneutical process. For those who wish to anchor
    Once the choice .- -=,:
    meaning specifically in authorial intention, Emilio Betti and E. D. Hirsch have provided the
    44): legitimac\ i l':'nrr...
    philosophical and methodological underpinning. Betti, the Italian legal historian, challenges
    textual compor)er:- . ::'
    the assumptions of Gadamer by calling for a distinction between objective interpretation or
    as science or hi.tr:. . .-,
    exposition (.Auslegung) and subjective interpretation or bestowing meaning (Sinngebung).
    of the previously ;.-- -..
    He believes that hermeneutical rules can control the latter and lead to the former. The text
    of interpretation :-: -:
    as object can still be a valid goal, for both text and reader share a common transcendental,
    tO cOnceive hOrr ::,. _.
    suprahistorical world (Gadamer 1962:chap. I ; see Palmer 1969:54-60).
    reading strateg\. H.:-,. -
    E. D. Hirsch takes a similar tack. He separates "meaning" (the act of comprehending validating prouc--r: :- -
    a text on the basis of the whole semantic field) and "significance" (the act of inserting that but it is difficult I. :-,:-
    meaning into different contexts, such as modern culture). Meaning for Hirsch is grounded in
    i. -. '
    Further. it
    the author's choice of language and so is unchanging, while signiflcance applies that meaning
    Here Hirsch ir ;i - -
    to different situations or needs and so it changes. While relativists (he calls them "cognitive
    the standpoint tri , :: -
    atheists") deny such a distinction. Hirsch finds support in Husserl's concept of "brackets." i
    discernible "meir..:
    The mind "brackets" alien information until it can work back to it. In this way, Hirsch argues,
    Therefore. hos .-":. .' .
    one can move behind preunderstanding to the text and discover the author's intended meaning
    problems first in :-.,'. -
    ( 1961 :101 - 26; 197 6:l -13).
    P. D. Juhl a!r3: - -.

    Every text, according to Hirsch, contains "intrinsic genres" similar to Wittgenstein's from their [e\t.. H: :--:
    concept of "family utterances" that link language games. Genre is defined in ontological meaning of a lite:,:. .,
    terms as the "type of utterance" that narrows down the "rules" that apply, to a particular rve determine th: -::- -
    speech. Since understanding is itself genre-bound, verbal meaning depends on isolating the
    i 1980: l2- l5 t. ln .: :-:-
    particular genre. In answer to Gadamer. who states that the writer's original generic intention intention is a re., :'- = -
    is altered by the interpreter's interaction with the text, Hirsch believes that intrinsic genre lalsification. It.r=- :
    provides "that sense of the whole by means of which an interpreter can correctly understand works and cann(': i-'-:
    any part in its determinacy" (1976:86). rather than a ntcli - :
    Thereader,accordingtoHirsch,mustsiftthroughpotential interpretationsbyunderstanding on the text rather :--.'.
    the "implications" of each possibility. These implications depend on understanding the author. If we rent,.'. ; :r:

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    The Problem of Meaning

    j. .:,: this by adding the intrinsic language game behind the choice of terms. These rules, he believes, are inherent
    in the context; and though several implications are possible, the "purpose" of the genre tells
    u:r-1irt\ and conviction."
    r.,,ri author-text-reader;
    how the writer intended to use the statement. Since generic elements are "historical and
    culture bound," interpreters align themselves with the author's intended message by refusing
    . -r.- .,,;r.r1ign, illocution,
    to force their own rules on the text (pp. 89-126). Hirsch argues that the "intentional fallacy"
    | "a,rrlmunicative agent"
    of W. K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley was never meant to deny verbal meaning, and that
    ,r i i leople.
    this latter is the proper goal of literary criticism. While a person can never be certain about
    r:r irrr' preIrliSe that the the author's intended meaning. he or she can consider the possible interpretations and choose
    ri:. .tiech act theory in that which has the greatest probability or "validity" (the title of his book). Apart from the
    r. ., .:trrr. the Son is his author's meaning, there is no way to achieve consensus.
    I :., .r:r of receiving the
    The problem is that Hirsch does not have a developed method for validating the
    rl- Jrr llrlt return to him
    interpretation chosen or for choosing one particular meaning possibility over others. For
    Hirsch one selects a possible meaning and then checks it over against the "intended"
    : :i-,: moved ever closer meaning. However, it is not clear how one goes about finding that elusive author's meaning.
    h-,s.-.ino nish to anchor Once the choice is made, Hirsch has four criteria to "verify" it (1961l.236t see pp. 235-
    F{:r..-:, hale provided the 44): legitimacy (permissible within normal language rules), correspondence (accounts for all
    :-:r, :r :tr-rrian, challenges textual components); generic appropriateness (follows the rules ofthe particular genre, such
    :,b-::::'. e interpretation or as science or history); and co herence (the interpretation chosen is more plausible on the basis
    i ::.3J]rng tSirmgebttng). of the previously discussed criteria than are other possibilities). These are all viable principles
    Li : , !:.-: former. The text of interpretation but in themselves do not constitute a verification principle. It is difflcult
    . a ,r,L-- :rLrn transcendental, to conceive how this can overcome the problem of preunderstanding or the influence of a
    ,rti_
    reading strategy. Hirsch never quite solves these problems. He needs a much more complex
    he ,c: .rf comprehending validating procedure and more sophisticated reasoning. Hirsch can lead to possible meaning
    - Iir r.'I of inserting that but it is difflcult to ascertain whether his method produces probable meaning (as he claims).
    :,. : H.r.;h is grounded in Furlher, it is by no means clear how one adjudicates between meaning and signif,cance.
    r...- ipplies that meaning Here Hirsch is at his weakest. Since the very act of determining meaning is done from
    ;.ll: them "cognitive
    re the standpoint of one's preunderstanding (as Gadamer points out), there is no objectively
    l': ..i..pt of "brackets." discernible "meaning"; the very act of interpretation has already become "significant."
    [:-. ::.,- ',i ar. Hirsch argues, Therefore, how can we separate the two? I will discuss possible solutions to these two
    :-::r,-' :' > l ntended meaning problems first in relation to Juhl and then in relation to Kaiser.

    P. D. Juhl agrees with Hirsch's purpose but does not agree that we should separate authors
    sln.l;r to Wittgenstein's from their texts. He asserts "that there is a logical connection between statements about the
    r. ;:ined in ontoiogical meaning of a literary work and statements about the author's intention." Therefore, when
    ihr: :pplr, to a particular we determine the intended meaning of the text, we discover the author's intended meaning
    : de:ends on isolating the (1980:12-15). In a lengthy critique of Hirsch, Juhl argues that Hirsch's definition of authorial
    i c,r.rrral generic intention intention is a recommendation rather than an analytical claim and therefore is not open to
    :,re ":: that intrinsic genre falsilication. Its rigid objectivity could lead to a distortion of the true meaning of literary
    'r .3n .orrectiy understand works and cannot actually resolve interpretive disagreements since it is a presupposition
    rather than a method (pp. l6-44). Juhl overcomes this problem by centering interpretation
    on the text rather than on the author. Nevertheless, he does not deny the centrality of the
    )re i-iI i rrn s by understanding
    author. If we remove the author, the text floats in a historical sea of relativity, open to multiple
    l:1c' ,.rn understanding the

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    christianlib.com
    meanings. The author anchors the text in history and makes interpretation of its original SU}I}I \R\
    meaning possible. Yet Juhl notes that we know the author only to the extent that the text In the hr<::-,r. -.-:
    reveals him. We do not know the John behind his Gospel, only what he has said within its
    in order to der:, i. -'-r:t:
    pages. In this way Juhl avoids the weaknesses of Hirsch and magnifies his strengths. the one hand. : :r , -.
    When interpreting a text, Juhl continues to say, we must apply the criterion of coherence in rvhich the\ :i'.:. : :
    or complexity, since as we judge various theories regarding the meaning of a work, we move basic ar-sumefll ,'r :-. -
    closer to the author's "likely" intention: "Even an appeal to the rules of language in support of author's intence; :-= -
    a claim about the meaning of a work is an implicit appeal to the author's intention" (p. 113).
    systems hare;: :-,::
    -.
    orvn adherertt.:
    In fact, Juhl states. even aesthetic considerations, such as poetic devices, gain meaning only
    existence of re': - - .--
    insofar as the evidence they provide bears on the intended meaning. Therefore, each work
    critics argue. \\ r' r- --i .
    does have a correct interpretation, and it is the critic's responsibility to sift through alternate
    meanin-g ol ter:. i.':::
    readings and select that interpretation that is the most likely one (pp.ll4-52,196-238).
    another (deper:; :
    Walter Kaiser addresses the second problem, Hirsch's distinction between meaning and po11'r'alen--L' -'- : .

    and significance (1981:33-36; see also 1978:123-41). He argues that the latter rightly
    On the othi: ::- -
    makes significance the secondary act but has not sufflciently developed it along the lines of
    of the author-tr'\i. .:. :
    contemporary application. Kaiser identifies signif,cance with the literary question, Can lve
    back into the h;:: :- : -
    understand the author better than he understood himself? Kaiser nalrows the question from that is, to moJr:'. . : -
    the author's psychological make-up to the written text itself. The first step is a comprehensive the concerns rrl : '-: .l
    understanding of the text, which is theoretically achievable if the author expresses himself ob.jective histor:.'. - .

    with sufflcient clarity. Since we cannot go beyond this, an interpreter cannot gain "better might diagrar.n ::. ...
    understanding" by creating new meaning but only by going deeper into the subject matter,
    primarily in terms of its signiflcance for other cultures or situations. Most important for
    Kaiser, this application gains authority only in the extent to r'vhich it is derived from the
    author's original, intended meaning. Therefore, Kaiser rvould first ferret out the intended
    meaning in its original context and then would base its derived "meaning" or signiflcance for
    today on that "single meaning."

    Thiselton goes a step further, noting four models for this tension: (1) The historical-
    critical school has discussed "past" (the re-creation of the historical referent) and "present" Ceni:.,
    (theology) meaning. but that leaves an "unbridgeable gap" bet"veen exegesis and theology and .i :i.
    Tr'..
    never develops the relation between the two (as in Kelsey). (2) Hirsch's meaning-significance
    separation is not developed sufflciently. (3) Gadamer (and reader-response critics) go to the
    other extreme and posit an ontological unity betr,veen meaning and signiflcance. Yet they leave
    the interpreter with no guidelines fbr a responsible interpretation that avoids relativism. (4)
    Thiselton posits an "action model" developed from Searle's "speech act" theory (see pp. 502-
    3) (1985:109-l l). Such an approach allorvs the text itselfto guide. Assertive or propositional Figure 19.1. The pla.. ,f rt
    texts tend to carry their messages across intact while nonassertive or exhortatory passages
    need to be recontextualized.I would blend Kaiser and Thiselton. I am not so skeptical as
    Thiselton about the possibility of delineating the author's intended meaning and then
    recontextualizing that meaning for the contemporary context. At the same time his action
    model provides the basis for doing so. This r'vill be the subject of appendix two.

    J+

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    The Prctblem of Meaning

    -:rr:3tion of its original SUMMARY


    I :it- 3\tent that the text In the first two sections ofthis appendix, I have taken a deliberately synthetic approach
    i.: :e has said within its in order to demonstrate the two directions in which narrative hermeneutics is moving. On
    :<: h.-s \trengths. the one hand, a growing number of avant-garde interpreters are taking a "probing approach"
    ::e -: t:rit-rr-r of coherence in which they seek to break new ground in developing a reader-oriented hermeneutic. The
    .: :: ,l: e $ Ork, We mOVe basic argument of all these schools is simple: the theory that it is possible to discover the
    author's intended meaning in a text is a self-deluding myth. All the philosophical or literary
    -: .::,,:urrge in support of
    systems have produced is a series of arguments or interpretations that have satisfied their
    :i-..: - .r]tention" (p. 113).
    ', .:'.. lain meaning only own adherents; no "covering laws" have been forlhcoming. In other words, they prove the
    existence of reading strategies but not of objective or intended meaning. Therefore, these
    :.: I::retbre. each work
    critics argue, we must stop pretending that there is any first-order system that will unlock the
    ', : :.:: through alternate
    meaning of texts. Rather, all lvorks are aesthetic productions that are open to one extent or
    : . .-:-:1. 196-238). another (depending on the school) to the reader's "freeplay" on the playground of the text,
    - -.. .. hit\\ eert meaning and polyvalence (multiple meanings) is the necessary result.
    :- -..r :re latter rightlY On the other hand, many others. somewhat in reaction to the extent of the disappearance
    -,,:,:, .: rir)r]-s the lines of ofthe author-text, take a more cautionary approach as they seek both to bring the author-text
    ,.:::-.r', question, Can r've back into the hermeneutical process and to interact positively r'vith the results of the former,
    :i:: .i, ' iIL' question from that is, to modify the purely diachronic methods of historical criticism. Furthermore, while
    .i :l;l .. I cclrnprehensive the concerns of both groups are similar (to combat the artificial and static results of purely
    r -i.- i r-\pre Sses himself objective historical criticism), they are moving in opposite directions simultaneously. We
    -- r: t; i , -rrrlot gain "better might diagram the trvo in terms of author-text and text-reader (fig. 19.1).
    <: .:.: :he subject matter.
    :- :.' \I'r.t imPortant fbr
    r-i r .. ierrred from the Gadamer
    -.i -:--ii out the intended
    Structuralism
    i,- . .,r .i,.lnihcance for Poststructuralism
    Reader-Response Deconstruction

    'r.. -r I r The historical- I

    ri. :i:i:ellti and "preSent" Centrality C^entralitY


    .\..r,..> rnd theol0gy and ofrhe" r I olthe
    .- :. . r-.iirning-signilicance
    Terr I I Reader

    .r:-i.:-.e critics) go to the


    r-ir. i .;flCe. Yet theY leave
    Hirsch-Juhl Wittgenstein Canon Ricoeur
    '.r.;i .:',,r1ds relativism. (4)
    lr :. i ihr't)r\' (see pp. 502-
    \-.r:l,r e or propositional Figure 19.1. The place of text and reader in recent hermeneutical study
    ,- : -\hortatory passages
    r i -:ir- n(rt so skeptical as
    :3: j.i r.ncaning and then
    '- :..: -;inre time his action

    :::'a:Jl\ t\\'O.
    35

    christianlib.com

    ru.ffi- .l
    Appendix 2

    It is interestin,: :

    by continental p,,.:.:-- -- -

    British analytical F: ;
    the trvo all too ra::... :-
    and a literary coll''..- --
    or dimensions ol re"..:",
    between phenomcr:, --.
    the dialogue and u.r. : :

    MEANING.{\D RT
    ANALYTIC.{L PHI
    The analltiual :-
    Russell. the earlr \\'::::-
    Rudolf Carnap and r:.: \-
    Trtrth, ttnd Loqit ' l-:^ :
    relationships and ntu.: :o
    can bc "verified" on:. :-.
    both metaphysics an; :::
    verified. and a vierr .::: .
    (see Weitz 1967, 1, l,,-.-'
    preface to the seconJ j-.
    meaningless because r: :i

    christianlib.com

    q w
    Appendix 2

    The Problem of Meaning


    Townno a Sor-urroN

    It is interesting to note how American literary criticism has become very influenced
    by continental poststructuralism while American philosophy has been strongly aff-ected by
    British analytical philosophy. This is true in both the social sciences and religion. In addition,
    the two all too rarely engage in fruitful dialogue. Attending a philosophical conference
    and a literary colloquium in successive weeks is almost like walking into different worlds
    or dimensions of reality. However. there are growing signs of rapprochement, especially
    between phenomenology and analytical philosophy. In this section I would like to continue
    the dialogue and use it to suggest a solution for the author-text-reader dilemma.

    MEANINGAND REFERENCE: THE CONTRIBUTION OF


    ANALYTICAL PHILOSOPHY
    The analytical philosophy school developed out of the logical positivism of Bertrand
    Russell, the early Wittgenstein and their followers in three stages. First, A. J. Ayer built on
    Rudolf Carnap and the Vienna Circle in developing the verifiability principle in Language,
    Truth, and Logic (1946:34-37,114-20). For Ayer language is a formal set of syntactical
    relationships and must be "analyzed" to discover its logical validity. Further, a statement
    can be "verified" only by empirical data from the physical world. This, of course, rules out
    both metaphysics and theology. The problem is that the veriflcation principle itself cannot be
    verified, and a view limiting language to the merely syntactical or contextual is inadequate
    (see Weitz 1961:1:103-4). As a result of such criticism, Ayer modifled his principle in the
    preface to the second edition. Nevertheless, metaphysics as God-talk was still vierved as
    meaningless because it belonged to the noncognitive realm.

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    The second stage came r'vith the falsification principle of Antony FIew (1955:96-99). and truths beronc :-::.
    He posited that no truth statement can claim veracity unless it can be falsifled, that is, unless accordin,slr.:
    one can prove that the reverse cannot be true. Ifclaimants can provide no criteria that could With i. L .\*.: . '
    theoretically force them to change their minds, the assertion has no meaning. Once more, entered the hen::::.=-: .

    religious statements are placed in the noncognitive realm, and the theist is commanded to as well as an as>i:: r : -
    be silent. ( 1962: 10 1 - 19 ,: r:-: - .

    The gauntlet had been thrown, and proposed solutions flowed quickly. Several appeared illocutionttrt aa: -) :i:
    in the same volume with Flew's essay. R. M. Hare agreed that God-talk is noncognitive but perlocutionar-\ a.'- -' i-
    actual utterance\. :. - :
    "
    noted that life is built on such unveriflable "bliks." While not "assefiions" as such, they are a
    "world-vierv" and thus are meaningful (1955:99-103). Basil Mitchell argued that theological and the truth ctrn:::: :
    statements are falsihable but faith keeps them from being ultimately so. For instance. the fact John Searle' - =-
    ofevil counts against the goodness ofGod, but faith overcomes the problem (1955:103-5). argues that a fal.; .--.
    On the other hand, I. M. Crombie posited that theological asseftions can be decisively on the Part of r;-.:..:--.
    falsilled, but such a flnal test can occur only after death. Only then will the full picture language as refe::::.'
    be knorvn (1955:109-30). A11 the responses argue that religious assertions are meaningful, engaging in a rh:-':.-t :
    though not cognitively meaningful. Nevertheless, they can be verified. On the basis of his speech partakes c:
    ":-"
    radical separation betr,veen the cognitive and noncognitive realms, Flew stated in response by established ru.:' : :

    that these attempts are falsified by their orvn subjectivity (1955:106-8). whereby one bri::-:' :.
    Frederick Ferr6 represents the third stage, arguing that the more developed verification and recognize lhe :-.r'.:
    principle is still too narrow in limiting the concept of "fact" to empirical data ( 1 961 :42-57) . Searle builJ. :-=
    "Paradox," when used ofnonscientific explanations, does not mean "logical contradiction" but (1) the axionl tti;'--'::
    simply points to a reality beyond empirical reach. One cannot separate cognitive statements the language serls '-
    from value content. Further. Ferr6 asserts that God-talk centers on ontological reality rather assumes that the ::::.
    than on pure empirical logic. and thereby can be accorded "meaning." Therefbre, empiricism object "regardle'. :
    proves itself wrong "either in verbal rules (if the proposition is analytic) or in equivalent identification. \\ :-.:- r'
    statements referring to actual or possible sense-perception (if the proposition is synthetic)" hearer a descriPt.'-'.. ::-
    (p.53).The ansr,ver is to ground "reality" in rational thinking rather than in mere sense not communicata ) -- :.
    perception. Analogy, not picture language, is the basis of an interpretive description of reality.
    of which doe:" -'-:
    Ferr6 points to imperative, performative and interrogative functions of speech as equally act" will proi ide ::::.
    valid for analytical thinking (p. 55). the listener to ice:-:.: '
    We might call this "interpretive realism" or "functional analysis" (with Ferr6). rvhich (pp. aa-s6).
    means that the verifiability test accords with the "use" of language in its orvn context Searle's the.-:. ::
    (Wittgenstein's "language game"). It is important to note that this in no way denies the basic recei.:: :
    sender and
    validity of the veriflability principle. Instead, analytical philosophy restricts it to its own a referential a.t i'. -:
    realm or language game, namely. the cognitive realm of sense data. Empirical verification difficult, it is ntr .:-:, .

    is valid for scientific experimentation but does not render metaphysics meaningless. Since the way Searle::;-='
    religious language belongs to a metaphysical r.vorldview, it is analogical (symbolically
    interpreting a wide range of experience), interpretive (presenting the intrinsic meaning of the Yet the ba.ri --:-
    facts) and confessional (resulting from personal beliefs). Thereby it is personal rather than the issue here i: ':.::
    scientific language. Arthur Holmes calls this the "language of mystery" (191 1: 155-62) and theory cover bi:..:'
    Ian Ramsey labels it "odd-talk" (1963:11-54). Since it delves into deep-seated paradoxes insights to biblr-':. ..'

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    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    :,:,:.. Fle\\ (1955:96- 99). and truths beyond purely cognitive reasoning, the criteria for verification must be structured

    - :.,..ired. that is. unless accordingly.l


    1ri. :r,r criteria that could With J. L. Austin's important How to Do Things with Words, analytical philosophy
    :. . r:'L-.lnin_9. once more,
    entered the hermeneutical arena. Austin argues that language has a performative function
    : :-.i.: i\ Commanded to as well as an assertive dimension. He develops this in terms of three aspects of speech acts
    (1962:101-19): the locutionary act is what a sentence means at the propositional levell the
    ; *..r..\ SeYeral appeared illocutionary act is what the sentence accomplishes (assertion, promise, prediction); the
    .j-i-:-r r. noncognitive but perktctttionar.,- act looks to the intended effects of the speech act (teaching, persuasion). Most
    'i:. :-.. ,rr SUCh. they are a actual utterances, according to Austin, contain all three components to one degree or another,
    i.. r:-:-rr-d that theological and the truth content of the utterance is judged at all three levels.
    :. - F,-rr itistance. the fact John Searle's influential Speech Aos deepens and expands Austin's position. Searle
    :: :: rlent tl95-5:103-5). argues that a false equation of meaning rvith use has given rise to several fallacious positions
    .::. :.. .-rrn be decisively on the parl of analytical philosophers.2 Therefore, the basis of analytical theory should be
    ::.-:' ,.'. rll the full picture Ianguage as referential rather than performative. His basic thesis is: "speaking a language is
    ,...-. L,r.\ are meaningful, engaging in a (highly complex) rule-governed form of behaviour" (1969:17 ,80). By nature
    :.': - rJ t the blsis of his speech partakes of "expressibility" and therefore enables us to judge individual statements
    ,. F:.,. >ttted in response
    by established rules for linguistic meaning. For Searle the sentence is an intentional device
    f-\
    whereby one brings hearers into the proper arena so that they might apply the correct rules
    'ri j:- . 3..rped verification and recognize the meaning.
    :.:- -: jiili-r t 1961 :42-57). Searle builds the bridge from utterance to meaning via three "axioms" of reference:
    ''. ..,.,. irrntradiction" but
    (1) the axiom of existence, which assumes that the object refemed to exists in the rules of
    J:rr',,'gnitive statements
    the language game (such as in the real world or in fiction); (2) the axiom of identity, which
    : -: . ':ical reality rather assumes that the predication is trueof an object if it is true of anything identical with that
    i T^::etbre.empiricism object "regardless of what expressions are used to refer to that object"; (3) the axiom of
    :r:..i,' or in equivalent identification, which assumes that "the utterance of that expression must communicate to the
    ;; 1 '..1ion is synthetic)" hearer a description true of, or a fact about, one and only one object, or if the utterance does
    "i::a- ::ti.in in mere sense
    not communicate such a fact the speaker must be able to substitute an expression, the utterance
    l'...: ri.Jription of reality.
    of which does" (1969:80, see pp. 19-21, 42-50,77-80). The context of the "illocutionary
    - r.. I .peech as equally act" will provide preparatory conditions or presuppositions as well as "excluders" that help
    the listener to identify the referential meaning on the basis of the linguistic relationships
    -.
    -.. r. rth Ferr6). which (pp. aa-s6).
    a-i_ji i:l its orvn context Searle's theory provides an important basis for reflecting on the relationship between
    .: -. .'.,r Jt'Dies the basic sender and receiver or (in a historical act of communication) between text and reader. While
    r:.. :J.rriits it to its or,vn a referential act of understanding (such as the recovery of the original meaning of Jn 3) is
    .: - E::rpirical verif,cation
    diflicult, it is not impossible. The debate again is whether the identification of an utterance in
    :.1. -. :rL'aningless. Since
    the way Searle argues is indeed a possible enterprise.
    .:-,'ital (symbolically
    l3 r:-.:r-.n:tc meaning of the Yet the basic difflculty is that Austin and Searle are dealing with spoken language while
    '' - p3rronal rather than the issue here is r,vritten texts. Can the gap between the two be bridged? Does speech-act
    ,.:.1. 1971:155-62) and theory cover biblical texts? Several respond afflrmatively. Donald Evans applies Austin's
    r: :, j33D-seated paradoxes insights to biblical asseftions ( 1 963: I 58-64). The alien-ness or odd-ness of biblical assertions

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    christianlib.com
    is vitiated by this new view of language as a performative act. This is especially true when from the arena !-: :- ,
    one adds the "self-involvement" of the reader. The believer's faith becomes an "onlook" that However. I do n!,: :tr- a

    opens up new logic possibilities for accepting scriptural statements according to their own
    Most current .:-: .
    rules. The statement's commissive/performative force correlates with the theory of revelation
    is no conceptual 5.: :t
    as self-involving at heart. When we clarify this via Searle's reformulation of utterance as
    forcefully for th:- :.*.:
    referential in essence, we can no longer radically separate biblical assertions from the
    of langua-ee &re .r.i:rr:
    possibility of meaning.
    basic maxin.r:: . .-.
    Kevin Vanhoozer, building on Searle, sees four illocutionary factors in biblical literature: meaning of sent.-:. :- -
    proposition (the data communicated), purpose (the reason for the prepositional content), the conditioni L:r-:: ""
    presence (the genre or form of the author's message), and polver (the illocutionary lbrce of of the sentence. -: i:
    the message). By noting these factors, Vanhoozer argues, we can interpret a text's intended one's assignins -r: r-
    meaning (1986:91-92). He believes that there are also four areas of agreement among speech terms within the .::::-
    act theologians: (l) language is more than reference; it is transformative and so must be the meaning oi ; t:::-
    studied for pragmatic as well as semantic qualities. (2) Language is not indeterminate, and
    As Peter Cr'ii.'::,.
    the author is an important to the process of interpretation. (3) Action, not just representation,
    complex (19E9:-. :-
    is the essential component, and the proper paradigm for biblical communicability is promise
    the words to one ':. :--:
    and covenant. (4) Readers are not free to manipulate texts to their own ends (2004:1 64- 7).
    thepropositionr:- :.:
    The key is to develop a "model of communicative action" that recognizes the place of both
    author and reader in the interpretive process. This will involve language use more than words
    development i: r'.::. :

    as signs that must be decoded, speech as discourse rather than binary opposites at the level
    criticism come> .:.: :
    Naturally, at ea;i .:.:
    of the individual word.
    complex. and :ch .,:-
    This leads to the "action model" of Roger Lundin, Anthony Thiselton and Clarence
    Reference pr\ '. .;::
    Walhout, which seeks to "reclaim the importance of reference and the nonlinguistic world"
    of the holy of h.., . e -!
    from deconstruction theory (Lundin et al. 1986:42). Three principles form the core of their
    of the mercl .e::
    approach (pp.43-49,107-13). First, written texts are objects as rvell as instruments. As objects
    the term, there i) : .i:
    they are not autonomous, for they are produced by action. Thus they can be understood onlv
    uncertain w'hat er=-:. .
    via a theory of action that recognizes them as objects resulting from action and instruments
    behind apocallpl.- .r:
    producing action. Second, the meaning or sense of a text depends not just on the semantic
    book of Relelati.':.. -:
    development of the terms but also on the action or functioning purpose (illocutionary force)
    known evidence :.. ,:.
    of the sentence in its context. Third, we must identify the temporal sequence of the actions in
    referential dimen-. :. .
    the text as a whole that defines the function ofthe particular sentence in its context. The result
    :: r:: .'
    (most critics ) or
    of these factors leads to the "intention" of the text.
    a glonie: ,..-
    Danielic
    However, for these authors, there are multiple functions of a text, and these can lead to the opponents in .-::. :
    one type of "multiple meanings." Yet these are not free renderings but are based on what the sense all historic"- :--=.
    text itself intends to do (again its illocutionary purpose). For instance, a parable narrates but
    also informs, directs, challenges and persuades.In short, a text itself performs speech acts
    Postmoderni::> -::
    deny the validitr :,: .e;
    and is open to questions of intentionality. Nevertheless, while the author is an important
    component of the text, he provides only one aspect of textual interpretation because the
    and Ricoeur. har e ::::'
    connected to thc' r-:: L -.
    reader must assimilate and come to understand the textual communication.
    extratextual reali:" :e:
    One major objection to the use of analytical philosophy from poststructuralist concerns (one who accepl> ::3
    is the dichotomy between speech and writing. Since writing codifles speech and removes it viability of such )r3:: .

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    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    i- -srl3ginlly true when from the arena of dialogue, the performative or referential dimensions may no longer apply.
    r.,:':-.3! an "onlook" that However, I do not believe that this is the case.
    r.. rriing to their own Most current studies about the relationship between mind and language assume that there
    l '.rr' '.tr'LrrV of revelation
    is no conceptual gap between them. Gottlob Frege's work on sense and reference has argued
    r:,r:t,rn r)f utterance as forcefully for this essential unity by showing that concepts which are critical to a description
    c:- ,:.-ertions from the
    of language are integral to mental acts (1980:56- 78). Frege's theory of truth contains three
    basic maxims: (1) The meaning of individual terms depends on their contribution to the
    :.:- .r :iblical literature: meaning of sentences in the language. (2) The meaning of sentences depends on recognizing
    : ::r'la'ltional content), the conditions under which the sentences are true; this meaning determines the truth value
    ne -r
    j,-\utionary force of of the sentence. (3) Propositional attitudes such as belief, knowledge or assertion depend on
    ri3rlir'i i-i text's intended one's assigning senses to words and sentences. Sense is the meaning value assigned to the
    ri:i- :l-.-nt among SpeeCh terms within the sentence, reference to the real world behind the sentence. Sense relates to
    :i-;'.r ,3 and so must be the meaning of a term in its relation to other tems in the context.
    > r- i -1Jc'terminate, and
    As Peter Cotterell and Max Turner explain, this occurs at several levels, each more
    :": ': ri\t representation, complex (1989:78-82). At the sentence level, sense concerns the semantic relationship of
    :::1 ir:.abilitv is promise
    the rvords to one another. At the paragraph level we must discern the complex relationship of
    .i , : :r i. r )004: 164- 7) .
    the propositions to one another (the structural development ofthe paragraph). This structural
    ':: .r-. :he place of both development is even more difficult to determine at the discourse level. Here rhetorical
    ::. -.a nrore than words criticism comes into play as we trace the developing argument of the entire discourse.
    i-, '::,-r.ite:, at the level Naturally, at each level the task of delineating the original or literal sense becomes more
    complex, and scholars become more doubtful as to the possibility of discovering such.
    l-:: -e.t.,n and Clarence Reference provides even greater problems. It is one thing to "understand" a description
    i-:e :,rrlinguistic world"
    of the holy of holies (Ex 25) and quite another to know what the "cherubim" at the two ends
    3: r- ]: the core of their of the mercy seat (vv. 17-22) denote. Since reference refers to the exact thing signified by
    ii -:.:::lnrents. As objects the term, there is no way to know the reference of "cherubim," since scholars themselves are
    r jj:. ii understood only uncertain what exactly it connotes. Similarly. it is impossible to know the referential reality
    - :.: 1.,r and instruments
    behind apocalyptic symbolism such as the many-headed beasts or the locust plague in the
    :.,: -,tit on the semantic book of Revelation, or of certain biblical towns like Emmaus in Luke 24l.13, of which no
    ],,,:r r.-riautionary force)
    known evidence exists regarding its exact location. On the other hand, in many passages the
    riJ -r'r --3 of the actions in referential dimension is essential. For instance. is Jesus using "Son of Man" about himself
    3 .: .:' .-rlntext. The result (most critics) or another figure (so Bultmann)? Does the term denote a circumlocution for I or
    a Danielic glori{ied figure or both? In the same way, scholars are constantly trying to identify
    i\i. :i-.J lhese can lead to the opponents in such epistles as 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Colossians or 1 John. In a very real
    f -. .rri based on lvhat the sense all historical questions are questions of ref'erence. Moreover, they are valid questions.
    ,... : :ffable narrates but Postmodernists center on the unceftainty and inconclusiveness of historicist issues and
    s-: :.':lt)rms speech acts deny the validity of seeking the referential reality behind a statement. In fact many, like Fish
    !3 i.r:ir!rr is an important and Ricoeur, have redefined the terms. The sense is the meaning of the terms but no longer is
    :1:rJ :3t3tion because the connected to the original situation, and reference denotes the world of the text rather than the
    ":---
    ,.-l--rr1-.
    extratextual reality behind the text. This, however, is an antirealist position. and the realist
    3t >: >::i,lcturalist concerns (one who accepts the viability of a real world behind assertions) rightfully questions the
    ,e> 'f..ch and removes it viability of such skeptical assertions. Sense and reference are essentialist components of any

    4t
    christianlib.com
    "'rtnmlil;EFimltil fl'
    theory of meaning, and more than that they are viable and possible goals of research. At times directly or analr :.....r
    one can go no furlher than the sense, but both aspects must be considered in exegetical study. Iines of Gadamer: tr:: --'

    Here I have sought to demonstrate the validity of religious language (both oral and from the dominer:,,- '
    written) as well as other types of discourse as employing sense and reference and therefore who weds Marr .:: F:
    as open to veriflcation analysis via criteria of adequacy. The importance of the community of from the stru-eg1e :<:., :
    scholars is crucial for the latter and also for analytical philosophy. However, I would argue that that hermeneuti,-> i.:: :
    this does not entail the fusion ofreader and text into a single entity but that the distanciation itself is dominat.-: : .
    betrveen reader and text provides a perspective for viable interpretation. Readers are both the heart of herr-.:'=-:
    part of the referential world (by means of commitment) and separate from it (by means of way that Freudr": :-_'
    historical distance). As a result they stand both within and outside the text and engage it in a must hermeneut:J- ..rr
    meaningful dialogue. However, I admit that this does not yet allow us to go so far as to posit understanding ." \'. .. . - .

    intentionality. That is the subject of the ensuing sections. a particular lan!,.":: :.


    and viabilitl'.:

    THE SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLBDGE, PARADIGM STRUCTURE Habermas h;. : -:-


    AND INTENTIONALITY assumption that ..:-
    1. Sociology of knowledge. An essential aspect of hermeneutics is the effect of cultural has universal iri::..-.:
    heritage and worldvierv on interpretation. The sociology of knowledge recognizes the introduction to ti-.e .:-.:.
    influence of societal values on all perceptions of reality. This is a critical factor in coming his Marxist-Frru.-r-. r :

    to grips with the place of preunderstanding in the interpretive process. Basically, sociology Ideological i.:-.-
    of knowledge states that no act of coming to understanding can escape the formative power or Arminian. Re:. :=
    of the background and the paradigm community to rvhich an interpreter belongs. The community has ,gi'.: . -.
    tremendous changes in the philosophy of science in recent years have forced all the sciences Larkin notes fou: -:...
    (social science as rvell) to rethink the entire process oftheory formulation and change. (1) Divine revela:.. : :

    The "critical hermeneutics" of Karl-Otto Apel and Jiirgen Habermas are instructive here cultures and conre. : -

    (see the description in Bleicher 1980:146-80). Both take an anthropological and sociological Bible we firust ct-]'.rr:
    approach to knowledge. Apel accepts Gadamer's historicality of knowledge but goes one fragmentary and rr::;: :
    step further, arguing that the sociology of history makes genuine communication extremely contemporar) scrcii- - . :
    difflcult. Apel means that communication theory must concern itself with a "critique of (4) No unified \\q,- -." .

    ideology," that is, the tendency of individuals to manipulate or control others via the act of the normative rrB:.:J:
    communication. The social environment is a critical factor that Gadamer and his successors themselves ( 1 981.--: -
    "
    tend to overlook. As a result the interaction between text and interpreter is not idealistic, for
    Sociologl oi \: ..
    the text itself is the product of a social world and seeks to force the reader to enter into and
    intended meanins ::.: '.:
    emulate that worldview. Apel demands cognizance of these factors and suggests a dialectic
    factor, for it allos . -''-
    benveen basic hermeneutics and the sociology of knowledge, with the latter transcending
    This conscious ide:.:. :
    the rvhat to the why. When the interpreter becomes involved in this interplay of forces, the
    rather than behind ::: :,
    tert and its thought world are seen in a new light. Apel turns to psychoanalysis for a model,
    interpretive proce.. S
    c-:pecially its stress on a heightened self-understanding via a critical interaction between
    indeed control inte:::.:-
    :trbject and object (197 1:7 -44, especially pp. 41-44) .
    cultural approxim"r: . . -

    Habermas goes even furlher with the imporlance of a sociologically aware hermeneutics. identifying the soc:.=:,- :
    He argues for three flelds of knowledge: sclence, which utilizes technical information derived have been dealt rr i:: .:. '

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    .*:+--
    ',i*r-.
    The Problem of Meaning

    ,r;.. ri research. At times directly or analytically from the sense world; history, which interprets language along the
    :ere: ir eregetical study. lines of Gadamer; and the social sciences .which use reflection to free or "emancipate" people
    from the domination of historical forces. The third type provides the solution for Habermas,
    -.lr:uire rboth oral and
    :e::::nce and therefore who weds Marx and Freud to overcome the control of interpretation by ideologies derived
    J
    cr;; ': lhc community of from the struggle betrveen the classes. Therefore, Habermas must counter Gadamer's claim
    ',\.'. .r. I t ould argue that that hermeneutics has a universal thrust because it centers on language, arguing that language

    r ii ii,.ri the distanciation itself is dominated by social forces and that the only answer is a "critique of ideology" at
    ::::: : Readers are both the heart of hermeneutics. Like Apel, he finds his model in psychoanalysis. In the same
    ,:: ::rrt rt {by meanS Of way that Freudian psychoanalysis isolates "systematically distorted communication," so
    :e ::..r ind engage it in a must hermeneutics liberate understanding from ideology. This is accomplished by "scenic
    understanding," which analyzes and then explains the previously inaccessible forces behind
    -\ : _:,.r \o far aS to posit
    a particular language game. One can then critique these forces in tetms of their competence
    and viability.l

    I.I. C'TL RE Habermas has indeed noted one of the basic weaknesses of Gadamer, his Heidegerrian
    assumption that language encompasses all meaning and that therefore hermeneutics
    At the same time, Habermas's critique of ideology is a good
    has universal implications.
    r. :.::3 effect of cultural
    introduction to the importance of the sociology of knowledge as an interpretive tool . Although
    .;J-re recognizes the
    l,r'"\
    his Marxist-Freudian basis must be challenged, his basic thrust is important.
    .::r.-.ri fa'-tor in coming
    :e.. Brisically. sociology Ideological forces do indeed control hermeneutics for most of us. Whether Calvinist
    :r:-: :i.!' ionnative power or Arminian, Reformed or dispensational, process or liberation theologian, each faith
    irl:rrrr-tiI belongs. The community has given us ceftain ideological proclivities that guide our interpretation. William
    r',3 r :--id all the sciences Larkin notes four challenges from the sociology of knowledge for biblical interpretation:
    -l;t. :-. .,nd change. (1) Divine revelation itself is culturally conditional since it was communicated to diverse
    i:r-.:- :re instructive here cultures and comes to us with the indelible stamp of those cultures. (2) To understand the
    :,.. :.."1 and sociological Bible we must comprehend the "categories of meaning" behind the messages; these are
    r-,-, .,. ..-J-se but goes one fragmentary and often assumed by the biblical writers, so they are diff,cult to unearth. (3) Our
    .L- :-.::-. r:ri.-ation extremely contemporary social context is also multiplex and changing, which affects our interpretations.
    l'->r'.r :, ith a "critique of (4) No unified worldview or preunderstanding can lead to a fusion of horizons, so often
    r.:: . ,:ners via the act of the normative message of a text is the product of our perspective rather than of the texts
    ,Jrr-ir .in,l his successors themselves ( 1988:67-69).
    piii;: .. ntrt idealistic, for Sociology of knowledge highlights the distanciation between the biblical author's
    Ii t:;ic-r to enter into and intended meaning and the modern reader's act of interpretation. Yet it is not entirely a negative
    -: ;:.j .LiSSests a dialectic
    factor, for it allows interpreters to identify r,vith precision their cultural and religious heritage.
    :a :1.- .iltter tranScending This conscious identiflcation is a critical factor in placing one's presuppositions in front of
    I-: .::r':pla\ of forces, the rather than behind the text, in allorving the text rather than ideological factors to guide the
    ', -:r, i:.trl\ sis for a model, interpretive process. So long as we assume the absolute validity of these beliefs, they do
    :::.i. rrlcraction between
    indeed control interpretation. Only by identifying them for r'vhat they are-theological and
    cultural approximations of truth-can we keep them in perspective. The further problems of
    j',\ are herrneneutics. identifying the societal factors of the text and of uniting our perspective with that of the text
    .niormation derived have been dealt with in the body of this book (see chaps. 5, 11).

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    christianlib.com
    2. Paradigm change and paradigm communities. The major issue, of course, is the
    resistfalsiflcatr.:.. I,
    validity of the theories of the sociology and philosophy of science for the social
    exist, there are inc::c:
    sciences.
    While a final answer is almost impossible, we must begin with Thomas Kuhn's The Structure
    are not immune : ,:.r
    be noted. such i. :::
    of Scientific Revolutions.a At the outset, it is a sociological and historiographical study
    rather than a philosophical treatise. Kuhn rejects the traditional view that science develops
    -..
    tbrmational hi:lt,r. :

    Most important. :.: .:


    via inductive research and posits that scientiflc "paradigms" or supertheories control in the
    "criticai reflecil, -. :.
    scientiflc community. A "paradigm" designates the set of beliefs and assumptions shared by
    ethics and sinrplr- :" .
    a particular scientific community. His view is that paradigms shift more due to inadequacies
    (influence oi pre-:::
    in existing models than to the superiority of the new model. The reason is that scientific
    predominate ore: r_:,
    communities engage in problem solving more than path-breaking enterprises. Change
    evidence. crite:r. :-.: .

    occurs when the community of scholars with their shared values comes to consensus on the
    objective featLri!'. ::: -
    validity of the new paradigm (Kuhn 1970).s In other words science, like all disciplines, has a
    subjective, community-directed aspect. In other \\ Lrru.. .i -
    difficult, it is .: :,
    nr',r .

    Garry Gutting states that the social sciences have no grounds for placing themselves
    can enable oil€ r, --- -
    rvithin Kuhn's system, since they never demonstrate the universal consensus that is necessary
    to qualify for paradigm shifts (1980:2-15). On the other hand, as Gutting (pp. 15-19) and The priman :.=.:
    Frederick Suppe admit, a proper "philosophy of science must come squarely into contact On the basis rri : ::.:
    with the basic issues in epistemology and metaphysics; and the attempt to do epistemology or adequacy in a per::: - ..
    metaphysics without regard to science is dangerous at best" (Suppe 1977:728). Fufthermore, of the impassel I:. :r-'
    rvhile complete consensus is seldom if ever achieved, the type of scholarly agreement that not open to a cr.:,.:.
    results in paradigm shift fbr the majority has often occurred, such as in recognizing that and Fish in thi: .:.:: -'.-
    Jewish and Hellenistic backgrounds must be considered together in New Testament research. a semantic shift :.;:.r -
    Few today (after Hengel and others) would consider only Judaism or Hellenism applicable is an accepted pr'.::..:
    to Paul. This is indeed a paradigm shift for history of religions research. Many doubt Kuhn's position will chir::,:; -
    pessimism about truth-seeking in philosophy and science as rvell as his resultant claim that the data to cohere .'. -::. :

    science and art unite in their primary concern with puzzle solving. In reality, both science and a "negotiable" Ih;r .;:r
    artlsocial sciences consider and evaluate truth claims. A11 these ca:.-: ::
    For our purposes we will center on Ian Barbour's attempt to apply Kuhn's concept of containeduniti.F::
    theory choice to religious paradigms. He agrees with the importance of the shared paradigm of Scripture it:e1.. :-:
    rvithin a community (note the parallels with reader-oriented criticism and analytical communities. Th: - ::
    approach to truri. . : ::
    philosophy) and that observations are paradigm dependent (parallels with phenomenological
    own system. The .:.:,-.
    preunderstanding), but he believes that the categories are too simplistic. There is a continual
    to the text. The ke', . :
    dialogue between paradigm communities and more often "microrevolutions" rather than
    full paradigm shifts result. Most important, competing claims are critically examined and to r,velcome chal:: .-: .

    be right" and "tir,. .,.


    discarded for rational reasons. Kuhn admits in his second edition that communication or
    critical dialogue can and does take place between competing paradigm groups. However, 3. Intentionoliq. '
    the problem of individual judgment from rvithin a paradigm does not rule out purely rational features, especia:. , :--,.
    decision making. possibility of dia., ---=
    polyvalence is thc :.':-:
    Barbour himself constructs a "model" for theory construction based on observation,
    but necessarr trr ir.: .-
    theoretical models, research traditions and metaphysical assumptions. He argues that (l)
    growing number '., - -
    although all data are value laden, rival theories are not incommensurable; (2) though paradigms

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    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    resist falsiflcation, observation maintains some control; (3) while no rules for paradigm shift
    - :].,.. of course, is the exist, there are independent criteria of assessment. Therefore, even metaphysical assumptions
    : : : :he :ocial sciences. are not immune to change. When applied to religious paradigms, several crucial aspects must
    be noted, such as the importance of the community (note similarities to Fish) and of the
    . :.:.:,rnocraphical study formational historical events (similar to Gadamer), which Barbour calls "revelatory" events.
    3'.i il;I
    rcience develops Most imporlant, he stresses that religious commitment can and must be combined with
    ]ca:-.3Lrries control in the "critical reflection" based on such noncognitive criteria as social or psychological needs,
    L; j..-rirptions shared by
    ethics and simplicity or coherence. While the subjective features in the act of interpretation
    :-i,-,::' iii. to inadequacies (influence of preunderstanding, resistance to change. absence of rules for paradigm choice)
    ' r3;:,,r is that scientific predominate over objective features (common data between disputants, cumulative effect of
    :r-.: :rterprises. Change evidence, criteria that are not paradigm dependent) in distinction from scientific theory, the
    l,Ili: ltr aOnSenSUS On the objective features are still present (1980:223-45, see also Mitchell 1981:75-95).
    , .rr: rll Jisciplines. has a
    In other words, while the act of interpreting the truth content or validity of a statement is
    difficult, it is not impossible. If the attempt is sophisticated and aware, the objective features
    . 1.,: :iucing themselves can enable one to decide between competing theories.
    t:.\-i..J> that is necessary
    The primary barrier to a valid interpretation is, as already stated, our preunderstanding.
    C-::-rs rpp. 15-19) and
    :: .;uarelr' into contact On the basis of differing presupposed systems, one interpreter may see coherence and
    adequacy in a particular theory of meaning while another may reject it. Is there any way out
    ri:r : r io epistemology C)r
    of the impasse? In many cases there is not, for the competing preunderstandings are often
    , *-- -lS). Furthermore,
    not open to a critical dialogue. In this case the original meaning can never be recovered,
    r-r. - l"rlr a-greement that
    and Fish in this instance is correct. However. this need not be the case. D. A. Carson notes
    li- :: :r1 recognizing that
    a semantic shift between two types of preunderstanding: (l) A "functional non-negotiable"
    \:'', Tr':timent research.
    is an accepted position that remains open to the evidence; if Scripture should so dictate, the
    r :,:- H:llenism applicable
    position will change. (2) An "immutable non-negotiable" is not open to correction but twists
    r,:--h \lanr doubt Kuhn's
    the data to cohere with the preconceived theory (1984c:12-15). I would add another category:
    a: ;.- ie:ultant claim that
    a "negotiable" that seeks challenge and, if necessary, correction in order to ascertain truth.
    i :e:lrr',. both science and
    All these categories are valid, depending on the issue. Moreover, these are not self-
    contained units. For instance, fe"v would say they remain closed to the corrective force
    :::. " Kuhn's concept of of Scripture itself. but they may be closed to the corrective impact of other paradigm
    ;e .-: rre shared paradigm
    communities. The critical interaction between competing systems is essential for a pluralistic
    :r--ti:iin.i and analytical
    approach to truth, lbr preunderstanding makes it quite difficult to identify weak points in our
    l. ....:r ohenomenological
    own system. The criticisms of others highlight these anomalies and enable us to move closer
    h.tr;. There is a continual
    to the text. The key is to create lvithin one's self an attitude of openness to truth that allows us
    r,:,re..,,-utitrnS" rather than
    to welcome challenge from other interpretive communities because we know that "they may
    e .:r:..rllY examined and
    be right" and "this will drive me back to the text to discover the 'truth.' "
    \:.I :i.rl .-L)mmunication or
    *;.:I:] groups. However, 3. Intentionulity. The paradigm communities described here share several common
    :,:,: :--,g !rut purely rational features, especially the centrality of the community, the issue of preunderstanding and the
    possibility of dialogue in a pluralistic setting. The question to which I turn now is whether
    polyvalence is the natural resuit or whether some view of intentionality is not only possible
    ,,:r-b:::d on observation. but necessary to the interpretive task. As I noted in the survey of mediating positions, a
    rtr,-':,. He argues that (l) growing number r'vould like to combine the two, either under "what the Bible meant-
    ar.:-. l, thoughparadigms
    45

    christianlib.com
    ''qirF*

    wilr
    what it means" categories or under a distinction betrveen meaning (the text's intendedi 4. Probabilit\ rhe ,-rr

    original meaning) and signiflcance (what the text means, or polyvalence). To summarize come to the fore ir. :. -, -
    the arguments thus far, I believe that philosophy works functionally in terms of reference delineation of crit::.. :
    rather than empirically in terms of sense data and so we must consider religious statements l9l5:91 - l2ltan; :::
    in terms of a metaphysical worldview rather than in terms of positivistic empiricism. This
    In separatc :r:.,.: -
    metaphysical worldview is fact-oriented rather than logic-oriented and proceeds on the basis
    Pollock (1967,-t-t-- i--
    of ontology rather than on logical necessity. Paradigm communities critically interact on the
    knowledge. Ther -:-:: :
    basis of the criteria of adequacy and coherence, testing their truth claims. The Bible, seen as
    it can even be_r r:. I - - -
    a revelatory communication from God, makes all this possible, for it provides the objective connection bel$ e;: ::-
    data for judging these truth claims. Let us apply this to the basic debate on intentionality.
    utterances. thr' . :. - '
    The modern debate on intentionality began rvith the classic essay "The Intentional ofadequacl can:: -::
    Fallacy" by W. K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley. They argued "that the design or intention
    W. V. Quine - -:--.
    of the author is neither available nor desirable as a standard for judging the success of a theory in simill: ,.. , -
    work of literary art" (Wimsatt and Beardsley 1916:1). The problem of deriving the author's
    and deductire l, :.- -- .

    intention, especially if that is not effective in the written rvork, causes intentionality to
    stating ?fl occc:it,:-. 1.-.:1
    repudiate itself. The highly negative cast ofthis theory has led to a great deal ofacrimony and
    assent" fron-r the'.,, .:- : -..
    attempts at reformulation, to the extent that Graham Hough states, "This critical movement
    a theoretical r)r \::-- :
    has by now disintegrated, as a result ofits own internal contradictions, ofdirect assaults on it, (note the sinrilrrr: .-
    and of more philosophical consideration of meaning and intention in a non-literary context."6 for variation" rn ::.- --
    Yet it has not led to the demise of the problem of getting back to intention, and if anything the "a narrorv spectr,.-::- .

    intensity ofthe denial has increased today, as evidenced in appendix one. for "the continuii, : --
    Analytical philosophers, such as J. L. Austin, have continually addressed the problem 14-81). Moreore:.:-:
    of intentionality. The classical statement is G. E. M. Anscombe's Intention, rvhich addresses the basis for dec,.. - -

    the issue through the thought of her own teacher, Ludwig Wittgenstein. She took a James Ros.
    ";l :-
    phenomenological approach. arguing that intention is a form of description that answers the that no actual "ir:..:-- :

    question. Why? Therefore, it is connected to practical knorvledge and deals with actions intelligible anJ -,- - --- -

    (Anscombe 1963:83-89). Several recently have extended this to textual interpretation, taking occuffence l0 Jil,'ir.: l
    a position similar to Juhl. They assert: "Illocutionary acts are intentional, so in interpreting a believes that the , :::-:
    text \'ve are recovering the author's intention."T thecommunitt.r:.- ' :'
    I would like to extend this discussion in two directions: the issues of genre and into the comnrLr: . .. : -
    probability (see sec. 4 on probability theory). Genre determines the extent to r,vhich we are the proof of trutl , . --
    to seek the author's intention. For instance, the French "new novel" (Derrida's major proof others, believe: ir.:i - , -

    text) demands that the interpreter break the normal bounds of established reading and interact meaning and br ;.,- - - .

    be formed.lr
    on a new level.S Of course, I am cognizant of the debate regarding the validity of genre
    as a classificatory device rather than as an epistemological or ontological tool. However, I would go a\::J .:;:
    as I have argued in my essay on "Genre Criticism-Sensus Literalis" (1983:1-27), these are same criteria oi .,'..:::-
    not mutually exclusive categories. Thus I believe that generic considerations determine Systems are not \r'.- -

    the rules of the language game (see the discussion of Wittgenstein and Hirsch on pp. 493- be relative. and B-:-
    95) and therefore help one to discover the author's intention. In many types of poetry and indeed the case .:.-.: :
    \',

    narrative the text itself is multilayered in terms of meaning, but that in itself is the author's denies the adequ.-.. ' '
    intended message. 69). The criteria -. .': -

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    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    .:r: :ni te\t's intendedi 4, Probability theory. Probability theory is another complex issue. It has increasingly
    .i::;e
    i ,. To summarize come to the fore in discussions of meaning transference and truth claims. My thesis is that any
    ,l', .r ternrs of reference delineation of criteria for meaning depends on adequacy, coherence or synonymy (Dummett
    .i;3: :!'ri_gious statements 197 5:97 -122) and demands some theory of probability.
    l::, r.::. empiricism. This
    In separate articles in the I 967 issue of Plzi /o sophy Review, R. Fifih (1961 :3-21) and J. L.
    .:.: :r,-.;eeds on the basis Pollock (1967:55-60) argue for the priority ofprobability theory over the quest for necessary
    : .: i.,:il1r interact on the knorvledge. They state that the demand for certitude negates the quest for knowledge before
    .r.:'- The Bible. seen as it can even begin. Further, Ernest W. Adams provides an extremely relevant study of the
    :: ::,',, rdes the objective connection between truth and probability in terms of one of the most difficult types of
    :i:.,,r'. intentionality. utterances, the conditional statement (1965:69-102). He argues that the pragmatic criterion
    . ...-:j "The Intentional of adequacy can be met only by probability theory.e
    :.: r:; Je:ign or intention W. V. Quine's study of "The Nature of Natural Knowledge" attempts to rehne knowledge
    '-i.:.:I the success of a theory in similar ways. He asserts that "similarity structures" stand behind both inductive
    : . : ::nving the author's and deductive logic. The starting point of theory formulation is the "observation sentence."
    . -:-,.i. intentionality to stating an occasion that is both "subjectively observable" and "generally adequate . . . to elicit
    .:a;. -la-11 rrf acrimony and assent" fromthe witnesses present (1975:73: see pp. 61-14).This occasion sentencebecomes
    .
    "l--. ,'ritical movement a theoretical or standing sentence via query and evidence, as reference leads to predication
    i -. : .i:rect assaults on it, (note the similarities to Searle at this point). While Quine recognizes the "formless freedom
    :- r :. ':-.-irterary context."6 fbr variation" in theory formulation, at the same time he concludes that they function within
    : :.: . "n d if anything
    .-. the "a narrorv spectrum of visible alternatives" that interact to revise a theory and thereby make
    \ ': for "the continuity of science." The basis of such is "refutation and correction" (p. 8 l ; see pp.
    . , .--:r'.:ed the problem 74-81). Moreover, the very process of refutation depends on a recognition of probability as
    r.':,' *hich addresses
    ;i. the basis for decisions.ro
    \.:::::.>rein. She took a James Ross applies these theories to "Ways of Religious Knowing." His basic thesis is
    \:.:..,\1r that answers the that no actual "infirmities" prevent religious knowledge. Religious discourse is inherently
    3 i'-.- l.als rvith actions intelligible and accessible because there is continuity "from one meaning- differentiated
    .i*: .:li-rpletation, taking occuffence to another" via analogy, relatedness and semantic contagion (1982:83-87). Ross
    i- . r:.. .rr in interpreting a believes that the content ofreligious discourse is indeed "craft-bound," internal to the life of
    the community and not fully accessible to those rvho rvill either study or immerse themselves
    ',i.; ...ur': ol genre and into the community. Furthermore, faith and reason are not incompatible, and criteria for
    the proof of truth claims does exist alongside faith. Ross, along rvith Alvin Plantinga and
    li :i.:::ll tO ['hiCh We are
    '."' l::riJa's major proof others, believes that such criteria are accessible to the philosopher by the analogy theory of
    meaning and by participation in the community. Truths can be demonstrated and theories can
    .::.. I :3ldln-g and interact
    be formed.lr
    :.:. :::: ralidity of genre
    1:. r...11 tool. However, I rvould go one step further. As the believing communities interact and debate truths, the
    :: .,rr-i1l -ll), these are same criteria of coherence and adequacy enable them to challenge and correct one another.
    - : -.;eratic'u]s determine Systems are not self-contained and mutually exclusive. If this were the case, "truth" rvould
    l-. r:r,-t Hirsch on pp. 493- be relative. and Buddhist. Islamic and Christian claims would all be true. While such is
    :rr. . :\ pes of poetry and indeed the case within the various systems, this is not true in any final sense. David Wolfe
    t:t . . .irelf is the author's denies the adequacy of relativism and ca1ls for a critical "testing" of truth claims (1982:43-
    69). The criteria utilized of course depend on the nature of the project. but there must be

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    internal consistency (lack of contradiction), coherence, comprehensiveness (enveloping all thisfrom positir r-r'. :
    experience) and congruity (the theory fits the evidence) in any general formulation oftheory. :
    ol a thing t and phi:: :
    These are utilized to test systems from within (self-criticism) and without (debate). The knowledge ). s3r ir.- ::..'
    interrelations between internal (consistency and coherence) and external (comprehensiveness
    critical reflection :-: -.
    and congruity) criticism is critical, for these allow us to move beyond multiple meaning.
    32-37). It proce.-c- :,
    Many interpretations are possible and flt the four criteria mentioned earlier, but not all are as
    critical reflection .:- :-
    probable. Through a critical openness to truth, based on probability theory, a person within
    Wright make. a ..-:: - -
    one system can allow the evidence to challenge and then change the interpretive scheme. j
    provides o "rlorc -: -:
    G. B. Caird provides an excellent discussion of "The Meaning of Meaning" (1980:37- 12000: 1 78-8-1 r T:. -
    6l). He states that intentionality allows us to separate sense from reference, public meaning something there i.' :': :
    (the linguistic aspect, dealing with definition, etymology, sound and feeling) from private knowledge oe LLlr. . :
    (the user's) meaning (that aspect ofspeech dealing with context, tone, referent and intention).
    With respect to intention, Caird argues that (1) words have the sense the speaker or writer
    The proces\ rr: -::
    Hiebert 1985:-5- lt,
    :-;
    intended them to have; (2) the speaker's intention determines the type of language used and
    olcontpreltur.tir.,.. :
    therefore the rules of the game; and (3) a word has the referent that the speaker intended it
    a better harmorrr ,. -. :.-
    to have. It is at the referent level that Caird allows a meaning beyond the author's intention,
    pattern in puttrn.:: :=:
    for statements in Scripture vary between nontransferable specifics (such as historical detail)
    by others). and oi .'
    and universally transferable generalities (axioms, proverbs). The issue is whether we are to
    on probabilitr Ihc. --. .'
    connect the original meaning with the later meanings (similar to Hirsch's "meaning" and
    the precedin-e cha::-:-
    "signiflcance"). Is there continuity or discontinuity between sense and reference? We will
    turn back to this shortly.
    meaning are form...::; :
    (see the lengthr J -- ---
    I lvould posit to Ross and Caird the likelihood that these meaning theories are based
    on probability, and that even nontransferable speciflcs can be deciphered in terms of their
    PROPOSITIO\\I
    original meaning. In part,later redefinitions and development of themes highlight the original
    intent by showing change or development. Certainly faith can give theories an aura of Itremain:lt,. -- -.
    certitude, but within the community even the most established views are open to clariflcation for intentionalitl I: :: -

    and reformulation. Religious theories are open to all the probability arguments adduced in propositional trlrri,, -'
    criteria for verification. Although admittedly this occurs primarily within the community, I contains such. unJ -::.
    rvould agree with David Tracy that the growing pluralism and dialogue between communities supposedl; propr'- '
    is opening up many formerly closed groups to fruitful interaction. This I believe is a major and imperatir B .t'1.:- - :
    step toward solving the problem of intertextuality by driving us back to the text and narrative portion.. \- :
    its meaning. Semiotics (1981 '.' .- .
    that the semiotre J --.
    Probability theory has enornous potential for breaking the impasse between competing =-
    very nature of relrg. -.
    theories regarding intentionality. The conclusion of this study thus far would indicate that
    propositions. anJ '.. .: - -
    the theory of knowledge based on sense and reference would make possible the goal of
    While the languur. - -
    deriving the intended or original meaning of a work, depending on generic considerations
    lvh ich entails reteri:., - :
    as previously noted. My argument would proceed in this fashion: since one can detect the
    applies. no rel'ercn:.. -
    probable intention of a text, and if internal considerations within particular texts make it
    important to do so, then it is critical to seek the intended meaning.
    demands that Scrip:-:: -
    that makes other i.:.::i.
    5.Criticalrealism. Realismis defined as the belief that there is something "real" in the text locution (propo.rtr, -, .
    to be discovered, and that it must be ascertained via "critical" research. N. T. Wright separates and obedience. thc :::i:

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    The Problem oJ Meaning

    :it!:" .'n.ss (enveloping all this from positivism or "naive realism" (the belief that we have deflnite or objective knowledge
    e:i- :..mulation of theory. of a thing) and phenomenalism with its pessimistic vierv (stressing the inaccessibility of flnal
    rc ,.i i:hout (debate). The knorvledge), saying that critical realism occurs when "initial observation is challenged by
    :eir.i- aomprehensiveness critical reflection but can survive the challenge and speak truly of reality" (1992:36, cf. pp.
    t. rJ nrultiple meaning. 32-37).It proceeds by four steps-observation leading to hypotheses that are refined by
    :,. e,:.r3r. but not all are as critical reflection and then conclude with veriflcation/falsification. Thorsten Moritz believes
    .t. ::ri.'r\. a person within Wright makes a signiflcant advance on Hirsch's view of intentionality in the sense that it
    le 1:.13r-pretive scheme. provides a "more refined ontology of meaning" and a stronger "narrative epistemology"
    :r i \leaning"
    ,. (1980:37- (2000:178-84). The movement from hypothesis to veriflcation/falsification assumes there is
    :-::ererce. public meaning something there to be discovered and that the search for meaning is a viable goal. "Storied
    rrc :eeling) from private knowledge occurs" when the interpreter's hypothetical recreation best fits the narrative itself.
    :,e. :ei:rent and intention).
    The process of critical realism (see pp. 398-99) can be seen as a series of criteria (see
    dr..-l ini speaker or writer Hiebert 1985:5-10): thecriterion of colterence (providesabetter"flt"thanotherhypotheses),
    :..:': ,ri lan-suage used and of comprehensiveness (puts together all the data not just parts of it). of adequacl; (provides
    I1:r i:. ipeaker intended it
    a betterharmony of both the outside data and the inside text), of consistenc:\,(forms a viable
    ,-,:.; :he author's intention,
    pattern in putting together the data), of durabiliry (has staying power and is recognized
    : -L-r as historical detail) by others), and of cross-fertilization (accepted by more than one school of thought). Built
    :::-i .> $hether we are to on probability theory and r'vith the safeguards of the hermeneutical process developed in
    c,Hr:.;h's "meaning" and
    the preceding chapters, this becomes the means by rvhich critical hypotheses of intended
    r. ::.J reterence? We will meaning are formulated and verified. As a critical process it is essential for discovering truth
    (see the lengthy discussion in Wright).
    ted:r.:.! theories are based
    r-.r-i:r'J rn terms of their PROPOSITIONAL TRUTH AND THE LOGIC OF NARRATIVITY
    ,er-.:. hi.'chli-sht the original
    , _i-r r' :heories an aura of It remains to consider rvhether intratextual factors lvithin the Bible demonstrate the need
    ii . r:: ,,pcn to clarification for intentionality. In this regard we must consider the possibility of assertive sentences and
    :.r:. r:Suments adduced in propositional truth claims in Scripture. It is increasingly popular today to deny that the Bible
    i. '.,, .::.in the community, I contains such, undoubtedly as a reaction to the rigid historicizing of many rvho build on its
    ,.'-. -: :lirr een COmmUnilieS supposedly propositional content. At the same time, we must note the presence of indicative
    .-.Ihelieveisamajor and imperative sentences in the Scriptures and grapple with its didactic content even in
    r -- r;,-k to the text and narrative portions. An extremely interesting paper read at the Northwestem Conf'erence on
    Semiotics (1982) was John Morreall's "Religious Texts and Religious Beliefs." He argued
    that the semiotic disregard for questions of reference to reality in the Bible undermines the
    :t:-.r' hetri een competing very nature of religious belief. The extra dimensions of religious faith derive from assent to
    r-: -,:i touid indicate that propositions, and r'vithout propositional content it would be without meaning or faith content.
    rr;r.i lrrs:ible the goal of
    While the language of the Bible is indeed the speech act, the critical speech act is assertion,
    : .:. ::neric considerations
    which entails reference to facts about this world and God's relation to it.If the autonomy thesis
    : ..:-.Je one can detect the
    applies, no referential dimension and no set of assertions call for belief. Belief in the Bible
    ..- :r::.iular texts make it
    demands that Scripture makes assertions and that they are true. It is this referential dimension
    I
    that makes other central speech acts like command and promise possible. The three levels-
    . ],rl:-.Iiing "reaI" in the text locution (propositional assertion), illocution (command, promise) and perlocution (decision
    a:-: \. T. Wright separates and obedience, the reader's responses)-flow together to produce the biblical speech act.

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    Of course. not all speech acts in Scripture take propositional form. In fact, biblical It is nori time . .:
    narrative often goes the other direction, using a fictive type of genre to draw the reader into difficultexamplc:::
    a narrative rvorld of plot, dialogue and characterization. However, the reader should note Morse argues th;: :..-:
    the positive contribution of redaction criticism, which demonstrates the link between this pp.97-108). It 9".:.- r
    narrative world and the intended theological assertions of the individual authors. In other which mOves trr\i i:: :
    rvords, the plot and structure ofbiblical nar-rative do indeed function at the levels ofassertion outcome or gttl.r: { -:
    as well as command and promise. four criteria: the :.,:-::

    Anthony Thiselton notes the "unhelpful polarization in the debate" and points out that
    evidence: and it :.. .:
    the question of dynamic versus static concepts of biblical truth claims is not an either-or Although m:r'... -,:
    ( 1980:41 I - I 5, 433). His valuable discussion of the variety of language games rvithin rvhich Clarence Walhou: -:.. .

    "truth" occurs in Scripture is a case in point (1918:874-90). On the basis of our previous of the fiction \\:r:3: :- -

    discussion we must allorv the text to decide how we are to interpret its statements. Caird asserts-that th. :: ..-
    notes four explicit clues that point to nonliteral meaning: (1) descriptive terms that label vielv counts a\ ; -: :.
    the nar:rative a parable or similitude or allegory; (2) the alternation of metaphor with simile He provides threi :-:---
    to draw attention to its use; (3) the use of a genitive or other defining term to demonstrate (the events trul.' \- -:
    the referent of a metaphor ("sword of the Spirit," "good fight of faith"); (4) the use of a phrasing. seneal,': - i
    qualifying adjective ("heavenly Father," "true bread") (1980:183-97). Implicit pointers to readers connecte: : ::.
    figurative discourse rvould be an impossible literality (a clear metaphor), low correspondence history) ( 1985:-l -.'
    with the sense (such as anthropomorphic language about God), high development (poetically and events. hiri, :.-., -
    expanding the language on a topic), juxtaposition of images (Hebraic style), and originality beyond the hi:t',:.- ' ,
    (live metaphors are more easily detected). The major point here is that the text itself often speaks of the u o:-: ::.
    intends and points to figurative meaning. Metaphors often disrupt. agent producinq ::: ::-
    Figurative speech does not of itself entail polyvalence (see the discussion of metaphor and
    but the historirr :.:.:-
    (1980:222-31 r

    referentiality on pp.387-91). Redaction criticism should teach us that. Even the parable was
    placed within its context for a purpose. Most polyvalent interpretations fail to consider the While the rc:r ' l
    context, and I must say that the multiple meanings of parables like the prodigal son still have this discussion. ; t:.r r:
    an amount of specificity in their canonical context. Of course, there are levels of meaning, of analogl pr(rp(\-:i :_"
    for instance, the hymn of Philippians 2:6-ll in its original creedal context (christology) and rve fbllorv the r:... . ..-.
    in its setting in Philippians 2 (paradigm for humility). The point is that the broader deflnition some credenc€. rr.i ',,-.:
    of original/intended meaning covers such aspects as tradition development in a canonical rvithin historr. ii :. ..
    context. Further, I would not wish to deny out of hand a sense of prepositional content for than empiricallr. '. : .r

    the nonliteral statements of Scripture. The parables were meant to elicit particular responses or effects it ha: ,': -
    from their hearers and on the basis of probability theory we can approximate the contextual evidence mu\t t\c -.::::
    message and emphases. We can delineate static (prepositional assertion) and dynamic (active
    Arthur Htrl::-.e. - -
    or parenetic) material from one another.
    I 1) It rvill aid ti-.; : -:
    There are two aspects to the single act of interpretation, and the latter (significance) must since no possibir::.. .i .

    flow out of the former (intended meaning). In short, we must fuse our exegesis of the Word to self-criticism) arr :: :r
    an exegesis of our world. I do not wish to quibble terminology, to differentiate too radically both metaphl :i.:. :- :::
    betr'veen the phrase "meaning and significance" and the phrase "what it meant-what it principles and g:.r - .: --
    means." The major point I would stress is that the latter in each pair should be connected to us this rvill inrrr.": .:
    the former.12 historical veraci:'. .:: --

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    christianlib.com
    The Problem of Meaning

    'ral :,-rim. In fact, biblical It is norv time to apply this to the issue of hermeneutics. Since narrative provides the most
    lie :,r drau the reader into difficult example fbr general laws of hermeneutics, I will use it as a test case. Christopher
    er. l:r- reader should note Morse argues that "historical knowing takes, indeed requires, narrative form" (1979:98; see
    ii-. ri.ri link betrveen this pp. 97-108). It gains historical meaning as it expresses following (as organization/scheme,
    L::', ,J.L.il authors. In other which moves toward a goal), interest (speaking to human needs) and conclusior (a definable
    t:r :: ::le levels of assertion outcome or goal). A narrative qualifles as history rather than fiction or myth when it meets
    four criteria: the picture is located in space and time; it is consistent with itself; it is related to
    evidence; and it has an emphatically public character (1979106).
    ib-:lr- ;tnd points out that
    -.. :r. is not an either-or Although many say there are no generic indicators to separate history from fiction,
    I-:i: Si1r11€S $,ithin whiCh Clarence Walhout says "authorial stance" makes the difference, namely, the fictive stance
    tr-: r;.ir of our previous of the flction writer and the assertive stance of the historian, that is, "the historian claims-
    .:r.: I:\ statements. Caird assefts-that the projected world (the story) of the text together with the authorial point of
    i.. r:!i\e terms that label view counts as a story and an interpretation ofevents as they actually occurred" (1985:69).
    ri-. : ::reraphor rvith simile He provides three furlher criteria: (l) the world represented in the text is factually accurate
    ir-i: ternt to demonstrate (the events truly occurred); (2) the authors' "techniques of presentation" (e.g., traditional
    'i :-,.:r",: (.+) the use of a phrasing, genealogical catalogs, etc.) flt the state of affairs at that time; (3) the authors and
    -:-!- lntplicit pointers to readers connected to the story provide an atmosphere ofhistory (that is, it is used for factual
    Fi. : .lr-r* correspondence history) (1985:72- 73). For instance, pure fiction will have few recognizable historical figures
    :: ;r',. .lopment (poetically and events, historical fiction rvill have many but will contain dialogue and events that go
    'r:.- .r.Ie,. and originality beyond the historical, and historical narrative will seek to "tell it like it r,vas." Wolterstorff
    :- :-..: rhe text itself often speaks of the rvorld projected in the text as a "mood-action" established by the author as the
    agent producing the text. In fiction the author presents certain states ofaffairs for reflection,
    but the historian takes an assertive stance, making truth claims about the world in the text
    ;1.. ....11'r11 of metaphorand
    (1980:222-31).
    r.:r E,, en the parable was
    :i: :r. ieil to consider the While the nearly insurmountable problem of theology and history is beyond the scope of
    ::-:: ::rtJrgal son still have this discussion, a few remarks may be made. First, the empirical foundation of the criterion
    rirr' :ri leVels of meaning, of analogy proposed by Ernst Troeltsch and still present in many today can be debated.trlf
    , - ::eri rchristology) and rve follow the analytical concept of sense and reference, we must allow the biblical claim
    ' ::.i: :ire broader delinition some credence, and there is no question that the Bible intends to portray the acts of God
    r;: , Pnrent in a canonical within history. If philosophy, including a philosophy of history, works functionally rather
    ,: ;r::,.:itional content for than empirically, we would agree with Marc Bloch that history is known by the "tracks"
    :, .
    : :articular responses
    *- or effects it has on people. Since the past progressively changes as people reflect on it, the
    ,F:: ',.i:rate the contextual evidence must be sifted and categorized.ra
    ra - rlrJ d1 namic (active Arthur Holmes calls for a realistic metaphysical historiography based on three factors:
    (1) It will aid the historian in avoiding both historical skepticism and idealistic optimism,
    r: -:::er , :i_eniflcance) must since no possibility will ever be "closed." (2) It will provide a rational (built on coherence and
    Li r'\ r- Sesis of the Word to
    ,-r self-criticism) and properly empirical (demanding functional and actual adequacy) control on
    r .i... e:entiate too radically both metaphysical schemes and the subjectivity of the historian. (3) It will explicate its a priori
    r ".i -..:i it meant-what it principles and ground them in rational coherence and empirical adequacy (1971:78-84). For
    )ir: .:r0uld be connected to us this will involve an "action" or "speech act" model for intended meaning (including the
    historical veracity and theological truths embedded in narative material).

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    christianlib.com
    "inrFF_*m
    The same arguments apply to other types of biblical genre. We can indeed test tO StfeS\ tflri l-: -- l:-
    interpretational schemes for scriptural material on the basis of adequacy and coherence. The COfilpole01 Lr. -.:--:
    intended meaning of the text is not only possible but on the basis of the prepositional intent into an a pri',: : :
    of Scripture is a necessary goal. As Vanhoozer argues! there is an ethical mandate that lve even begins.
    consider the intended meaning of a text. This is especially true of texts that demand to be
    2.I mu.t i.-:.-:-
    understood on the propositional level. The Bible demands assent and goes to great lengths to
    su-ggestion aIlC I :-:-
    insist that the reader understand its assertions (such as Paul in Romans). We do not have to
    can have prior::'. . - -
    take one of the extreme positions: the autonomy position, which studies "the text and nothing
    *,hich are nol i1. :-: :: r

    but the text," or the historicist position, which wants only "rvhat it meant" and psychologizes
    dichotomy . &> It':r r t"
    back to the author's (or authors') mind. Any proper hermeneutics must study the text both
    adequacl of cr.:.:.. i'
    diachronically and synchronically, in terms of the past, present, and future dimensions.
    points) ot int.'::-.,. :t-
    The basic solution is a trialogue betrveen the author, the text and the reader. The author account $ hell .:,- -
    -., =
    has produced the text and given it certain meanings that are intended to be understood by become sub.'(r:.-
    the reader. The text then guides the reader by producing certain access points that point the they beconte iir- *':_ l
    reader to the proper language game for interpreting that particular illocutionary act. The oftenhappen:: --,:.
    reader thereby aligns him- or herself r'vith the textual world and propositional content, thus trfatert.thi'.-. .--
    coming to understand the intended meaning of the text. It remains now to demonstrate hor,v plesuppos!'i lr' . :'. - :
    this r'vorks out in detail.
    3.Wentu.:.:-r. -
    than to be drr:r-..:--:::: :
    A FIELD APPROACH TO HERMENEUTICS
    . \\te [ru:t ]: 1,.-
    Before attempting to integrate the various arguments of this appendix into a theoretical on dositt;r:., .---:.
    construct for hermeneutics, I must reintroduce the problem of the reader, so crucial to the AI1 "Opt-rlli3'- . :-:
    negativism of postmodern scholars. AII of the research I have done has tried to come to grips scholar. I .i - - .',.
    rvith the rvhole issue of reader and text. Several considerations point to a solution that will attrtude. .,:-. :,: - : r
    integrate the major aspects ofthe trialogue, author-text and text-reader. The polarities that have idea: tr. .i'.i;-:- I :'
    propositional
    clouded the hermeneutical debate
    -dynamic versus static views of inspiration, conlirnrlri- ': : -:
    versus encounter theology, rvord versus sentence versus discourse models of communication,
    assertive versus poetic approaches to literature, the author versus the text versus the reader
    as the generating force of meaning-are not contradictory but are interdependent parts of
    a larger rvhole. Disjunctive thinking has created the crisis. Propositional content, sense
    and reference, intended meaning-all are viable and indeed necessary components of the
    hermeneutical enterprise. It remains now to provide a hermeneutical grid for demonstrating
    this, to add praxis to theoria.r5

    1. A close reading of the text cannot be done without a perspective provided by one's
    preunderstanding as identified by a "sociology of knowledge" perspective. Reflection itself
    demands mental categories, and these are built on one's presupposed rvoridvier'v and by the
    faith or reading community to rvhich one belongs. Since neutral exegesis is impossible, no The ini.'-:.-::- ^- - '

    necessarily "true" or final interpretation is possible. There will always be differences of her rth.- ir'rl':-:-'
    opinion in a finite r'vorld. However, this does not demand polyvalence. Probability theory be ntoLlr:r'- i" : -a
    allows critical interaction and movement toward the intended meaning, hor,vever elusive it .\t the .i r-: : :-;
    "\r tlrli', -r' .'. I
    may prove at times. so long as the communities are open to critical dialogue. Here I rvant r .

    52

    christianlib.com
    :=-- _

    ry
    The Problem of Meaning

    :r- \\'r' can indeed test to stress that preunderstanding is primarily a positive (and only potentially a negative)
    .l,J;.r .rr1d coherence. The component of interpretation. Preunderstanding only becomes negative if it degenerates
    :,: :-3 :repositional intent into an a priori grid that determines the meaning of a text before the act of reading
    : 3:f..-:1i mandate that we even begins.
    i :r'r.:. th;.tt demand to be 2. I
    must distinguish presttppositktn from pre.jttdice. The key is to follorv Ricoeur's
    ij i 3. tLr sreat lengths to suggestion and place ourselves "in front of' rather than "behind" the text, so that the text
    ir:r - \\.e do not have to can have priority. This allor'vs us to determine which types of preunderstanding are valid and
    ic,. - :re te\t and nothing
    are not as the text challenges, reshapes and directs our presuppositions. The fact-value
    T.i.:i'. rnd psychologizes "vhich
    dichotomy, as many philosophers have noted, cannot be used too stringently in assessing
    . 1'..-.: .rudv the text both
    adequacy of criteria. Presuppositions call be external (philosophical or theological starting
    c. :,":,.:: Jimensions. points) or internal (personality, pressure to publish) but must be recognized and taken into
    ir; '. r- re ader. The author account when studying the text. My basic point is that they can be identified. When prejudices
    iJ.,i :,r be understood by become subconscious and are taken for granted, the interpreter never examines them and
    !.-' :Lrrnts that point the they become the major hermeneutical tool, determining the meaning of the text. While this
    ,.:: .r,'auiiortary act. The often happens and does indeed obfuscate the possibility of discovering the original meaning
    .r -,: .t:ronal content, thus of a text, this is not a necessary occurrence. The text can address and if necessary change a
    : i ,. iLr Jer]tonstrate how presupposed perspective.

    3. We must seek controls that enable us to work rvith presuppositions (the positive) rather
    than to be dominated by prejudices (the negative).

    . We must be open to ner,v possibilities. Positivistic theologians interestingly were open


    :::,; ,,i \ into a theoretical on dogmatic issues but closed to ner'v philosophical insights. Peter Stuhlmacher calls for
    .a :'r-:i3f . :o crucial tO the an "openness to transcendence" from his vantage point as a German historico-critical
    l r:. rr.iri to come to griPs scholar. I rvould expand this to include all possible perspectives. We need a polyvalent
    i,.--: : , .i .olution that will attitude, an openness to many meaning possibilities. allorving the text and new critical
    li: T:-.i p0larities that have ideas to interact as they challenge our perspectives. We must desire truth rather than
    : r: . : r::rtit'rn. propositional conflrmation of our preexisting ideas.
    ::,,::l - of communication.
    .-.ir' ir'\l rersus the reader
    . We must understand the dangers of merely assuming our presuppositions. Graham Stanton,
    Brevard Childs and Gerald Sheppard provide good examples from the history of exegesis.
    L--. :-r:rrle pendent Parts of
    ,]P --lLLrnLil content. sense The "Rule of Faith" in the Middle Ages developed out of the patristic desire to gain control

    l-\\::, arrlllponents Of the over subjective exegesis, then became a victim of its or'vn ascendancy! Stuhlmacher
    speaks of an "effective-historical consciousness." by which he means the realization that
    -: j-.1 tirr demonstraling
    we must consciously differentiate betrveen the original "locale of interpretation" (the Si/:
    im Leben), the historical development of dogma and hermeneutics (these lie betr'veen us
    ::e,lr,. e provided bY one's and the text, shaping our approach) and our own interpretative stance within both culture
    r:-:,.. rr\ e. Reflection itself and our speciflc commurtity of faith.
    ,rii l '.i.,ridYierv and by the
    ir.irl.i: is impossible, no
    . The interpreter must not only address the text but must allor.v the text to address him or
    , ".'.,, ".'. be differences of her (the hermeneutical circle). In exegesis, our presuppositions/preunderstanding must
    ,. .l:i--'e. Probability theorY be modified and reshaped by the text. The text must have priority over the interpreter.
    :€j: -':. horrever elusive it At the same time, the text must address the reader's contemporary WeltanschauLrng
    ::.i. Jrf,logue. Here I rvant ("worldvier,v"). The commissive force of Scripture must never be lost. The task of

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    christianlib.com
    ."iiilFr"
    hermeneutics is never flnished with original meaning but can only be complete when its allusion to a :::: -
    ri snifi cance is realized. determined rr:. :,-.:
    . of possible ir-.3:-..r.
    Pol) r'alent interpretations per se are unnecessary, but a pluralistic or polyvalent attitude
    possible nreri-..:i-
    is crucial. Again. my approach is an "interpretive realism" that is in constant dialogue
    context.
    ri ith the various communities of faith in order to refine and refor mulate theories on the
    basis of further evidence or more coherent models. Pure polyvalence lacks this rigorous A judiciou. ;..- :
    dialectic because it tends to relativism, that every theory is as good as the next. There is namely. igntr::..: ':,
    little possibility for the growth of the store of knor,r,ledge when rugged individualism is in intratextual dr:'.; . -.

    control of the theoretical process ! Of course, we want to be open to the possibility that the moorin-9s ana ::.-:
    polyvalent school is describing "the way it is" (to use Gadamer's expression). However, textcontain.
    " -:.
    I have attempted to demonstrate why I do not believe this is the case. problem *iti^.:::x
    his readers. a:.J --,:
    4. We must allow good hermeneutical principles to shape our exegesis and to control our
    author. pror iJ;- .
    tendency to read our prejudices into the text. Critico-historical exegesis will make us aware of
    needs to dis;,-'' .: '--
    the need to consider biblical backgrounds and data (the historical dimensions); grammatico-
    historical exegesis allolvs the original or intended meaning to be the focus (the semantic The implied :-:: :
    dimension); and literary criticism keeps the text itself central (the literary dimension). Al1 perspective ir::.-..
    three integrate to allow preunderstanding to be a positive rather than a negative tool, to guide real author i:,r:-. '--
    us to the original meaning of the text rather than to form a barrier to meaning. Stuhlmacher representatior: , : '-:

    demands "methodological verifiability." The subjectivity of much of modern exegesis must historicality rr: ::,. :
    be brought under control, lest truth be forfeited. implied reade: ,' '-
    the access prrt:: :
    . Consider the genre or type of literature (chaps. 6-14) and intelpret each according to
    mind. and lhe :=..:
    the proper rules of their particular language game. This is where the propositional and
    with this ler:-. ,
    illocutionary aspects come into play. If the biblical statement is informative. we give it
    of the tert'. :-.:.-.:
    intellectual assent; if commissive, we react with obedience. A good example of this is
    the text (the :.r-: -
    Vanhoozer's distinction betrveen infallibility and inerrancy: "Logically . . . infallibility
    contemporiln .-:a.
    is prior to inerrancy. God's Word invariably accomplishes its purpose (infallibility); and
    when this purpose is assertion, the proposition of the speech act is true (inerrancy)." In The questron .: '=
    other words, each passage guides the interpreter in its intended direction. whether belief/ system. such -:. :,-.
    assent or action. book is pan .,: : ;
    (1) Inductit e. . . -.-,
    . The structural development of the passage (chap. l) provides a control against artiflcial structural. :l ll- :- i ,
    atomistic exegesis (the error of most historical approaches). Rhetorical and narrative
    from the terl .:-; :
    approaches have moved away from the parts to the whole. Meaning (the author's intended
    a valid inte:::.:':.
    meaning) results from the symmetry of the passage as a rvhole and not from the isolated
    comparison ,'. ::
    parts. Moreover, the context of the whole controls the meaning of the parts and adjudicates
    from source. -:- -
    between competing interpretations. The passage as a whole provides parameters so that
    on the ba\i: (,: :: .
    the interpreter can choose betr'veen alternative proposals.
    comprehen.i',:::-.
    . Semantic research (chap. 3) further helps the reader to discover the sense and reference an ongoins ;.. =
    of the passage. In the past linguistic rvord studies centered on etymology and linguistic challenge all- ,:.: -
    roots. Today, however, all recognize that semantics is based on synchronic and structural reexaminatiLj: :'---
    considerations. The background of a word is a valid aspect only when this is a deliberate be the fbcu: J:.- ;-

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    The Problem of Meaning,

    n.'. :e complete when its allusion to a past use, as in the New Testament use of the OId Testament. Meaning is
    determined on the basis of the congruence of two factors, semantic field (the number
    of possible meanings at the time of writing) and context (which tells you which of the
    rit- : prrlr Valent attitude possible meanings is indicated in the passage). We select the meaning that best fits the
    ,: .- ir .onstant dialogue context.
    ' ,: i:-L.lte theories on the
    .-:r-.-.' iacks this rigorous A judicious use of background information (chap. 5) helps us avoid the opposite error,
    namely, ignoring the historical aspect in favor of the poetic. Postmodemists so stress the
    i . * .,. thc ne\t. There is
    ----J* rrrJir idualism is in intratextual dimension that they deliberately "deconstruct" the passage from its historical
    -, ir,' i:rr' ptrssibility that the moorings and thus twist its meaning in an internal direction. The tendency is to say, The
    :'. r..::e:sion). However, text contains all the meaning there is, or to assert, The reader's response is the meaning. The
    l - i.3. problem with these, however, is that the biblical author shared certain assumptions with
    his readers, and these are often open to the interpreter. In fact, background, along with the
    .i::... ifld to control our author, provides a major access point to the historical dimension of the text. The interpreter
    :. . ill nrake us aware of
    .,,
    needs to discover these underlying "givens" for properly understanding the text.
    :::-,r' :... trn\ ) : gfammatico-
    r:i: i,reus (the semantic The implied author and the implied reader in the text (chap. 7) provide an indispensable
    r . ::.:,irr din-rension). A11 perspective for the intended meaning of a text.r6 While postmodernists separate the
    j. ; ::'i:lti\ e tool. to guide real author from the implied author, I would not. The implied author is the conscious
    : r-,.;nins. Stuhlmacher representation of the real author in the text. As such it provides an access point to the
    ,: :'..,iern exegesis must historicality of the text and its message, anchoring interpretation in the ancient period. The
    implied reader was the focus of the conscious direction of the text and as such provides
    the access point to the fusion of horizons. The original author had a certain audience in
    ):3::::i cach according to
    mind, and the text addresses itself to these implied readers. The real reader, by uniting
    ',.:: :l-.3 propositional and
    with this textual configuration, can contextualize the text to discover the signiflcance
    :. - : :r:)alli\e. ue give it of the text's message for today (see chaps. 17-18). Thereby the intended meaning of
    \ = J crlmple ol this is the text (the historical aspect) and the multiple significances of the text for today (the
    L : -.' li . . . infallibility contemporary aspect) are fused in the act of interpretation.
    l*:: ,'i rinfallibility); and
    :-r - ir,rc' tinerrancy)." In The question of veriflcation of competing interpretive possibilities is essential for any
    : :.::,::rn. \\hether belief/ system, such as the one espoused herein. In a very real sense, every chapter of this
    book is part of the verilication process. My argument is that this is a threefold process:
    (1) Incluctively, the interpretation appears not from an inspired "guess" but from the
    , ., :rt:ol against artificial structural, semantic and syntactical study of the text itself; in other r'vords, it emerges
    R: ::,rrical and namative from the text itself, which guides the interpreter to the proper meaning. (2) Deductively,
    -t-.-:l i:1c author's intended a valid interpretation emerges by testing the results of the inductive research via a
    3 rr - r'..t frorn the isolated comparison with other scholars' theories and historical or background material derived
    , ,: ::. ::1rt\ and adjudicates
    from sources outside the text. One deepens, alters and at times replaces his or her theory
    !J.,1..'3\ parameters so that
    on the basis ofthis external data, rvhich is tested on the basis ofcoherence, adequacy and
    comprehensiveness. (3) Sociologically, this proceeds via a critical realism that governs
    ,.: ::.. \ense and reference an ongoing dialogue betlveen the paradigm or reading communities. The continual
    r. ::.. I::,,lrr::r 0nd linguistic challenge and critique from opposing communities drives the individual reader back to a
    r -.. '...lronic and structural reexamination of the text and his or her reading strategy. As a result the text continues to
    i-'. .'.:,:n this is a deliberate be the focus and leads one to the true intended meaning.

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    christianlib.com
    Afier twenty years of research into the process of communication, Vanhoozer makes its relevan.'e : -
    seven conclusions: (l) There is a "design plan" to language that is "inherently covenantal," ,:.:
    a control r)n "

    that is, that establishes a promise between sender and receiver. (2) The true "paradigm
    This task i- i i -
    tbr a Christian view of communication is the triune God in communicative action." The
    appendixes I hr". :- :-
    missions of Jesus and the Spirit center on the theme of the "word sent." and the purpose
    this book as a '.'.:-. - .'
    of the mission was as much "transformative" as informative. ln the same way language is
    inherently "intentional action," and this occurs not at rvhat an author plans to do but what he
    actually does, that is, not at the level of the sign system but at the level of the completed act
    of communication. The reader then "cooperates" with the text and discovers its "relevance"
    and allows it to "modify [his or her] cognitive environment." (3) "Meaning" results from
    the communicative action as the author uses "certain words at a particular time in a speciflc
    manner." The author's illocutionary act of communication establishes a promise and a
    "covenantal relation" lvith a receiver and through her imaginative structure of the text can
    effectively pass on the message. The resultant text contains both "propositional content" and
    "illocutionary force." (4) So "the literal sense ofan utterance or text is the sum total ofthose
    illocutionary acts performed by the author intentionally and rvith self-awareness." The reader
    then identifles with this action and discovers its relevance, allowing it to alter his or her
    cognitive awareness. (5) Understanding takes place when one recognizes the illocutionary
    acts. Both authors and readers are communicants who parlicipate in the action of the text and
    are "citizens of language," with ethical responsibility to allow the process to take place. (6)
    Thus interpretation becomes "the process of inferring authorial intentions and of ascribing
    illocutionary acts." The reader both inf'ers and imputes the intentions of the author by
    observing the speech acts and judging r'vhat the author has done and intended to say, both in
    terms of the illocutionary intention and the perlocutionary effect on the reader. (7) Any action
    that produces a perlocutionary effect on the reader "other than by means of understanding
    counts as strategic, not communicative, action." The author is also ethically responsible not
    to manipulate the reader by his or her speech acts. The communicative power of texts must
    be centered on truth not manipulation, and the reader is bound to discover that truth and
    react to it(2004i167-88). I would add that the means of discovery centers on the processes
    already discussed, namely, the hermeneutics of critical realism and the spiral from text
    to meaning.

    The reader is a positive, not negative, force in interpreting a text. I have argued here that
    the original meaning of a text is not a hopeless goal but a possible and positive and necessary
    one. A text invites each reader into its namative world but demands that the person enter it on
    its orvn terms. The creation of a nerv text is of course often (perhaps even usually) the result,
    but it is not a necessity. Throughout this book I have elucidated principles for determining
    the intended meaning of a text, specifically of the Bible. These principles apply to other texts
    besides Scripture, but my purpose is to restrict the discussion to the one body of literature
    that above all demands to be understood in terms of its original intended meaning. I agree
    rvith R. T. France's call for

    the priority in biblical interpretation of r.vhat has come to be called "the flrst horizon,"
    i.e., of understanding biblical language within its own context before we start exploring

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    christianlib.com
    Tlte Problem of Meaning

    ;n:r ':. \anhoozer makes its relevance to our own concerns, and of keeping the essential biblical context in vier'v as
    ''::i:rent1\ covenantal." a control on the way we apply biblical language to current issues. (1984 42'1
    I T:e true "paradigm This task is not merely a possible goal but is a necessary one. In short. in these trvo
    ::i. -r-.r;utir e action." The
    appendixes I have tried to lay the philosophical foundation for the spiral from text to meaning:
    ,: :, :. and the purpose
    this book as a whole attempts to show how the spiral may lead to understanding.
    r. .r:l]r' \\al language is
    'r :.rr,. to do but what he
    e
    .'
    r.
    the completed act
    ,.,:
    ;-.. ,,3p\ its "relevance"
    "\1 :,,ning" results from
    a:-,..i: trnte in a speciflC
    :-:.^..'. l promise and a
    .:r..-iure of the text can
    :,.:' ..titrnal content" and
    : .. ::.3 :uni total of those
    rl-r'.,. i::3ne SS." The readef
    ,:.! .: ,Lr alter his or her
    !r rrr-. the illocutionary
    ,-

    '.:i :.i,r-rn of the text and


    ii, ,. -.. ro take place. (6)
    i.:.1. .r. and of ascribing
    ri.i. ,i . rri the author by
    i .ri:':-..r3d to say, both in
    :ie ::,rJr-r. (7)Any action
    rri;i-,> rli understanding
    -i:...:.lr responsible not
    j:t , r' :L-r\\ e r Of texts mUSt
    ., I \! ,\er that truth and
    - ir.1:'1-. rrn the processes
    rilj::r. rpiral from text

    r,: L :-,: r' argu€d here that


    :: :. .,li\ e and necessary
    '.--::. ,r-3 person enter it on
    \i, ;:r !.)uallV) the result,
    :re. ior determining
    i. ippl\ to othertexts
    :rr' bodr of literature
    ..-j nreaning. I agree

    ;r.-:: lhe first horizon."


    :,ir :3 \\e start exploring

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    christianlib.com
    w
    Notes

    Introduction
    II am aware of lhe :.:. ..
    con:i'r.--. -
    the traditional

    Chapter 1: Contert
    'ln somc irlrr -- ---thc
    inductively derire- - -:.,
    to keep this inlornr.:. - .-
    approach i\ to rcnr.: - '-r
    that he or she s.'eL. . =,
    only from a moJ(:'. :i -.:,-
    :Of course. I rei',- '

    the purpose :-- -


    ol'thi.
    rvant onll lo ehan ii: - --
    'Herc l am adtrptit - . . ..-
    rOf course. the hr:.- - -:
    time. The lime n)c:::. - .

    jln the summer r't ' : . '-


    \vere pastors lrrJ i: ^ --

    premillennial and :,i:- . -


    -

    chemistr) oI lhe rr -:
    at this \er) lerel,,: .-,
    rve could unite at the ...
    had in teaching I

    christianlib.com
    R
    Notes

    Introduction
    rI am aware of the debates as to whether Mk 13 or 2 Thess 2 are actually apocalyptic, but I am using
    the traditional consensus for illustrative purposes.

    Chapter 1: Context
    lln some r,vays the delineation of the historical context first may defeat the purpose of the logical or
    inductively derived context, since it immerses the student already in other people's ideas. The key is
    to keep this information at the preliminary stage rather than to assume its validity. The purpose of this
    approach is to remind the student from the start of the ancient situation behind the book and to ensure
    that he or she seeks ahvays the original intended meaning rather than the significance of the passage
    only lrom a modern perspective.
    rOf course, I recognize that paragraph divisions differ rvidely from version to version. However, for
    the purpose of this preliminary method, such decisions can arvait the deeper level of exegesis. Here we
    rvant only to chart the basic structural development ofthe book as a whole.
    rHere I am adapting the earlier outline in Osborne and Woodr.vard l9'7929.
    lOf course, the beginning student rvill naturally take longer. rvhile the experienced one lvill take less
    time. The time mentioned here denotes a median level.
    5In the summer of 1983 I taught a doctor of ministry course on the book of Revelation. In the audience
    were pastors and denominational heads from quite different persuasions, with dispensational , historical
    premillennial and amillennial positions represented. I faced the course with much fear, wondering if the
    chemistry of the group rvould cause an explosion. lnstead, we discovered a common area of agreement
    at this very level of theological theme. In spite of our hermeneutical and perspectival disagreements.
    rve could unite at the level oftheological meaning. It rvas one ofthe most satisfying experiences I have
    had in teachingl

    59

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    qr'
    "In addition to clauses, I rvould indent important prepositional or participial phrases. I have trvo criteria Chapter 2: (irammar
    tbr deciding rvhethc-r or not to indent phrases: ( l) Is it important enough to be a separate main heading rJeanrond is ab- -:= ,,
    in my sermon outline? (2) ls it lengthy and complicated? Both criteria make these trvo prepositional
    interpreting cr\m:'.-- .,
    phrases worthy of indentation here.
    Christian tradilrL,:.'
    rWhen I encounter pastors who no longer use their Greek in the pulpit, most
    tell me that time rvas the but must be anii, ::: -
    crucial fhctor in their surrender. Exegesis prof'essors are too idealistic, giving their students too many toward the intet'-:- : ..'
    time-consuming steps to accomplish before the practical results of using their Greek can be realized. rSee Wiirths ern - -' -
    One of the major sources of discouragement is diagramming. The average pastor has seven to ten hours Testament and \: .,. l:...
    (if he or she spends tr'venty hours a r.veek in study for trvo to three messages Sunday morning, evening
    - rMost Old Te:trr:'..-' ::,
    and perhaps midweek) to prepare, and diagramming can take up to two hours of that time if the passage
    manuscripts. p13:j:- - -
    is of any length.
    aln addition. sirrttr S:ri-.
    8Some inductive Bible study methods allorv the student to alter the order of the text and to place all
    than others anJ a-r. a- -::,
    subordinate clauses under the main clause. I pref'er to maintain the order of the text (in order to avoid
    sAland 1987:6- .i:i:- --,:
    confusion later) and to utilize arrows to shorv rvhich clause they modify. The student ofcourse is free
    texts are "incL)nt: -.-
    to choose rvhich method seems more comfortable.
    ,c,,.. - :'
    nAland in fact
    eThe last three coordinating conjunctions (therefore,
    tbr, so) can also introduce a minor clause. We must
    Greek manu:cr::: : --
    eramine the context and ask whether the conjunction introduces a parallel or subordinate idea. Kaiser
    peculiar traits rri::,: - -
    (1981:80-86) provides a good breakdorvn of coordirrating conjunctions into connective conjunctions
    external evidc-n.r' '- -:
    (and, or. nor, for. but, neither-nor, either-or. both-and. not onlybut also), adversative conjunctions
    the lvhole scholrr:- . : :
    (but, except). emphatic conjunctions (yea, certainly, in fact), inferential conjunctions (therefore. then,
    rWiirthrvein itrit.-
    rvherefore. so) and transitional conjunctions (and, moreover, then). See also Traina (1952:49-52).
    Jensen (1963:39-42), Osborne and Woodrvard (.1979 68-72) and Liefeld (1984:60-72). These lists are
    Samaritan Pent.::---
    revision of the S;::-.: -
    more extensive and do not attempt to collapse the classification into basic units.
    8A commetttar] .-: .. :
    l0Apposition (v. l 0) and content clauses (v. 1 I) do not modify and therefore are indicated by a bar rather
    by acldressing ,rI.:rr"--: -
    than by an arrow.
    rrl am ar.vare of the attempts to deny the incarnational setting of Phil 2:6-8 (see Dunn 1980:11,1- 2l).
    exemplifies the :: -- -:
    eI rvould f€coflrnrr-]
    However, the arguments are not convincing. and Har,vthorne (1983:81-84) is certainly more correct in -, - -
    find rvhere )our r:--:-:
    affi rming the traditional interpretation.
    r{lHorvever. therc .. :-
    rrMuilenberg's justly lauded SBL presidential address of 1968, "Form Criticism and Beyond" -
    ( 1969:l-
    less grammar ilr:u : --. -:
    l8). looked to rhetorical criticism as the wave ofthe future. Indeed. it has proven to be so. Horvever, in
    cultural backsrr,..:.-. l-
    many studies (as noted by Kessler) it is linked rvith genre criticism, and that confuses the issue.
    the average pa\t\,: -:- - -,
    rrMeyer and Rice (1982:156-57) and Nida (1983:22-45). In addition, see the discussions in Kuist
    llAnexcellent anr- : : : :
    (1947:80-86), Traina (1952:49-52). Jensen (1963:39-42), Osborne and Woodward (1979:68-72) and
    (1978:1171-1114 :
    Liefeld (1984:60-72). These lists are more extensive and do not attempt to collapse the classification
    the preposition r:. :^. 1..
    into basic units. Of the two, the former is more syntactically correct, but the latter cannot easily be
    lrBarr himself au: :- :: -
    subsumed under it, so the best solution is to combine them (the first four belong to Meyer and Rice).
    rlMany believe (see Longenecker 1975: I 75-80) that it is based on the similar set in 4QFlorelegium, one
    as against the lin:- -. - -
    books and fionr C':::, -
    of the scrolls from Qumran. There the Essenes collected 2 Sam 7:10-1,1; Ps 1:1; 2: 1-2, while the rest of
    aflim the first ar: .: :: :
    the text in 4QFlorelegium has been lost.
    on ethics. the ab-.:,- - -
    rsMeyer and Rice separate these trvo relationships. but since they are syntactically similar I rvill bring the human's relai,, - - :
    them under a single rubric. The one distinction is that the latter has "some overlap in topic content (ethics) is seen :r: ::. -
    between the problem and the solution" (Meyer and Rice 1982:157). concrete are foun: .: l-i:

    60

    christianlib.com
    Notes

    i- :--j\i\. I ha"e trvo criteria Chapter 2: Grammar


    : t.r .: -.'i]ltrate rnain heading rJeanrond to any possibility of objective interpretation but
    is absolutely opposed argues that the
    - r-..: : '.:.1' lri () p1gpilsi1'gnnl
    interpreting community continually interacts and discovers "ever new interpretations of the text of
    Christian tradition" ( I 988:1 30). I rvould argue that these developing understandings are not "ever new"
    - .: :r'i. ntc' that tirne lvas the but must be anchored in the text's own statements. In other rvords, our interpretations spiral upward
    , ::
    - ::'.:ir \tudents too many toward the intended meaning of the text.
    : ::: : L,::!.ek can be realized. rSee Wiirthwein 1981:12-15 and Aland 1987:48-71 for the history of the transmission of the Old
    l:.i I ]ii: \even tO ten hOUfS Testament and Nerv Testament texts respectively.
    -
    - \."r .rir) morning, evening rMost Old Testament text critics would avoid the terms text types or text families for Old Testament
    --. t' .rl tUtre tt the passage manuscripts, preferring instead to refer to "major textual traditions."
    rln addition, some Septuagint books (for example, the Pentateuch, portions of Isaiah) are more accurate
    ': :-; :..\t and to place all
    than others and have greater rveight in text-critical decisions.
    . : -.' ti\t t in order to avoid
    iAland 1987:67 states unequivocally that only the Alexandrian, Koine (Byzantine) and D (Codex Bezae)
    l-:: ':.rJent ol course is liee
    texts are "irrcontestably verified." Western, Caesarean and Jerusalem text types are "purely theoretical."

    "Aland in fact goes so far as to say, "The primary authority for a critical textual decision lies with the
    :-, i : r]ltrlr clause. we must
    Greek manuscript tradition. . . . Furthermore. manuscripts should be r.veighted. not counted. and the
    : : --.:(rr.linate idea. Kaiser
    peculiar traits of each manuscript should be duly considered" (1981 :27 5-'7 6). Again, the Nerv Testament
    r:: - ,rre.ti\e conjunctions
    external evidence is somervhat stronger and more clearly defined than that of the OId Testament, but on
    , .:. e:.ative conjunctions
    the rvhole scholars are optimistic with both.
    -'i. -r .rtrrn\ (therefore, then.
    -Wtirthrvein (in order of relative value) that after the Masoretic Text one should consult
    . Trarna (1952:19-52), states the

    I n r--l). These lists are Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint. Aquila's translation, Symmachus's version, Theodotian's
    revision of the Septuagint. the Peshitta. the Targurxs, the Vulgate, the Old Latin versions and so forth.

    : :-. ,:.1r.:tted by a bar rather 'A comrnentary series by Murray Harris (published by Eerdmans) is trying to remedy the irnbalance
    by addressin-e grammatical issues more directly. The first volume on Colossians and Philemon (1990)
    exemplifies the promise of this series.
    -: .:; Dunn 1980:114- 21).
    'rI rvould recommend using these better grammars as reference tools. Look in the scriptural indexes and
    - - - "ilnl\ rnore correct in
    tind rvhere your passage is discussed. then use these as minicommentaries on your text.
    r0Hor.vever. there is enough truth in the statement to justify an overhaul of exegesis courses. We need
    ::: .--.irrl Berond" (1969 l-
    less grammar and a more balanced approach, particularly emphasis on holistic syntax and historical-
    :- - : ' hc su. 1J011g1g1. jn
    cultural backgrounds. The instructor must always have in mind the seven to ten hours maximum that
    i.r:- " i,l-c-\ the issr,re.
    the average pastor can spend on a single sermon.
    '- :-: it.cussions in Kuist rrAn excellent article titled "Prepositions and Theology in the Greek Nerv Testament" by Murray Harris
    L "": ,-.:J t1979 68-72) and
    (1918:1171-121-5) rvill help immensely and provide a valuable resource tool in a proper delineation of
    l. - . .:r:c the classification
    the preposition in the Nelv Testament.
    .i i-: ..rtL't cannOt easily be
    rrBar himself admits that his critique is addressed not so much against the characteristics themselves
    t : - i r \lc-)erandRice).
    as against the linguistic basis for such. The evidence must be drawn from the theology ofthe biblical
    j .:'r .r'. lQFlorelegium, one
    books and from Greek philosophy rather than fiom the respective languages. My studies lead me to
    . . . I I l. *'hile the rest of
    affirm the first and third but doubt the second. While the Old Testament does not contain as much stress
    on ethics, the abstract qualities of love, trust and so forth are seen in the vertical dimension (such as
    l.' .inrilar I r.vill bring the human's relationship to Yahrveh), especially in the poets and prophets. The horizontal dimension
    ;11ap in topic content (ethics) is seen in preliminary form in the Wisdom literature (such as Proverbs). Both abstract and
    concrete are fbund in Hebraic thousht.

    61

    christianlib.com

    -:ll
    Chapter 3: Semantics has led manl Chr.:..-. :
    rFor a more detailed discussion, see esp. Gibson 1981:47-96; Nida 1964:70-99;
    Lourv 1982:50- 60; and under the te\t ju:i .,, . : -.
    Thiselton 197 8 : 1 I 27 -29. r3D.A.Carson.Th:.:- -
    2See also
    Gibson 1981:42-44,165-75, where he challenges the absolute distinction between sense and r4Ibid.
    reference posited by Caird (1980:9). Gibson argues, for instance, that proper nouns do have an aspect -'-- -
    islt was hardlr th:
    of sense andthat predicates do have reference. See also Nida 1964:70-82, where he uses referential r6Mark Straus:. D
    -- .-
    meaning in a more dynamic way, which would include our sense and reference. Gibson would argue
    to Wayne CruJ;::- --:
    for a more strict usage of the terms.
    (Valley Forge. P::
    rFor sources on synonyms in the Old Testament, see Cirdlestone 1897; and in the Nerv Testament
    see 28,2004.inuhr.: :" ,--
    Trench 1880; Beny 1897 or Custer 1975. word-for-riorti :: -'-:
    ..pe(rf,.: _.
    Senten.e: :.- __.
    Chapter 4: Syntax
    The point is thu ...: - -.-:
    rJeanrond (1988:i2l-23) criticizes evangelical/fundamentalist hermeneutics at exactly this point, the
    rrCraig L. Blrrn::.:- .
    tendency to provide meaning at the 'uvord or sentence level without determining its place in the whole
    of the context.
    2003 <wuu.tni': : --
    replacing "hc' ': -.
    rFor other examples. see Beekman and Callow 1974:342 (on Philem 4-7), Liefeld 1984:51-52 (on Rom Grudem) becau.;'-'.-..
    5:1-11), and for comparative purposes see Lourv 1982:84-87 (on Phil 1:3-5).
    form. and it u r.'...- :.. -r.
    rFor more extensive discussion of the sources of figures of speech, see Bullinger 1898; Mickelsen
    1963:179-8 I: and Caird 1980:156--59. becausestllistrc- -.,
    lAlthough Lincoln (1981:139-68) has made an excellent and provocative case for the literal meaning of \uCi - : :
    encoura-eir.r-s
    this term, I remain convinced that the figurative sense fits the context better. the goal of func::, -.
    sln this section I am discussing only the positive side of Ricoeur's theory. For his presupposition or NLT. (4) The :-=
    of
    polyvalence (multiple meaning) and the metaphorical force of all language, see app. 1. For excellent 'anyone'l hear ni.
    discussions of Ricoeur's theory of metaphor, read Perpich I 984: I 30-33 and Vanhoozer 1990. thinks individuallt . -

    6Caird (1980:136-37) discusses this as a type of metonymy (see 5.1 in the text), thinks corporatc-l'. .r..
    but it has a different
    l8Blomberg (l(l rj . -
    rhetorical function so we are considering it separately.
    TFollowing the chiasm of vv. i4-17 (discussed under v. 16) another outline is possible, keeping Tim2:11-1-5: -1 1 -:-:
    the
    keeping with con-:: :-:-
    middle pair together: I. Command to Rejoice (v. 14); II. Reasons for Rejoicing (vv. l5-16): III. Cod's
    opponents !

    Promise and Love (v. l7).


    8This prophecy was probably given before the sudden cessation of Assyria as a world polver after
    reWayne Crudenr. ..::
    Favors'Essenti31,r ::--
    Ashurbanipal died in 626 B.C.
    19-56, esp. pp. l-'--'
    eThe reader will note the absence ofcontextualization or application in this discussion, but that is the roThe rules tbr th; . \-'.
    subject of a later chapter. My purpose here is to illustrate horv the exegetical techniques unite in the '.i -':
    Father. Son of \1":
    study of individual passages.
    is not meant a\ a . r: -.
    I0Only Romans has as many, and no other book contains it more than twice. is speaking of m:: . -:
    lrln recent years I have read through the Psalms using Peter Craigie's commentary (Word) and through ancient culture. th": . . '
    Ecclesiastes using Tremper Longman's commentary (NICOT), and I have enjoyed both tremendously. (he. man) refer: I, j :r
    In fact I have edited a New Testament commentary series (IVP New Testament Commentary) for fiiterally "a man"- : -. -
    InterVarsity Press that adds contextualization to the exposition of the text (see also the NIV Application
    Comrnentary series). Chapter 5: Historical
    r:Some may be asking why lve should womy about exegetical exactness in a devotional experience. rAyers 1983:1-15-,i- : -
    However, as chaps. 17-18 will argue. contextualization in the sermon (or devotional experience) needs precursor of the \r- ::--
    to be based on God's message rather than our own. A lack of concern for the divinely inspired message rHorvard Clark Kr-r' .i - .

    62

    christianlib.com

    r
    Notes

    has led many Christians astray. Moreover, studying deeply is like mining for gold. There are treasures

    +J. ' jLr\\ 1982:50- 60; and under the text just waiting to be dug out!
    rrD. A. Carson, The Inclusive Language Debate: A Plea for Realism (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), p. I 5.

    rllbid.
    -: ,n betrreen sense and
    .::-
    r: : lr-.i Jo have an aspect rslt r.vas hardly the first. The NRSV and REB came out in 1989, the CEV in 1995, and the NLT in 1996.
    l. -=:: .,. hc uses referential l6Mark Strauss, "Do Literal Bible Versions Show Greater Respect for Plenary Inspiration? (A Response
    '::--: Crb:on '"vould argue to Wayne Grudem)." unpublished paper read at the Evangelical Theological Society annual meeting
    (Valley Forge. Penn.: Nov I 6. 2005), p. I , tells of an article in the San Diego Union Tribune on October
    J .: :rr \eri Testament see 28, 2004, in rvhich thousands of Spanish voter guides had to be recalled because they had been translated
    word-for-word from the English and were laughable in their clumsy Spanish. Back translating one
    sentence: "Peopie that are registered 29 to 15 days before an election will be commanded a brochure."
    The point is that languages differ from one another too greatly to be woodenly translated.
    - - : : i:.tlt this point. the lTCraig L. Blomberg, "Today's New International Version: The Untold Story of a Good Translation,"
    :.::--: it. place in the rvhole
    2003 <rvrvw.tniv.info/quickfacts.php>.21-23, responds to four common objections to the plural
    replacing "he": (l) The "masculinity" of God's Word is not "muted" (the subtitled of Poythress and
    - :::.: -9SJ:51-52 (on Rom Grudem) because many of the world's languages do not even contain a generic masculine singular
    form. and it r.vould be useless to demand such a form (the same is happening in English). (2) Inclusive
    B - - ::r 1898: Mickelsen language is not grammatically or stylistically incorect (e.g., "Anyone bringing their textbooks...")
    because stylistic conventions are determined by current consensus, and modern textbooks on style are

    a-: : : ::-.. literal meaning of encoura-uing such changes. (3) While such changes depart from a literal translation, they are in reality
    a
    the goal of functional translations and so, rvhile inappropriate for NASB or ESY 1it well into TNIV
    or NLT. (4) The use of plurals hardly destroys the individual application of texts (e.g., "If you [Gk
    r ! - :.r: presupposition of
    'anyone'l hear my voice . . . " [Rev 3:20 NUI]) because the average person hears such a rendering and
    :. -:: :1Fp. L For excellent
    thinks individually; in fact, the problem in the West is the opposite due to rugged individualism. No one
    ,: \ .' i r,rz.'r 1990.
    thinks corporately any more.
    . ::r: . fur it has a different
    'sBlomberg (2003:16-19) shows that all the famous gender role passages (1 Cor 11:2-16, 14:33- 38; I
    Tim 2:11-15; 3:11; Eph 5:21-33; Rom 16:1,7) have hardly been altered at all by the TNIV and are in
    .; . ':,r..ible. keeping the keeping rvith complementarian beliefs. This is a far cry from the label "dangerous" given to it by its
    r, -: ri 15-16); lII.God's opponents !

    reWayne Grudem, "Are Only Some Words of Scripture Breathed Out by God? Why Plenary Inspiration
    rr: :' .r sorld power after
    Favors 'Essentially Literal' Bible Translations," in Translating Truth (Wheaton: Crossrvay, 2005), pp.
    l9-56, esp. pp.25-30.
    r j -- i..ion. but that is the
    - r0The rules for the TNIV and the NLT are clear: male terms used of the Godhead are retained (e.g.,
    ':r-: ::,hniques unite in the Father, Son of Man). When son of man in Ps 8:4-6 and Heb 2:6-8 is translated "mortal," it is because it
    is not meant as a christological title in either passage (see the majority of Hebrews commentaries) but
    is speaking of mankind (as also throughout Ezekiel). Also, when a male term speaks of males in the
    :: tr-::-.! \\brd) and through ancient culture, that is also retained (e.g., Lk 20:9, "a man planted a vineyard"); but when a male term
    ' ::. .:i hrrth tremendously. (he, man) refers to all people, clarity of translation demands a change (e.g., "What good is it for you
    f*.:.::-..':1t Commentary) fbr fliterally "a man"] to gain the r.vhole world, yet forfeit your soul" [Mk 8:36 TNIV]).
    {= r ., , lhe \IV Application
    Chapter 5: Historical and Cultural Backgrounds
    rAyers 1983:135-36 and Neusner 1983:99-144 agree that the Hillel school of the Pharisees was the
    ' r- : i.'\\)tional experience.
    precursor of the second-century rabbis.
    fer :: 'nal erperience) needs
    :Howard Clark Kee would add other types of study: social dynamics and social roles. tracing leadership
    :,r :. . .relr inspired message

    63

    christianlib.com
    '".wF-
    :i'ler ri ithin societal structure; anthropological analysis and group identity. which studies the symbol r2Hafiley 2003:.ll l
    . 1,,. ..
    .r:tc'm behind the social organization; and sociology ofknowledge, which analyzes internal and external t3Harison 1980: I ll-l- :.
    :ocial pressures on the belief system (1989:32-64). These add further detail to the broad category of
    "sociological interpretation."
    cause discase in thr. r:.- i '
    the surrounding pxrr: - .. '-
    Part2: Genre Analysis INoth 1966:5t,-5- L, ,-
    -
    lFor a more detailed discussion of the criteria for young goat in it. rrr,,.r: - - -
    ._qenre identiflcation, see Horst 19],8:122-23: Baird
    19'72:387-88: Osborne 1983:6-7. 21-25', and Longman 1985:61-67. such a practice rrotrlJ. :-: -:
    f -i-
    r5Douglas 1966:5 J'. -
    Chapter 6: Old Testament Law r6Milgrom 1963:18.\-: . l,
    rSome believe it comes from ya,lra=, "throrv,
    shoot," but that is not as likely. fScurlock and
    rAlt 1967:101-71, first established the two types: apodictic larvs rvith absolute commands telling "you"
    Antlc:' -
    the ancient Near Ea.t
    to do something, and casuistic or conditional laws employing an "if... then" formula. This form-critical
    rsSee \\,'::. -
    lhe excellent
    approach is generally accepted today, though his labels are questioned ..

    r"lt aluays surpri:c. n.: .-


    and some find it reductionistic and simplistic. See also Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuarr -'
    thel think to use th(r -' .
    ( 1982:170-7-5).
    item rve buy). and ir i: .:.:,
    rJ. W. Marshall 2002 17 l'82. Marshall and Block demonstrate the suzerainty lbrm in the Decalogue: rnAverbeck 2QQ-1;-1r-
    (l) the preamble (Ex 20:l; Deut 20:l-5) identifies the suzerain and sets the stage; (2) a historical
    '. 1, -
    :'Wenham I979:51-..-. :- :-
    prologue (Ex 20:2; Deut 5:6) states the former relationship between the two pafiies; (3) the stipulations
    or covenant principles (Fx20l3-26: Deut -5:7-21) state the obligations of the vassal to the suzerain; r-Wenham l9l9:b- --:.
    -- :
    these are absolute and must be obeyed or the covenant is broken and the covenant curses invoked; }Wenham 1979:lJ-r. . :^
    -:
    (4) provision is made for depositing the document in a sacred place and for regular reading of the raWenham 1979:87-9t.
    -. :-
    document-this is done later (Deut l0:5; 3l :10- I I ); (-5) witnesses (see Josh 24; Deut 32); (6) blessings
    }Wenham 1979: l0-1- .
    and curses (Lev 26; Deut 28); (7) an oath or description ofthe people's response (Ex 20:18-21; Deut .

    5:22-33) tells horv the people accepted it as revealed from God. r'Enns 2005:921. cill. :: . .
    aSee Alexander 1999:2-20: and 2003:94-101: Carmichael lgg2). Carmichael believes the Book of the like what truly corr.rir-',. -

    Covenant'"vas r'vritten in the sixth century B.C. rvhen Deuteronomy rvas rvritten (p.2a8).Alexander
    Chapter 7: Narratir e
    follorvsMarshall l993,whoshowstheBookoftheCovenantreflects"adimorphicpastoralandagrarian
    rCollrrrs ( lg82'-+7--1\ .
    society ofthe early Iron I period (1200-1000 BC)" (p. 100). -:- .

    sSelman 2000:502; Averbeck 2003a:8 1 6- a con\equence o1' titr -.-


    -..
    1 7: Durham 1 987 350-53.
    :
    Manl corrservalire hi:. - .'.
    6Averbeck 1997c:907-8. Kiuchi 2003:52,1, says the two sections flow
    from the outer to inner aspects of conclusions. ... It .h,,.. : ..
    r'vorship, first "from the material side to the human heart expressed outrvardly" (Ex 25-Lev l6) and
    essentially fiction. nt":.- -
    then "to the human heafi expressed in obedience to the laws and decrees" (Lev l8-26). biaserl statement.li,r n., .

    TFor a
    summary of attempts to date Deuteronomy as a seventh-century document rvritten during Josiah's of literary analysis.
    reform, see McConville 2003:185-87. They should be judged as a failure. jSee
    Mar:hall lq7(r: \1.,- '
    sCraigie 1976:.41-42. Block 2005:16. calls this "the voice of a pastor" more than
    of a prophet or pricst, 'Krieger 1964:.1-71 K-.-,
    namely Moses as he is about to leave his people.
    interdependent aspeil.
    ql-evinson
    1997 149-52.He believes Deuteronomy was a seventh-century product of revisionary rvriters aSeePratt 1983: l.5E-:q i :.
    intended not just to revise the previous laws but to replace them. See Block 2005:14-15. for a positive
    we vierv the te\t c: .L ' - -
    vet cautious acceptance of Levinson's "revision" theory (but r.vithout the late dating).
    can separate traditi,,rr :- -
    r(rChristenson 2001:lxxiv-lxxvii; and Craigie 19'7 6:68'69. recon\truclion olthe q.. -
    irAs McConville shows (2003:187-91), these emphases could as easily have Moreorer. the hi:tori.,. -,.-
    come early in the life of
    the nation as late and do not demand a seventh-century date for the rvriting of Deuteronomy. Thus it is readily accc.. - ,

    64

    christianlib.com
    Note.s

    1. .'.: -:t \tudies the symbol 'rHartley 2003:421, following Moberley 1992:24-25.
    :'. lnternal and external rrHarrison 1980:122-26. Fee and Stuart 2003:177-78, say the prohibited
    iltr. 1,'
    foods are (l) more likely to
    r.., : i:i broad category of cause disease in the arid Sinai climate, (2) cost prohibitive in the Canaan region, (3) foods favored by
    the surrounding pagan cultures, and (4) sources ofallergies in the region.
    rlNoth 1966:56-57. Fee and Stuart 2003:178-79. give an excellent
    example, the larv against cooking a
    young goat in its mother's milk (Deut 14:21).The Canaanites used this as a fertility rite, believing that
    t H :.t l9'8:122-23: Baird
    such a practice would entice the gods into blessing the flock.
    r5Douglas 1 966:5 l -54; Wenham 197 9 :23-25, 169 -7 1 ; Wenham 1 98 I :6- I 5.
    l6Milgrom 1963:288-301 Milgrom 1991.
    ;
    rTScurlock andAnderson 200570-73, argue that
    Hansen's Disease (leprosy) rvas in fact a problem in
    . _:., - 1:r.rand-s telling "you" the ancient Near East.
    - : :::ru.r. This form-critical l8See
    the excellent work by John Osrvalt (1999).
    r'rlt ahvays surprises me that
    students and church members lvill use any commentary they can find (when
    , -: r. \lrJiift
    they think to use them at all!) rvithout considering their quality. There is a wide disparity (as in every
    item we buy), and it is important to use the better ones. The others often give you false information.
    : :n in the Decalogue: 20Averbeck 2003 :7 07 -8, from Douglas I 999 : I 5-65.
    : -1.,!cl (l) a historical I I
    Wenham 1 97 9 : 52- 51 : Averbeck 2003 :1 1 2- 1 3 : Anderson 1992.87 1 -1 8.
    ::-.\. r -l r the stipulations
    rzWenham 197 9 :67 -i 2: Averbeck 2003 :7 I 3- I 5.
    : i ur.al to the suzerain;
    srrrurt curses invoked: r3Wenham Averbeck 2003
    , I 97 9 :7 4-8 I ; : 7 I 5- 1 7 : Anderson 1992:81 8 -7 9 .

    - ::rular reading of the :aWenham I97 9 :87 -96; Averbeck 2003 :7 17 -20. Anderson I 992 879-80.
    :

    . D::rt -l I ): (6) blessings rsWenham 1919 101-11'. Averbeck 2003:720-22


    Anderson 1992:880-8 I
    - .: , [- r ]0: I 8-21 : Deut .

    r6Enns 2005:94. calls this a "dynamic quatity" in the legal system, that is, it is open to critical reflection
    Iike rvhat truly constitutes holiness before God.
    i:: t:. e\ e\ the Book of the
    . .; : .J:r p. ll8). Alexander Chapter 7: Narrative
    :: ::: - ta\toral and agrarian rCollins (1982:47-48), denies this, saying. "The rediscovery of biblical narative has been largely
    a consequence of the negative results of historical research. This point has theological importance.
    Many conservative biblicists have invoked literary criticism as a way of avoiding unr.velcome historical
    : '.r: L.:.'r to inner aspects of conclusions. ... It should be clear that such evasions rvill not rvork. ...'Story' is not 'history.' It is
    i r:i .. E\ 15-Lev 16) and essentially fiction, material lvhich in some measure has been invented." However. this is clearly a
    r 16 t
    biased statement, for many literary critics do in fact combine the historical and the "fictive" dimensions
    r-a' i -: .'. :rtten during Josiah's of literary analysis.
    rSee Marshall 19701 Martin 1972; Smatley 1978; France 1989.
    rr .f .:rr .ri l prophet or priest, 'Krieger 1964:3-10. Krieger argues that the historical (rvindorvs) and the literary (mirrors) are
    interdependent aspects of litelary analysis.
    :: .,-..: ..f rer isionary rvriters 4See
    Pratt 1983:l-58--59. R. Alan Culpepper provides a more critical use of the imagery to sug-qest that
    ..r -, 5: 1-1-l5. for a positive we vierv the text as a mirror more than a rvindorv, since the latter is open only to the specialist rvho
    -::: lr:inf ).
    can separate tradition from redaction (1983:3-4). Yet a historical approach does not demand only a
    reconstruction ofthe event, and historical background provides a valid aspect ofliterary interpretation.
    l:.:' ,,rne early in the life of Moreover, the historical data is available through the better commentaries and books on background.
    :. . Dc'uteronomy. Thus it is readily accessible to the nonspecialist. On the text as "pofirait" see Guelich 1982.ll7-25.

    65

    christianlib.com
    "il.ffi
    sAdele Berlin says that "poetics is to literature as iinguistics is to language. That is, poetics describes
    Fou ler uses the p: :.. -
    the basic components of literature and the rules governing their use" (1983: l5). in his Semeia irn , - -. l

    6See Sternberg 1985:89; compare pp.89-91. Ho'uvever. I


    must demur from Sternberg's language, rvith an inlbrnre; :- - : i -
    "choice to devise." This is part of his argument that Old Testament narative is ideological rhetoric reader leads to a i.':-.r--:
    designed as propaganda for an omniscient God. I r.vould explain the biblical language as due to the discover the turl).
    author's awareness of divine inspiration rather than as deliberate rhetoric. liReader-respon\. -:. -.
    THowever. I disagree with those critics r'vho string together these "seams" and asides into rvhat amounts text and reader. T: . --. - '
    to a ''subtext" behind the surface text. This results fiom the radical separation ofthe implied author from only possible but ;: .-:.:
    the real author, a theory that I reject. Instead, the editorial comments provide the author's commentary 'sCulpepper 195-1 : -
    on the significance of the story he is narating. These trvo elements-story and commentary-stand nevertheless. hi: .i:i: .-:-
    together in the narrative. the "implied reaJ:r' - '"1

    8See Culpepper 1983:20-34: Petersen 197897-121; Kingsbury 198632-361' Rhoads and Michie disciples (as uell -:. i-:-:
    1982:36-44. From the side ofpure literary criticism see Uspensky 1973:8-100: Genette 1980:161-86; rvords. these techl:.,-.. -

    and Chatman 1978: l5l-58. rel rvould not i:rrl.::; :-:


    eThe nonevangelical considers the "inside" information an artistic creation of the author, while the already discus:erl. 1.1:.-
    evangelical believes that divine inspiration is behind the material, and that the information was gleaned intertwined.
    in many different ways but is historically accurate. roA good exampll' .. :. .: -
    r0lundin, Thiselton and Walhout 1985:69. Walhout develops four criteria for detecting a historical work gained the strtu. ,.' . :.. -

    (pp.12-76'1: rlMost currenl L,rr .


    ) the rvorld in the text is factually accurate, (2) the point of vierv taken by the author often
    ( 1 -
    contains indicators ofa historical perspective, (3) the use ofthe text by its readers and the circumstances literary criticisnr J. - -:
    behind its production point to its genre (whether history or fiction). and (,1) the uses of the text by the of results (in tern:. : --
    author himself (Is he making claims of an actual situation in the rvorld behind the text?) point to a real too often arc r]t\)rr' '- - - .

    or fictive world in the text. understandin_c thc- ir', . -.:

    rrFor a good narrative analysis ofJohn 9 see Resseguie 1982:295-303. when the identin.
    ":.
    unbelievably corr.rL'.. , -.
    'rCulpepper I 983: I 6l . from Aristotle's Poetics 1,154a. Most make a distinction between "flat" (characters -'Sternberg -,
    rvith only a single trait) and "r'ound" (many traits) characterization.I pref'er Berlin's categories ( 1983:23- I9\-i
    24): a "type" (a static character rvith only a single trait), an "agent" (a mere functionary rvith no trait at
    indeed it is true th:,: :: : .-
    makes a good p,'r:...-
    all) and a "full-fledged" character (a realistic personage on whom the action turns).
    indeed a thing oi th: :..'
    rrSee Chatman I978:107-388 and Kingsbury 1986:9-10 for more detailed discussion.
    rrWhile Rhoads ar.r \1 --
    laSternberg 1 985: I 86-89. Fowler cails this "the rhetoric of indirection" ( 1 98 3:-5 3). The text provides the
    material: "None Lri :: . - .
    clues to help the readers discover the proper path through the story but uses these gaps to involve them
    helpful in the inrcn':. .

    in the author's actual message.


    rsMany scholars separate the implied reader from the "narratee" (see Iig. 7.1 in the text). The narratee
    laSee the sumnrar\ . -
    intention and tota. :., :-.
    coresponds to the namator and is the literary figure to rvhom the text is explicitly directed. For instance.
    Ricoeur). by senrei.: - .- -
    Luke-Acts is directed to Theophilus (Lk 1:3: Acts l:l). Most of the time, the narratee is designated
    r'Obviou:|1. I .1,'
    by specilic asides or explanations in the text, guiding his or her understanding. The irnplied reader - -' .

    Horvever. his ba:r. :-


    i,vould be the implicit audience. "that set of values that is capable of bringing this work to its aesthetic
    r'Kingsbury lexr, '' '
    completion" (Keegan 1985:101). Horvever, I agree rvith Kingsbury that for all intents and purposes
    the naffatee and implied reader are synonymous in biblical narrative. We could separate Theophilus of plot by definit:, . -
    (the nanatee) and the church of Luke's tirne (the implied reader), but such rvould be artificial, fbr the machinations rrl'lrr. : -

    explanations and summaries are addressed to both sinrultaneously. rTSee Walker l g--.--,_:
    r6Forvler ( 983:32-,19) provides a helpful discussion of the issue as to rvhether the "implied reader" is
    1
    bibliography in thc..
    ensconced in the texi (so Wayne Booth) or created by the real reader f}om the text (so Wolf-eang Iser). :tThere is con:itlcr.,- - -- -

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    Noles

    :: Trrt is. poetics describes Forvler uses the phrase "ideal reader" (Stanley Fish) as the better term for the latter and develops this
    r. i in his Semeia article (1985:5-21), in rvhich he gives priority to the ideal reader and identifies the latter
    --: r. Slcrnberg's Ianguage. rvith an informed real reader. I r.vould give priority to the implied reader of the text, since the ideal
    -:j: .- r- idculog.ical rhetoric reader leads to a reader-response orientation in rvhich the readers create their own meaning rather than
    discover the author's intended meaning (see the apps. to this book for further discussion).
    I -,:. .::]!ua$e as due tO the
    rTReader-response critics argue that polyvalence (multiple meanings)
    controls the interplay between
    text and reader. This assumption is chailenged in the appendixes ofthis book, which argue that it is not
    rr i .r- le: into tvhat amounts
    -. from only possible but mandatory to recover the author's meaning.
    r- . . :.'.r' intplied author
    lsCulpepper 1983:209. Culpepper does not give "intended meaning" the central place that I do;
    . -: :i': ruthor's commentary
    .i -. ,::ii cttmmentarY-stand neveftheless, his statement is applicable. Joanna Dervey shows horv "point of vierv" helps one detect
    the "implied reader" in Mark and thus to discover the "double identification" rvith both Jesus and the
    disciples (as r.vell as the tension in the actual reader that this creates) in Mark (1982:97-106). In other
    r:l'j^. Rhoads and Michie
    , .- ' words, these techniques combine to guide the reader to the text's meaning.
    . Genette 1980:161-86:
    rel rvould not isolate the
    "commissive" dimension from the other aspects (such as intended meaning)
    already discussed. Meaning and significance (the static and dynamic sides of interpretation) are
    :r - : :he author. while the
    intertlvined.
    r: :- r :-:!rnration rvas gleaned
    r0AgoodexampleisAlter l98l:3-12. 107-l2,rvhoseexcellentstudiesof Genesis 37-39 havealmost
    ._qained the status of classic rvork.
    , : - -..:,'iirlg a historical work
    riMost curent biblical namative specialists-like Sternberg. Berlin or Culpepper-see tradition and
    .- . '-r\.-n br the authoroften
    . ::,,.r::. rnd the circumstances literary criticism as complementary rather than opposed. Nearly all. horvever, recognize the paucity
    : : .*.' u.e\ of the text by the of results (in terms of understanding the text) from tradition criticism. Form and redaction critics
    r€- .- j irlr' te\tl) point to a real too oflen are more interested in reconstructing the history and theology of the early church than in
    understanding the text itself. Source criticism is helpful as a supplement to narrative analysis. Hor.vever.
    when the identification ol sources becomes an end in itself, it tends to be speculative (such as the many
    unbelievably complex theories on the Synoptic problem) and detracts from the text's meaning.
    rt. - t:,ir\ ecfl "fl at'' (characters rrSternberg 1985:70. Modern literary critics take strong exception to Sternberg's statement here, and
    :: E - - :". jate-sories ( 1983:23-
    -:-r- ,.i-r,lt'rltiifY with no tfait at indeed it is true that the antihistorical position is alive and well. Nevertheless, I believe that Sternberg
    makes a good point, tbr the earlier "heyday" of this opposition to the historical element in a text is
    indeed a thing of the past.
    .a a.--...iPn. rrWhile Rhoads and Michie deny the validity of the former, they recognize the value of background
    - ' : : i . Thr' text provides the
    material: "None of these considerations rneans that our general knorvledge of the first century is not
    - -:' -.-' saps to involve them helpful in the interpretation ofthe storyl indeed it is often crucial" (1982:ul).
    raSee the summary in Gillespie 1986: I99-203, rvho tries to rvalk a middle path between autholial
    ' :r :hL' tcxt). The narratee intention and total textual autonomy. A degree of autonomy is required. Gillespie argues (follorving
    - . ,. Jirected. For instance. Ricoeur), by semantic arnbiguity (the impossibility of seeking clarification fl'om the author).
    ..: ; :r.rrratee is designated rsObviously, I do not agree rvith McKnight in rejecting ''plot, technique. character development."
    :' : r.l The imPlied reader Horvever. his basic point. that rve be r."'ary of modem approaches. has some validity.
    -- 11'.;. sork to its aesthetic
    r6Kingsbury 1986:9. In one sense this hardly needs to be stated, tbr as said earlier. the central theme
    : : ,,-l intents and Purposes
    : , rlJ \eparate TheoPhilus of plot by definition isalr'vays conflict. How,ever, in Matther.v the conflict betrveen God and the
    - ,ulJ be artificial. for thc machinations of his enemies (who attempt to disrupt his redemptive plan) is particulariy central.
    rTSee Walker 1977 76-93 Osborne 1979305-22 and 1991;and McKnight 1988:83-95; as rve1l as the
    bibliography in these rvorks. tbr further material on redaction techniques.
    . -: 'lr.' "irnplied reader" i\
    rsThere is considerable debate as to rvhether the Olivet Discourse can be classified as "apocalyptic."
    . :';::\r (so wolfgang [ser).
    61

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    Many believe that the absence of esoteric symbolism and other apocalyptic features in Mark l3 makes third-person st\-:. i- --
    it doubtful that Jesus was employing Jervish apocalyptic here. in the book an.l ::. -
    reOn misunderstandings in John see Carson 1982,59-91 and Culpepper 1983:152-65.
    Carson stresses concluding:ei:: :-

    the historical side, Culpepper the literary. I see them as complementary rather than contradictory. sFor the stronii.: .----
    roGreidanus 1988:148-54. He points to four advantages: (1) It is closerto the biblical form and so is 1968:97-116.:r:ri'- - j
    less likely to distort the biblical text. (2) It creates interest by keeping the sermon moving forr,vard to a eSee ShepparJ
    --"
    climax. (3) It involves the hearers more holistically, reaching the intuitive and emotional side as rvell
    Egyptian moiir' : :---.
    as the cognitive and rational side. (4) It communicates rvith the hearers indirectly and obliquely and so
    insuffi cicnt L'\ r.ia' r- - :
    engages them more deeply by getting around their defenses.
    that children nrir -* : -
    rrFor the differences betrveen didactic and narative sermons see Greidanus 1988:14,1-54.
    private homc. -: - - -

    Chapter 8: Poetry being "so teu ::.. . - -


    rLaSor, Hubbard and Bush (1982:60,1-5) describe the types of love poetry: descriptive songs, in which children * riti:'.: :-: . :."
    literacy in Isr":.
    each lover extols the other's beauty (Song 4:1-7; 5:10-16; 6:1-1:1:l-9'); songs of admiration (Song
    I :9- I I ; ,1:9- I I ; 7:7-9); songs of yearning (Song I :2-4: 2:5-6l. 8: I -4, 6-7); search naratives. in rvhich
    Chapter l0: Prr,,ph*'
    the rvoman passionately seeks her lover' (Song 3:l-41.5:2-1); the game of love (Song 5:8-6:1. fbllorving
    rYet this tsp f,;- 1-.-
    the search of Song 5:2-7): teasing songs that detail the banter betrveen the lovers (Song 2:1,1-15; 5:2-
    -'.
    3); boasting songs praising the beloved (Song 6:8-10;8:11-12); invitations to love (Song 2:5,17'.4:16'.
    prophetic intei::....
    7:l l-13;8:14). Many scholars believe that this love poem originated in the marriage ritual and liturgy. but in the leq". '-.:
    "authoritati\ e :: ..: -:
    While such cannot be proven, it has merit.
    rKaiser 1981:215. Most scholars consider it a musical term, the meaning of rvhich has been lost. developed or ":---- -
    receiYed tra,li:;, : .- - -:.
    Therefore. it has little value in structural considerations.
    inspiration an.i:---- -

    Chapter 9: Wisdom people back t,'I .


    lZimmerli (1933 l'79) calls this the central concept in the appropriation of wisdom. Ou, ,1-,a 16g,111r5.,:

    rNel ( I 982:62-64) argues that even in cases without motivation clauses (he discusses Prov 23:12;27:2: rLindblonr l.r^: - ---
    31:8-9) the latter is implicit. Horvever, I do not find the argument convincing. He finds the motivation :- .:: -:'
    parallels r :uai'.
    in Prov 20: l8 in the first half ("Make plans by seeking advice") but on formal grounds that do not state :Clentent: rlu--<.' .
    a consequence but rather a general admonition applied specitically in the second half ("if you wage war, >ubstantiated H ..= =-
    obtain guidance"). There is no true motivation clause in such statements (see also Prov l7:14:20:19; the secontlarr -.:-:.
    )/.')1 )Q
    reaSOntng ln t::; .' : :-
    r

    3A form similar to the allegory, the fable, is frequent in Near East r'visdom but not found in the Old that Deutertrir': - -:-.r-
    Testament. Therefore I do not discuss it here. Cletnent: bel:;... : -..
    lCrensharv 1974255-560.I do not rvish to intimate that these are not historical. "Imagined speech" is a it:elf. \et ir H ... -.--
    formal category not a historical judgment. proce:s behLn, ,:. -' . .
    5Note that the believer is commanded to "submit" both to governrnent (Rom 13: 1-7; 1 Pet zl: 13- 17) and Dc'uteronrrntia t: i:- -.
    parents (Eph 6:1-4; Col 3:20). The principle is the same. -Cr)ntrit Tui\;: -'I : j
    6Kaiser ( 1979:passim; 198 I :73) argues that the refrain "Eat. drink, and find enjoyment in your rvork. iunctioned p:.-'-:- :.

    for this is the gift of God" (Eccles 2:24-25 5:18-20: 8:1-5) marks the four sections of Ecclesiastes and IapentanaL-.
    embodies a basically positive outlook on life. Hor.vever, it is debatable rvhether these indeed demarcate 'lt i: uniorrt-:r-:
    the four sections of the book, and rvhile there are positive glimpses (note also God's omnipotence in hr.toricai Il;:i: -
    Eccles 3:14 and the necessity of fearing God in Eccles 8:12) it seems more likely that much of the book .rnrilar It TL: ..
    intends to shor.v the complete futility of a life centered only on the things of this life.
    hi>torr carr .r:::.
    TWhile many have argued that the epilogue is secondary (Sheppardl Gordis 1968:349-50) due to the
    ItlS-9 r.

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    Notes

    r. :::i,re: rn Mark l3 makes third-person style. which does not occur elsewhere in the book, most of the terms are found elservhere
    in the book and the switch in style could easily be calculated to draw attention to the importance ofthe
    -.: . al-6-s. Carson stresses concluding section.
    ::,:: ::.rn contt'adictory. sFor the strongest arguments for
    a developed system from a rvisdom perspective, see Hermisson
    . - -.r'lr.rl l'orm and so is 1968:97 -136, and from a general perspective. see Riesner 1984:123-99.
    -a--' . nr()\ ing forrvard to a eSee Sheppard1988:i077. Blenkinsopp (1983:1i-1,1) posits a series ofscribal schools built on the
    : i - :;lrrrtiorlal side as r,vell Egyptian mode to educate the elite in Israelite society. While such is certainly possible, there is
    ;..::-: '. irnd obliquely and so
    insufficient evidence to support the likelihood of such an enterprise. Thompson (1986:243,245) posits
    that children may have been taught to read. though not in formal schools but through the family (or
    -- ,,:rl-11_-5.1.
    private homes) and in some cases in scribal academies. For instance, Isaiah 10:19 speaks of trees as
    being "so few that a child could rvrite them dorvn" and Isaiah 28:9-10 may drarv an analogy frorn
    children r'vriting the alphabet. However, these are elusive and do not demand a very high degree of
    :.'--:.ptire songs, in which
    literacy in Israel.
    - -:'- '.i admiration (Song
    . ':tr:-:', nlrrratives. in rvhich Chapter l0: Prophecy
    . i :.S -i:E-6:1. follorving
    .
    rYet this too has become a
    :: . .r. Srrng 2:14-15; 5:2- source of vigorous debate. Michael Fishbane (1985:435-40) examines the
    prophetic interpretation ofthe Torah and concludes that direct authority lies not in the prophetic oracle
    :-: .c Song2:5.17; 4:16:
    ': ---:-.,!r- ritual and liturgy. but in the legal "tradition" of Moses behind it. Since the prophets contextualized the thrust of the
    "authoritative text" (the Mosaic and Deuteronomic traditions). the prophets, according to Fishbane,
    developed on "aggadic exegesis," a tradition that reflected on the theological implications of the
    :- : ,.hich has been lost.
    received tradition and applied them to new contexts and situations. However. the two (direct revelatory
    inspiration and aggadic exegesis of the Torah) are not mutually exclusive. The prophets called the
    people back to Torah and covenant. As such the prophetic exegesis of the sacred texts is indeed aggadic,

    : ,..i r:. but the theological contextualization they utilized came directly from God.

    .' -..- ....1-r Prot' 23'.12l. 2"1 :2; rlindblom 196269-70; Sawyer (I 987: I 8- 1 9) posits prophetic guilds on the basis of Near Eastern
    ..- - il: :rnds the motivation parallels (such as the 450 prophets of Baal in I Kings 18).
    '::r -: ,.ntls that do not state 3Clements (i975:88) doubts that any such
    role of "covenant mediator" or "law speaker" can be
    ;a " - :rl1 "if r,ou rvage rvar.
    1
    substantiated. However,this is largely due to his acceptance ofredaction-critical conclusions regarding
    ':: r . r Pror l7:l4l 20:19; the secondary nature of the covenant passages discussed later in this book. I find a certain circuiar
    reasoning in the whole process. For instance, Clements (1975:43-15) accepts H. W. Wolff's conclusion
    :- r..: r\r lbund in the Old that Deuteronomic redactors added the covenant emphases in Hosea and Amos. At the same time
    Clements believes Hosea played a formative role in the development of the Deuteronomic tradition
    - -. I:ragined speech" is a itself. Yet if Hosea himself developed the emphases there is no need to posit a lengthy redactional
    process behind the book. I concur with Craigie's criticisms (1986:140-43) regarding the basic theory of

    .: : . -:1 Pet;l:13- 17)and Deuteronomic redactors in the prophetic period.


    aContra Tucker (1985:339), rvho
    speaks for several (Wolff, Warmouth) when he says "the prophets
    :r - :: . \ nrent in your rvork. functioned primarily to announce the future as the rvord of God; they were not first of all preachers of
    : ': - : :.. tlf Ecclesiastes and repentance."
    r,a:-.: i:-.i.e indeed demarcate 5lt is unfortunate that Tan (1974:201-2) calls Mickelsen "non-literal"
    and hints that he denies any
    l= : - Li,,.l'. ornnipotence in historical link. I would call myself a "literalist" but would argue that Mickelsen's cautions in I'act are
    . ...:r'' :hiit much of the book similar to Tan's, who agrees that prophecy should not be allorved to exceed "the limits of what present
    : : . .]Ie. history can attest" (p. 206) and that it should never be used to set dates or to spiritualize the text (pp.
    208-9).

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    christianlib.com

    {i{^
    6See the list in Kuenen 1969:98-275 and the shorter discussion in Crensharv 1971:51-52. Crensharv roFor the superit,rr:.

    (pp. 14-15) builds on Johannes Hempel's influential essay (1930:631-60). which vierved unfulfilled lrHanson's larce:::
    prophecy as causing a crisis offaith when some failed to come to pass. This led the prophets to adapt Isaiah" (chaps :, '
    their message to new situations, exemplilied especially in "Deutero-Isaiah's" reworking of the Cyrus strugglin-u rr ith t:r'
    prophecy (Is 44:28;45:1) into the servant songs when Cyrus refused to recognize Yahrveh as the basis
    and turn to a cor:r.-
    of his victory over the Babylonians. This and similar theses, however, are unnecessary and speculative.
    for such a hr pc,thr.
    There is simply no textual evidence for such a transformation. There was a "crisis of faith," but it was
    major change: rn ::
    caused by the growing apostasy of the nation and the signs of divine punishment that accompanied it.
    TFor a fairly complete list of formulas and passages in which they are found. see Mickelsen 1963:81-84. Chapter l2: Parable
    8In fact, John Sawyer considers both types under the general category lAgain the goal r.
    of "oracle" and specifically : :.\
    "messenger speech" (1 987 :25 -29). allegorized rathe: ::.:- .-:
    rDan Via point: -
    Chapter 11: Apocalyptic '--;
    rAune (1986:86-87) proposes three aspects: form, content and function. example (196-: I---
    All of these, however, relate
    rMarshall 197S. F : -., ..
    more to genre or formal features.
    rFor instance, Sanders posits an "essentialist" delinition that attempts to find the "most striking point Gentiles comin,c r:: :-: .

    of Jewish apocalypses," which he argues is the "revelation which promises reversal and restoration" Blomberg point.: :^: :.
    (I 983:456-58). The other elements, such as transcendence or pseudonymity, Sanders f,nds predominant
    in the branchc': ,': :-: -:
    in other types of literature as well. However, the promise of restoration is also a revelatory feature of states that there :- : :- '

    prophetic writing. Again, there is no pure genre and the identification of apocalyptic is dependent on an (Mk 5:l-20)Je:u. :. :,.-
    accumulation ofcharacteristics rather than on traits peculiar to this genre alone. Thus in Mark a\ ri. ._ ,
    3For instance, aJan Lambrecht .r:::-.-
    I disagree with Morris (1972'35-36) that the prophet had the sense of "standing in the -

    council of God" (Jer 23:18) rvhile the apocalyptist did not. In many visions the apocalyptic rvriter is in existence is ottcr.': - -

    the very presence of God (such as the throne vision of Rev 4-5, and the perspective in this sense does decision must b. r-:-: -

    not differ appreciably from that of the prophet. This is the po\\ er -: :
    L : :

    aJohn Collins makes this category the basis of his breakdor,vn of apocalyptic rvorks into
    two types: those
    5The question a. . -:
    that include an otherworldly journey and those that do not (19'79:12-13). Collins places three subtypes disciples'treatnri':r: - .'
    under each major category: those with a review ofhistory and an eschatological crisis, those lvithout context of Nlatth.' '. ---
    such a revierv but still predicting a public triumph of God, and those with an emphasis on a personal Blomberg 200-1:1, :' :
    rather than colporate deliverance. oThe double inr ii..: : - .

    5H. H. Rowley goes so far as to state that Daniel established the pattern
    for pseudonymity in apocalyptic servants to fetch:.: --:.
    works (1963:40-42). Horvever, others dispute this. On behalf of the traditional view of the authorship invitation but ine.---.. .
    and date of Daniel. see Roland Harrison 1969:11lo-27 . Clearly Mattheu .::.'': -
    6Russell 1964 132-39 R. H. Charles believes that this was due to the close of the canon (1913:38-z16). highlights refu.r,l..,::.- -
    7An interesting counter view is that of Stephen Cook rvho posits that in the case of Daniel, Ezekiel and rAlthough man\ :.!..: :
    Joel the postexilic apocalyptic movement occurred within groups in power in order to call the people to the rvork of the E.,-:.
    rally around the central leadership
    ( 1995:55-84). This is viable, but it rvas still a time of crisis (as Cook (2004:189-90r \e" -. r, --
    admits) and so on the whole the theory still stands. their conterts in :: : ,: -:
    sSanders I 983:456; Sanders lists passages rvhere themes of reversal and restoration are found: Daniel subjectivity and 1".,. : -
    1-12; 1 Enoch 83-90; 91-104; Jubilees 23;4Ezra 1 1-12 and so on (pp. 456-51'). but the ideolo.c\,': .:: - ,

    eSeeRusseil 1964:308-23.Theideaofatwo-Messiahdoctrineisdebated.Rorvlandacceptsit(1982:263), agenda into the p;:.: :- .


    sFor the histoncitl r ii,:
    but A. J. B. Higgins doubts that such a belief was held ( 1966- 1967:211-39'1. Abalanced perspective can
    be found in Longenecker 1970:63-66, rvho says that early in the life of Qumran such a vierv rvas held Jesus used the :a;:-= :--.
    but that by the flrst century the lay Messiah became the sole repositor of the Messianic office. situations and that;.,: :

    10

    christianlib.com
    Notes

    qr I :51-52. Crenshaw r0For the superiority of Domitian's reign over that of Nero, Osborne 2002:6-9.
    ::.,, -
    see

    , .,.:...h i ierved unfulfilled rrHanson's larger thesis is more questionable. He argues that there is a development from "Second
    f.:- ..--: tle prophets to adapt Isaiah" (chaps. 40-55) to "Third Isaiah" (chaps. 56-66); in the latternvork a group of visionaries
    1 . ;s-ri olking of the Cyrus struggling rvith the priestly party for religious revival surrender all hope in present historical processes
    , : J \ rrhu eh as the basis and turn to a cosmic vision of direct divine intervention in the future. However, the exegetical evidence
    --. :. - r:.11r\ and Speculative. lbr such a hypothesis is not strong. and I fail to see such
    . - - .r. oi faith." but it was
    major changes in the text.
    .-- - : :l-.rt x.r'ompanied it.
    :. -;: \l.rkelsen 1963:81-84. Chapter 12: Parable
    : :r.le" and specilically rAgain the goal is to discover the intended meaning of the text, that is, those details that the author
    allegorized rather than the desired meaning of the reader (see further apps. I -2 on this) .

    rDan Via points out how easily we can allegorize even when denying allegory, using Ernst Fuchs as an

    example (1961:19-21).
    :.. : :ir.'s.-. horvever. relate
    rMarshall 1978. Fitzmyer 1983 (on Luke), and France 2002 (on Mark) believe that the birds refer to
    Gentiles coming into the church. on the basis of Jervish parallels where birds refer to Gentile proselytes.
    '- j :''.. 'nrost striking point Blomberg poinrs to the possibility that Ezekiel l'7:23 (in which the birds [the peoples of the earth] rest
    Y. ::. ir\ill and restoration"
    in the branches of the cedar of Lebanon) is behind the imagery (1990:285). Horvever, he cautiously
    r t.:'.1:r: trnds predominant
    states that there is no proof tiom context that Jesus intended such an allusion. Yet in the next section
    .. . ,, :er elatOry feature Of
    (Mk 5: l-20) Jesus deliberately goes to a Gentile region and casts demons from the Gadarene demoniac.
    1 r: r ti.J i\ dependent on an
    Thus in Mark as well as Luke there is an aspect of the Gentile mission in the context.
    rJan Lambrecht detects a three-stage process: (1) The future is made visible and a new authentic
    ::: .::..i oi "standing in the
    . -. ,, '..rlrptic uriter is in existence is offered. (2) The hearer must reverse his direction and break with the past. (3) A far-reaching

    :€:-:(-: rn this sense does


    decision must be made in the present, involving a total commitment to the nerv reality (1981:16-17).
    "a
    This is the porver of the parable.
    sThe question as to whether the parable refers to the nations' treatment of the disciples or to the
    ,. ::.. :tttO t\\'O types: those
    f - :l.ices three subtypes disciples' treatment of others is not endemic to my point. The parable itself would favor the first: the
    : -., .-risis. those without context of Mattherv 21-25, the second. Most scholars opt for the former (see France 2000:189-93;
    ,-. :: !':rrrhasis on a pelsonal Blomberg 2004:205- 1 5).
    6The double invitation is a common oriental practice, consisting of the sending of an invitation then of
    i-: . - r'\ nrrtr in apocalyptic servants to fetch the guests. Interestingty. Mattherv in his version (22:l-10) does not stress the double
    t. -.: . r\ ,,l thc authorship invitation but includes a double refusal. Luke adds a further double invitation to the surprise guests.
    Clearly Matthew stresses Jer'vish guilt and Luke divine benevolence. As Pheme Perkins says, Matthew
    .' :-.' -unon (1913:38-46). highlights refusal, anger andjudgment, Luke the offer ofsalvation (1981:95-96).

    < -:-- 'i Daniel. Ezekiel and 'Although many believe that the audience and historical settings of the parables in the Gospels are
    : .' :-i:r to call the people to the work of the Evangelists, I do not believe such is necessary (see Blomberg 1990). Snodgrass
    - -. r rIe of crisis (as Cook
    :
    (2004:189-90) says, "What is obvious in the rvorks surveyed is that the more one cuts the parables from
    their conterts in the Gospels, in the life of Jesus, and the theology of Israel, the more one promotes
    r:-1 r-ritofl are found: Daniel subjectivity and lack of control in interpretation. The theology of the evangelists has been removed.
    ::.-:-. but the ideology or the sociology of the interpreter has been introduced. Scholars have read their orvn
    agenda into the parables as frequently as did the patristic church."
    i. :rru l;cepts it(1982:263),
    , --,:rnced perspective can
    -r"
    sFor the historicity of the two settings see Carson 1984:123-26 Marshall 1978:243-45 . I believe that
    ,).-:':.:: 'uch a l'ierv was held Jesus used the same parable form (each given 10-5-l with the last hiding his money) in these two
    ::: \1:.:ianic office. situations and that each Evangelist chose that which best lit his needs.

    71

    christianlib.com
    Hrr\\ e ver, Ken Bailey's attempts to find complicated chiastic structure in nearly all of Luke's parables several words or ph:...:.
    rreatly exceeds the limits of likelihood. can be consciol-l\ (r-r :-: :
    Stein 1981:80. However, Sidney Greidanus adds an impofiant critical cautionary note that the modern 2Kaiser 1985:l--r.I: i.: :
    retelling can actually detract from the meaning of the text and draw attention only to the creative (and rJobes and Silr a lr, , -,
    highly entertaining) re-creation (1988:226). It is usually easier (and hermeneutically better) to retell the
    proto-Lucian et al. . :-. -.
    original story, using background information to unlock misunderstood aspects.
    rrTolbert 1979:83-89. Blomberg clusters the parables into "simple
    column in the Hc-r.: . "
    three-point parables,""complex albid., pp. l9-1-: ;:',. --,
    three-point parables," "two-point and one-point parables" (1990).
    Septuagint. Thi: r- . - -
    ]:Contra Robert Guelich, rvho characterizes a growing
    number who state that the internal structure of 5D.M.Smith l9-l i :::
    the parable centers on the seed rather than on the soil and that only the later interpretation (vv. 14-20)
    canon.
    centers on the soil ( 1989:196-97). I would argue that the debate is disjunctive and we have a both-and
    situation, that is, both seed and soil are central, though in the parable itself and its interpretation, the
    6This was mostlr ::-:'..-
    soils are at center stage. rlongenecker 19--< -: ' 'i -
    r3Some have tried to solve this by arguing it is a historical story, since it is the only "parable" naming 8Jeffiey S. Rr)Scr-
    a character. However, it begins exactly like the previous parable of Lk i 6: I -8, "There was a rich man preserving &fl iirt.i:,. -::
    who," and Lazarus is named rather than the rich man because a name gives a person significance (in literary tradition.3 j:, :a:
    contrast the rich man has no name and thus no significance!), and Lazarus means "God helps," a major codifiers dcvel0fr'-- --'.
    theme ofthe parable (see Bock 1996:1365-66). visionaries peerin_: :: - ,.
    eStendahl 1968. H: =.:.-
    Chapter 13: Epistle
    l{)Longenccker l9--<
    rOne such is the rvhole question of normative vs. cultural commands. an issue discussed in chap. l7; --, -'-

    Fee and Stuart devote a second chapter on the Epistles to this topic. riCraig Er.'ans (l[x i] -' -

    2See Doty 1966:41l-51; White 1982:5-12 Knutson 1982:15-22; Fitzmyer 1982:25-40: Dion 1982:59- Zech l3:'7 ): Act: I . -'-
    1 1, 77 -841, Pardee 1 978:321 -44. rrThe term approp:.:: -
    :rsee Deissmann 1909 146-232;
    Roller 1933; Doty 1966,51-62;1973; white 1982:89-104; Blaiklock Jervs and Christi;rr. .:: -

    197 9:545 -52; Longenecker i 983 : 10 1 -2. I3See Foulkes 195: :. :-


    aMartin (19'77:233-34) follorvs Sanders (1962:348-52)
    in asserting that Paul was following the patterns 'aln this section.l r.r-. :i:
    of the Qumran hymns and Jewish liturgical prayers. Thus his prayers are not spontaneous but were
    carefully crafted for the church.
    r5Steve Moyise rli
    " - ''
    in biblical studie. .-
    sDavid Aune notes that the term sermon or homily
    is inaccurate to describe the literary genre of such Scripture in the L.'::!:-
    epistles as Hebrews, James, I Peter, 1 Clement or the Epistle of Barnabas (1987l97-204). He traces r6Moyise restrict\ r: :
    those Hellenistic features (forensic, deliberative and epideictic [praise and blame], diatribe) and Jervish
    u. l
    and allusions as r t
    types (synagogue homily) behind the Epistles.
    riEnns 2005:l3l-.:: :- -.
    6The passage on the Jerusalem decree in
    Acts 15:19-29, asking the Centile Christians to respect the
    Matthew is respect.: : :-.
    religious sensibilities of their Jewisir brethren, does apply to this. Horvever, 1 Corinthians 8-10 does
    predictive in Ho:c'r - .

    not.
    l8For a good e\anrn.: '--
    7I do not rvish to specify rvhich are and which are not allowable. Each believer must prayedully decide
    Jewish writings iP:.:. ::.
    that alone.
    Ezek 20:11, 13.l.:- :-'-.
    Chapter 14: Old Testament in the New Testament Rom 10:5: Gal 3:11 , --
    lThere is difficulty in identifying criteria for distinguishing quotes life was dependeni - : -.
    from allusions. Richard B. Hays
    (1989) calls for three categories: quotations, allusions and echoes. Yet Stanley E. Porter (1997:80-83) teEllis 1991:110: c: ,.

    shorvs how difficult it is to define these terms properly and to develop criteria for identifying them. cor?orate solidarit,r. - *..
    We rvill consider a quotation to be a near verbatim rendering of a passage, an allusion to be the use of roStendahl 1968:l:-:-l
    - -
    l2

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    Notes

    :li::.r all of Luke's palables several words or phrases, and an echo the use of a theme or a couple of terms from a passage. An echo
    r1 can be conscious on the pafi of an author or not.
    .i, : -:r\ lote that the modern :Kaiser 1985:2-3. In Revelation there are no formal quotes yet anywhere from 400-600 allusions.
    r.,. -'ni) to the creative (and rJobes and Silva 2000:46-56. They see five stages: an original translation; early recensions (Theodotian,
    r.-:..'.rll\ better) to retell the proto-Lucian et al.); the revisions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotian; Origen's recension (the fifth
    c- i. column in the Hexapla); and Lucian's recension.
    r-:, ,,:r: parables," "complex albid., pp. 193-4. Pfeiffer (1962:511) estimates that 80 percent of the quotations stem from the
    Septuagint. This is too high but still shorvs the importance of the Septuagint for the early church.
    .: :1r.- rnternal struCture Of sD.M.Smith 19'72 5.HegoesontosaythatthisdoesnotmeantheearlychurchadoptedtheAlexandrian
    r:r:rrpretation (vv. l4-20)
    canon.
    :' :ni \\ e have a both-and 6This was mostly eighteenth-century scholars like J. E. Grabe and J. S. Semler (see Dunbar 1986:128).
    .:J it: interpretation, the
    rlongenecker I 97-5:38-39.

    .i ,.'nl\ "parable" sJeffrey S. Rogers (1989:28-43) finds eight types of activities in


    naming Qumran: they are conservators
    '. l'here rvas a rich man preserving an artilact, readers understanding wdtten colnmunication, revisers contributing to a living
    :erson significance (in Iiterary tradition, elaborators spinning a variation on a theme,liturgists enacting the drama of rvorship,
    . "God helps," a major codifiers developing rules for faith and practice, commentators gazing in a mirror on the present, and
    visionaries peering through a windorv at the future.
    eStendahl 1968. He especially saw similarities with the Uatatituf scroll at Qumran.
    rolongenecker 197 5:160-61:' Yadin 1958:36-55: Hughes 1977 :14.
    ..-i: Jis.-ussed in chap. 17:
    rrCraigEvans (2004:132) listsasexamplesMark 12:10-11(useof Ps 118:22-23);Mark1427 (useof

    ".- Zech 13:1); Acts 2:17 -21 (use of Joel 2:28-32) .


    . l5-10: Dion 1982:59-
    rrThe term appropriation techniques is taken from Moo. rvho means by this the techniques by which

    ,.l:ti9- I04; Blaiklock Jews and Christians appropriated Old Testament texts for their new community situations (1983:25).
    .:
    rrSee Foulkes 1958:38-39: Moo 1983:31: Baker l99l:187-89.
    laln this section. I am again building on Moo 1983:34-51.
    - '.', r< iLrllo*,ing the patterns
    - : 'f(,ntaneous but were rsSteve Moyise (2000:14-15) shorvs the term was developed by Julia Kristeva in 1969 and first used
    in biblical studies in 1989 in Intertertuality in Biblical Writings, ed. S. Draisma; and in Echoes of
    ar : .: -itr-rarv genre of such Scripture in the Letters of Paui by Richard B. Hays.
    . . ', !
    - : 191 -204). He traces r6Moyise restricts it to "intertextual echoes" for some reason! but it functions the same for quotations
    r.r:r.-'. Jiatribe) and Jer.vish and allusions as well (2000:i 7). I rvill use it for all three types of Old Testament uses in the Nelv.
    lTEnns 2005:132-34.He says there, "It lvould
    take a tremendous amount of mental energy to argue that
    :.:i>tians to respect the Mattherv is respecting the historical context of Hosea's words, that is, that there actually is something
    C,rrinthians 8-10 does predictive in Hosea 11."

    '8For a good example of this see Gathercole 2004 126-45, who traces Lev 1 8:5 through Second Temple
    :. i: -:iuit prayerfully decide
    Jervishwritings(Philo,Prem.Studies86-87.Bar4: l,LetAris 127; PssSol i4;1QS4; CD3:i4-16; Tg
    Ezek 20:11, 13,21 4 EzraT:21', m. Mak. 3:15) and the New Testament (Lk 10:25-37; Mk 10:17 -22;
    Rom 10:5; Gal3 12) to show the error of the New Perspective in denying that Judaism believed eternal
    rS
    life rvas dependent on observing Torah.
    . .,.--.,.n>. Richard B. Hays #
    reEllis 1 99 cf. 1 l0- I 6. Longenecker four aspects of typology
    (197 5:93-95) brings together the
    i:.:,. E Poner (1997:80-83) t 1:1 10;
    -
    :::::::" ior identifying them. corporate solidarity, correspondence in history, eschatological fulfillment and messianic presence.
    :-::. ;.iu:ion to be the use of r0Stendahl I 968: I 83-202. Longenecker (191 5:112-43) also sees a pesher style of exegesis in Matthew.

    l3

    christianlib.com
    :Str Hasner. Matthew l-13, lvi-lvii. G. M. Soares-Prabhu (1916:104) calls them "free Targumic aoBeale 1999:79-\t ,. :: -
    tran-'lations made from the original Hebrer.v by Matther,v. in vierv of the context into which he has arMoyise I99-1:11t' .-
    insened them."
    58), he says the \r' .,, I: -:
    rrSee Evans 2004:14O-41. See also Carson I
    988:248-49. out of contert. \1c';:. - j
    rrln Genesis l:l
    Evans (2004:141) sees a connection rvith Tg. Neof. Gen 1:1, "From the beginning arSee Beale ( 199'r;':-'l
    r.vith rvisdom the Word [memra] of the
    Lord perfected the heavens and the earth," with the Word as the that they indeed rr.' :.:--
    divine intermediary. Ezek 37:l0b in R.' ,

    raCatson 1988:249, building on Mool983:233 n4. for original conte\:


    rsFitzmyer 1998:90-91. Hans Htibner (1992:1101) considers only whole quotations and says there are |This combine\ nr.::r - -
    "slightly more than twenty." Longenecker (1975:86-87) lists twenty-seven, all but tr.vo in the sermons
    of the lirst fifteen chapters (eight with Peter, nine with Stephen, one with Philip, one with James, seven Chapter 15: Biblical T
    with Paul). lTurner and Greer I ,I
    168arrett (I 988:238-39) lists under "preaching" Acts 2:17 -21 ,25-28,34-35: 3:22-23 ,25;7:3 ,5 , 18,27 - collapse of r.node::. :.. -

    28,32,33,34,35,40; 8:32,33; 13:22,33,34,35,41. He adds thatActs 4:25,26 could be listed under beliefs/theologr: I :-: .
    "prayer" or "preaching." integrity, even in ii: :-:i
    r7I. H. Marshall (1970) calls this the major theme of Luke-Acts. as the Epistles cilrt : r :':
    the subject matter \,: : : :
    ']sBock 1997:82,5. The formative article on this was Borvker 1967 96-111 .

    }Silva 1993:631. This list includes the disputed epistles. rvere read canonr;;. .. ::
    Bible as a rvhole: , F '.. '
    :'t'Stanley(1989:19),buildingonhisPaulandtheLanguageof Scripture (1992:252-64).Hearguesthat (7) the reader-rr-\pi ".: -"
    in the ancient rvorld scribes rvere expected to be commentators and notjust copiers, so such adaptation
    was part of the social environment.
    readet's theologi.
    ". :..:-:.
    these provide a \.iir- -:.
    rrLongenecker 197 5:115-26. See also Cohn-Sherbock 1982:117 -32.
    rln a sense se hAr.' - --.
    rrThe first number is from Lane 1991:cxvi: the second number from G. H. Guthrie 1991:842.
    the viability of the. . - - *
    rrlongenecker 1975 167; also Guthrie, "Old Testament in Hebrervs," p.842. Lane (1991:cxvi) says polyvalent apprrrd!: .::: ':
    the Pentateuch has 12 quotations/10 allusions, and the Psalms have 17 quotes/16 allusions. Obviously that the two are inl.':-;:,. -
    the definition of quote and allusion differs considerably betrveen Longenecker and Lane (a common rContra D. A. C'r.r. :-. -
    problem !).
    systematictheolor'. .,'-.-
    ralane 1991:cxviii.
    r.vill argue, the ta.i : -
    35See Sorvers 1965; and R. Williamson 1970. Sor,vers accepts the Alexandrian hypothesis; Williamson the theology of a o,

    argues against it. Hanson (1988:292-95) concludes, "as far as exegesis of Scripture is concerned Philo aGaffin 1976:4-l-*5 .

    and our author have very little in common." r.vriters must be c,r: :: ..
    36Yadin 1958:36-55; C. Spicq 1952-1953; Longenecker 1975:160-61. similarly that inten- '. .
    - -
    rTSee esp. Hurst 1990; Evans 2004:144. human rvork ( 19\ I -::--'-
    38Much of this section comes from my "Recent Trends in the Study of the Apocalypse" (2004:491-95).
    5This builds on thr' : --
    Kistemaker200l:lTlistsfourteenpartial quotes-Rev 1:7; 2:21:4:8;6:161'7:16,17; 11:11;14:5; l5:3a, theology, historie.. ::.
    3b,4: l9:15; 20:9;21:4,7. Regarding allusions, Beale (1998:77 n.l6) points out that UBS has 394; that exegesis and :-:. -.
    NA,635; Kilpatrick,493; Srvete, 278; and Charles 226.The great difference in number is due to the distinct to warrani -:-- --
    difflculty in determining partial quotations, allusions, echoes and the number of passages to include in 6I disagree rvith th. -.
    the echoes. as well as to the br:..-: .
    3eSee
    Beale (1998:5-59) for extensive review of the seven major monographs by himself on Daniel in God in a canonical -;:-:
    Revelation, J. M. Vogelgesang and J.-P. Ruiz on Ezekiel in the book, J. Fekkes on Isaiah in the book. R. ideas regarding th. : "i
    J. Bauckham in Climax of the Covenant, and Moyise on the book as a whole. illumination (see l-' :

    11

    christianlib.com
    Notes

    i,.. :renr "free Targumic a0Beale 1999:79-80. from L. A. Vos 1965:37-40.


    - ,r'.::'\.1
    into rvhich he has arMoyise 1994: I l0-11. In his "The Old Testament in the New: A Response to Greg Beale" (1999:54-
    58), he says the New Testament does give new meanings to the Old Testament by taking the passages
    out of context. Meaning is not just in the author but also in the reader.
    - .. Frtrm the beginning a2See Beale (1999:84-85) r.vhere he interacts rvith several considered noncontextual uses and shows
    :.:. ith the Word as the
    !t. that they indeed are faithful to their original context (Ezek 43:2 in Rev l:15; Ezek3l:3 in Rev 7:14;
    Ezek37:lObinRev ll:11;Is22:22in Rev3:7),arguingforchangesof applicationbutnotdisregard
    fbr ori-ginal context.
    ,:;:t ,l\ and says there are
    a3This combines material from Beale 1998:60-1281 1999:86-96; and Fekkes 1991:70-lOl.
    :- :-: i\\o in the sermons
    :. ::e x rth James, seven Chapter 15: Biblical Theology
    rTurner and Green (2000:8-9) give seven factors for the renerved interest in the discipline: (l) the
    : ---l:. l-5: 7:3. 5 - 18,27 - collapse of modernity's "objectivity," removing the dichotomy between the facts of exegesis and
    : -^ -,ruld be listed under beliefs/theology; (2) the critical-realist realization that theological study no longer threatens academic
    integrity, even in the academyl (3) realizing that the great amount of time spent on such short rvorks
    as the Epistles can only be justified if the study is related to contemporary issues and truth claims; (4)
    the subject rnatter ofthe Bible is theological and so invites theological reflection; (5) the biblical bookv
    were read canonically from the start and so the assumption has always been on the basic uuity of the
    Bible as a wholel (6) throughout history Bible reading has alrvays occumed in dialogue rvith theology;
    I*: - -i l -6-+ ). He argues that (7) the reader-response movement has opened the way to a plurality of readings in the interest of the
    - r r'r.. :tr SUCh adaptation reader's theological perspective. Some ofthe factors (nos. 1 and 7) are postmodern in perspective, but
    these provlde a valid set of arguments for a biblical theology.
    rln a sense lve have come full circle. Under modernism the proponents of historical criticism rejected
    i'-:::: lC97:8,+2. the viability of theological reflection, and norv under postmodernism the proponents of a confessional,
    :rl l-.,nr- r1991:cxvi) says polyvalent approach are rejecting the viability ofhistorical reflection. The argument ofthis chapter is
    ,ii- - drlu\ions. Obviously that the two are interdependent and must rvork together in a true biblical theology.
    ::..:: r:J Lane (a common -'Contra D. A. Carson, who of unifying themes belongs r.vithin the realm of
    argues that the process
    systematic theology and thus biblical theology is primarily a descriptive discipline (1983:69- 70). As I
    rvill argue, the task of collating themes properly belongs under biblical theology, r.vhich seeks not only
    -.:-. :, Flrth.sis: Williamson the theology of a book but also the theology of Israel and of the early church.
    r-::::r: i: cclncerned Philo aGaffin 1976:44-45, follorving John Murray. The tendency to exaggerate differences betrveen biblical
    writers must be controlled by a more holistic consideration of the biblical material. Guthrie argues
    similarly that intertextual considerat:ions demand that the Bible be treated as more than mereiy another
    human rrork i 198 l:34-.t6;.
    5This builds on the fourfold scheme of Geerhardus Vos, rvho follor.vs the classical division of exegetical
    \:, ". ', p.e" (2004:491-95).
    - ' . -. I l:l l; 14:5; 15:3a, theology. historical theology, systematic theology and practical theology (.1948 12- l3). He believes

    .-:- -: that UBS has 3941 that exegesis and biblical theology belong to the same division, but I believe that they are sufficiently
    :-. :-, runrber is due to the distinct to warrant assigning them a separate place in the process of interpretation.
    :r: : :.:^\iages to include in 6I disagree with those r.vho, like Paul Achtemeier, extend inspiration to later interpretive communities
    as well as to the biblicat authors. In no sense could competing theologies be said to be "inspired" of
    r hrmself on Daniel in God in a canonical sense. This of course is the classical debate betrveen Roman Catholic and Protestant
    - I.aiah in the book. R. ideas regarding the "magisterium" or authority of the church to establish dogma. I would use the term
    illumination (see 1980:540-41) for the dogma of the church, for it is a human approximation that

    15

    christianlib.com
    attempts to collate and logically summarize scriptural truth for the believing community rather than to ''David Aune sleli- ::-,
    establish new canonical authority. (1973:10-1-5 l. \\:: : -

    'In this sense Horton (2005:294) notes four dangers in a historical-theological approach: (l) "golden- behind the dir er-r :, :-: -

    age thinking" that occurs r.vhen a movement selects one period or hero to emulate and makes that
    r6Dunn l98l: lr-: .- :
    the entire source of their theological perspective, (2) a "timeless vierv of church dogmas," in lvhich components (trai.:
    one fails to recognize that the models drawn from the past were the product of particular social ancl that "the traditit.i.- ,-: .-

    cultural factors and treats them as God-given truths, (3) "Biblicism," in which the interpreter identifies and to shape it. ::.-.
    their particular understanding with Scripture itself and adopts a "thus sayeth the Lord" stance, (4) inspiration \\'ii! F::.: - :
    "speculative tendencies," in which the tradition or iogic of the interpreter is the origin of the belief final form of thc- ::' ,:
    rather than Scripture. '7Gese 198 l:15-l: - ,-,
    sBernhard Anderson assigns just this role to the commentary, stating
    that one should approach inspiration\\a\ ::j.,,
    final form of lhe :. ' : : -'
    the text {irst and then use the commentary to gain an appreciation for the history of the interpretation of (Nerv Testament
    the text (1982:342-47). This will aid contemporary interpretation and application. Yet rvhile rhis is true
    in theory, very few commentaries provide such a historical perspective (an excellent exception is Philip
    rsSee Hasel l9Sl -- --
    Hughes's commentary on Hebrews). reJames Sander. . -'
    eOn the basis of the Roman Catholic diatogue on tradition and exegesis, Joseph Blenkinsopp says that devoted to Chil,l. - -.-
    2oFor other eran-.:.. .
    the exegete must "make his way between the Scylla of philology and semantics and the Charybdis of
    an (unconsciously) autonomous biblical theology. It is his job to provide his colleague rvith the material Testament. and B:-.--. -

    necessary for his synthesis" (1964:84). in church educirir, :'

    roRichard Gaf{in argues that biblical theology, by focusing on Cod's revelation


    in history, forces
    rrFor an attempt : - :-
    systematic theology to be true to the process of revelation and thereby to the intended (historical) Scalise (199.1 t. at:: --:-
    meaning ofthe text itself (1976:12-50). In this way biblical theology regulates the results ofexegesis evangelical hernr:: . -: -,
    and controls the subjective tendencies ofdogmatics. r2See
    also Chil.l.
    McKnight 19.q- l: --
    ']As Hughes remarks, Guthrie "is writing something more like a systematic theology of the Nerv
    Testament than anything else. ... Certainly the themes with rvhich dogmatics and New Testament rrDunn 1982. Se.'. ' -'-
    theology deal are similar, but this does not mean a New Testament theology has to be structured Scripture allo$ ' ::. '
    thematically. ... By ignoring individual theologies in the New Testament. there is a sense in r.vhich some circles but disag::: -.'
    ofthe theological message has slipped through the cracks in Guthrie's topical grid" (1982:112-13). hermeneutical n..:-r :..
    r2C. K. Barrett correctlynotes that biblical theology "may be characterized by the rvord process," from the perspe.l. .: : l
    systematics "by the word result" (1981:5). Systematic theology is that discipline rvhich "involves the rlCarson l98l:91 :. -'-
    relation between unchanging biblical truth and varying philosophical modes." theology?The rn. .' .'
    :5Ebeling 19,s5:l I
    IrMarvin Tate goes a step further and considers "biblical preaching" to be a path toward a proper -- - -
    biblical theology, since of necessity preaching demands a new appreciation for the whole of Scripture "faith" formed th: -..- - -

    (1981:179-80). He especially lauds Childs's attempt to provide a canonical method for doing this. the medieval son - - '
    168arr 197,1:l8l B'-.'-
    'aWalter Bauer produced the classical work on diversity, arguing that what is called heresy in the New
    Testament r.vas actually considered orthodox originally but lost out to the stream of tradition developed talse claims oi. : -.- -
    by Paul and his followers. The modern work rvith the greatest impact is Dunn 1977, r.vho accepts doctrine of grac:
    Bauer's thesis that "there was no 'pure' form of Christianity that existed in the beginning which can ecclesiastical utlr'r:- - :'
    properly be called 'orthodox' ... [but] only different forms of Christianity competing for the loyalty of dependent on a \i;: . , ,- :

    believers" (p. 3). After tracing the myriad of competing theories regarding the different communities of rTNineham l9i6:li-'-
    the New Testament period. Dunn concludes that the only unifying strand lvas the continuity between the rests on the lit.-r.:-.:.
    historical Jesus and the Christ of faith (pp. 369-72). It is indeed strange that the single source of unity Social,politicai r: -:- -
    is an issue that has arisen only in the last centuryl therefore &re o cr-ri -: :.'

    76

    christianlib.com
    Notes

    l5David Aune states that the Nerv Testament has a variety of viewpoints but no outright contradiction
    r: - :rntullit), rather than to
    (1973:10-15). When we recognize the analogical nature of biblical language, we can recognize themes
    behind the diverse expressions.
    i .: -,1|rrr)ach: (1) "golden-
    r6Dunn 1982:18-2 I and Sanders 1912:11-20. Paul Achtemeier makes tradition one of three key
    : :::'ril,lte and makes that
    '-:.i:-:r Jogmas," in lvhich components (tradition. situation, respondent) that interrelate to form the locus of inspiration, stating
    r--i : plinicular that "the traditions are the building materials out of rvhich the community continues to construct itself
    social and
    and to shape its present and its tuture" (1980:126; see pp.124-26). ln each renewed situation divine
    :r-r-..:: rnterpreter identifies
    inspiration was present and so theology must remain cognizant of the whole process as well as of the
    ;.,:i- i13 Lord" stance, (4)
    firral form of the text.
    :: .- ::; .rrigin of the belief
    rTGese 198 I : I 5-2-5. Gese sees the center point of biblical theology in each renerved situation that divine

    inspiration was present, and so theology must remain cognizant of the lvhole process as r.vell as of the
    r': .: ',.1J approach
    final form of the text to be the process of divine revelation centering on Sinai (Old Testament) and Zion
    .: :, ,: ihe interpretation of (Neiv Testament).
    r.r:. ':.. \ et rvhile this is true rESee Hasel 1982:66-61; Hayes and Prussner 1985:214,262; Reventlorv 1986:150-54.
    t\.:' lr'rl e\ception is Philip
    reJames Sanders t 980: I 87-91 . See also Journal for the Study of the Old Testament I 6 ( 1980). rvhich is
    devoted to Childs's canon critie ism.
    . r:: Blinkinsopp says that
    roFor other examples of canonical criticism, see Outler (1980:263-76), who applies it to the New
    :.:: ,. .nd the Charybdis of
    . - ;:!ruc' rr ith the material Testament, and Brueggernann ( 1982:l - l3), rvho uses it as a "model" fbr a similar traditioning process
    in church education.
    rrFor an attempt to blend Childs' canonical approach with an evangelical hetmeneutic, see Charles
    ':: ! :ii \ir in history, forces
    : :-.' :ntended (historical) Scalise although he unfortunately "corrects" Childs via Gadamer and Ricoeur rather than via an
    ( l 99zl).

    evangel ical hermeneutical framervork.


    - :';. 1- rc.ults of exegesis
    ISee also Childs 1977:80-93. For a helpful critique of Childs along the lines proposed here. see

    McKnight 1987:23-24.
    tr;rrlo_ey of the Nerv
    . :rDunn 1982. See also Dunn 1977:374-78, r,vhere he argues that the very diversity that is "canonized" in
    rnd New Testament
    ', ha: to be structured Scripture allorvs this to occur. I agree rvith Dunn that this approach to doctrine is normal in theological
    r .en:e in rvhich some circles but disagree that it is appropriate. Indeed this rvhole chapter is intended to demonstrate the
    :,:',1982:ll2-13). hermeneutical necessity of doing biblical theology liom the rvhole of (a united) Scripture rather than
    from the perspective of a "canon rvithin the canon."
    b,. the u,ord process,"
    }Carson 1983:91. He states, "Can rve safeguard our exegesis tiom an untoward usage of systematic
    : : i, hich "involves the
    theology'? The ansr.ver. I fear is, 'not entirely."'
    r5Ebeling 1955.212-14. Dan Fuller argues similarly that for the Reformers dogmatic "keys" from their
    :iih toward a proper
    :rr' \\ hole of Scripture "faith" formed the basic hermeneutic. and Reformation theology reverted "to a scholasticism not unlike
    the medieval sort" (1978:200).
    r6Barr 197,1:282. Barrett uses the Nelv Testarnent as a model for this crisis in authority, stating that the
    false claims of conservatives parallel the legalistic authority of the law that Paul countered r.vith his
    .' l tradition developed
    .,r 19T1. rvho accepts doctrine of grace (1981:16). For Barrett biblical authority cannot be linked to rigid, unchallengeable
    - .:: L,e-*inning rvhich can ecclesiastical utterances or to a "formulated set of dogmatic propositions." Rather, it is creative, not
    dependent on a static doctrine of inspiration but on its "apostolic effectiveness" in accomplishing its task.
    : :t:rng tbr the loyalty of
    rTNineham l9'76:257 -7 1. Douglas Knight takes a tradition-critical approach, querying whether authority
    ir.rent communities of
    -, rntinuity between the rests on the literature or on the community that shaped it and invested it with authority (1980:140-41).
    :-.: :ingle source of unity Social, potitical and economic factors gave rise to the religious aura that produced a sense ofcanon and
    therefore are a critical aspect of the text's authority.

    christianlib.com
    23See Marshall 1970; Martin 1972; Smalley 1978; and France 1989 on history and theology in Luke, '
    its own enr irtrn:-.:-:
    Mark. John and Matthew respectively. See also Meyer 1979. Gruenler 1982 and Osborne 2003 on e:. .-. -
    classics of er
    the larger issue of detecting history in the Gospels. Graham Stanton asserts that the Gospels rvere 6McGrath (l( x, .
    - '-
    biographies to the same degree as were other ancient works (1972:191-201). The lack ofinterest in
    as opposed tar :: :
    '.;' --
    chronology, the scarcity of historical background and the failure to provide a personal portrait rvere
    it too easily bei,,:-.=- :
    common to all ancient historians. In fact, there is more interest in these aspects in the Gospels than in
    comparable Jervish writings of that period.
    neither need be
    " :.::
    zeSee
    iTradition criti;. .. :,
    the brilliant essay byAlvin Plantinga (2003:19-57), in which he shorvs the failure of historical- i-
    the tradition: trr'r.--
    biblical criticism: "We do not have anything like assured results (or even well-attested results) that
    originatin-r e\ c'ir- :-
    i-
    conflict rvith traditional Christian beliefin such a way that beliefofthat sort can continue to be accepted
    only at critical cost; nothing like this has happened" (pp.56-57).
    sThis hardll nrr';r - -:
    :'lrHermann 1981 142.150-52. Wolfl'rart Pannenberg (1968:125-33) presents theology. Insterr; : .-' -.
    the strongest case for the
    and interpret: S-:: --,
    centrality of history for revelation. By defining history as "the totality of reality," Pannenberg argues
    reflection is br :.:-:. ,
    that it must be open to transcendence. In this he is correct, for the divine element must always be a
    their member: ,1:.- -r: -
    possible part of history if history details the experiences of human beings. Neverlheless, I prefer to
    label the concept "revelation in history" rather than to accept Pannenberg's overly rational "revelation
    eWe must distir5- ,- :-
    -
    as history." from its role in ':,: -
    rrBultmann 1963:-50-7-5 and Baumgirtel 1963:134-59, who adds that the Old Testament should deterrnin- :-.
    has been
    abolished in Christ since its promise has been realized.
    by communitr rr:: j- .

    dangerous.
    IFor further discussion, see Hasel 1978:186-96; Fu.iita l98l:107-8; and Carson 2000:97-98. Walther
    Zimmerli similarly points out. "The fundamental faith of the Christian community necessitates a
    roFor the best :,:: -.'
    thoughtful corelation of individual biblical statements in vierv of the whole because it contends that Jeanrond 1983:i :--'
    the two testaments do not witness to two different gods, but to one single Lord" (1982:95).
    I'Tracy l98l :1.:----: '-
    33See "communitl ." H,' .r :- . :'
    Baker l976,an excellent rvork that explicates this relationship in depth.
    raFor an excellent example experience.
    of this. see Marshall ( 1969), who examines the doctrine of perseverance as
    it develops through all the strata of the Bible. thereby allowing the doctrine to emerge along lines of
    rrSee Holmes leh' i
    rrPaul Feinberg
    the progress of revelation. -::-:
    methodforthc-tl - --
    Chapter 16: Systematic Theology practice their ir.. . l
    rWells (1991:175-78) says contemporary theology has reduced the factor to two-scripture
    and provides a broirJ:: :. -,
    experience, because teason has disappeared due to the eff'ects of Kant and Freud, rvhile tradition/ porver of theol(r: -: ..
    comrnunity rvas replaced by the centrality of the Spirit speaking directly to the people. Horvever, neither the distinction 5:' ::-
    argument is convincing, for reason helps to organize the doctrines, and tradition is not rnagisterial but theologian:an.l - '.
    provides a guide to understanding the interrelationships in dogma. to a continual p: -. --
    rOf course this hardly means that one should not appeal to Scripture in developing or "proving" a inerant.Regirri.: - --
    theological position. Rather, the resultant theological stance should take account of all the relevant of theNatural S..:--..
    texts, those which are used by the opposing side as rvell as those."vhich support your own position. raThis hardlt mi-:r. i-:
    rSee Gordon Kaufmann (1991 391-415) and his The Theological Imagination (1981)
    for an elaboration is relevant f'or .i, - - -
    of these themes. sociology for a ::.
    =
    rFarley and Hodgson 1985:72-80. Here they closely follorv Kelsey (1975), rvho presents functional
    a
    models. Hos er c:. . . -.
    rnodel of biblical authority, that Scripture is used by God to transform human existence and to guide lsFor instance. B::: ..
    the community. 'it' that has a \ ;. .. .

    5See
    Tracy I 98 I :99- 1 35. rvhere he defi nes a theologian as "the interpreter of religiou s classics" (p. I 30). statements abLru: -.-:. -

    While the Bible is the archetypal Christian "classic" (by rvhich he means r6Among [l?n\ L,i.':-.
    a literary rvork that transcends '
    78

    christianlib.com
    Notes

    rr. ::rJ theology in Luke, its own environment to transform existence in every culture and setting), the theologian works with the
    ".1 ::-,.i Osborne 2003 on classics of every age in constructing a relevant modern theology.
    :1-':.:i tlte CosPels rvere "Mccrath (2000alll-42) gives two reasons for being suspicious of tradition: (1) it is a human constluct
    : . r-' llek of interest in as opposed to the Word of God. and Catholicism has given it a weight equal to the Word of God; (2)
    l: : ic::rrilal portrait were it too easily becomes "traditionalism," locking us into the past way of thinking and doing things. Yet
    r.:. :'. :he Gospels than in neither need be a part of a proper paradigm for tradition in theology.
    rTradition critics like Achtemeier (1980) and others apply this same criterion to Scripture. Hor.vever,
    .'- -j .rllure olhistorical- the traditions behind Scripture dealt with revelatory events and rvere much more closely linked to the
    : ..: .'atte:ted results) that originating events than were the ecclesial traditions ofthe third and fourth centuries.
    -:r - ':r:inue to be accepted 8This hardly means that a technical knorvledge of tradition is necessary, as
    if only a Ph.D. scholar can do
    theology. Instead I am saying that everyone consciously or unconsciously is parl of an ongoing tradition
    .- :: i .:rOn_qest case for the and interprets Scripture from that inherited perspective. As Gadamer has pointed out, theological
    'i i .. . P:rrrrtenberg argues
    reflection is by nature a historical act. Churches need to do a better job of teaching their tradition to
    ..:':'i'r.i nrust always be a
    their members and helping their members separate the authority of Scripture from that of traditiJn.
    . \: ..':theless. I prefer to eWe must distinguish the role
    . . r: '. :iltional "revelation of the community or context in determining the meaning of Scripture
    from its role in shaping the very questions asked in theological reasoning. Theoretically, only Scripture
    should determine theological truth, but all too often not only the agenda but the results are determined
    r' r-l i Tr-rti1fient has been
    by community needs. The former (question shaping) is valid but the latter (theology determining) is
    dangerous.
    ,.:. I tt)():97-98. Walther roFor the best application of reader-response theory to theological construction I have found, see
    , -':r:nitr necessitates a Jeanrond 1988:104-28.
    : -t-.,.1i.' rt conter-rds that rrTracy 198l:339-64. In one sense Tracy's discussion of the "situation" belon-ss under the rubric of
    - :- lq!l:95).
    "community." Horvever, I include it here because Tracy is discussing the effect ofcontext on religious
    ...-
    experience.
    : .-:: :r: ()l perseverance as
    1 rSee Holmes 1 968 : I 3 I -3 8 ; Montgomery I 97 0 :27 6 -7 9 ; Feinberg 1 97 9 :26'7 -3O4.
    -.. . :::r;rse along lines of
    rrPaul Feinberg (unpublished material) gives six reasons for taking abduction as the most appropriate

    method for theological decision making: (l) it more accurately describes horv theologians do in fact
    practice their craft: (2) it retains the best aspects of both inductive and deductive reasoning; (3) it
    .:.: . i\\0-Scripture and provides a broader evidential base for verifying a dogmatic formulation; (4) it strengthens the staying
    :-- i;,.rJ. *hile tradition/ porver of theological assertions by pointing out anomalies that need further study; (5) it maintains
    rr.; r': rLc'. Horvever, neither the distinction betrveen biblical teaching and interpretations of it. thus producing humility in the
    :: : ' .. not magisterial but theologian; and (6) it leaves open the possibility of better formulations of doctrine, thereby leading
    to a continual process of contextualization rather than the naive assumption that one's formulation is
    : ::. r 'nins rlr "proving" a
    inenant. Regarding fig. 16.1 , Montgomery (197027 4) borrows this model from L. K. Nash, The Nature
    ." oi all the relevant of the Natural Sciences ( I 963), to illustrate horv knor.vledge is "generated by endless cyclical renerval."
    raThis hardly means that these are the only components in theological construction. Truth in any field
    ::. : . ,ur ttrr'n position.
    - -:r I r ior an elaboration is relevant lbr doing theology. Most of the disciplines (such as psychology for the doctrine of man or
    sociology for a theology on society and the rvorld) are valid for constructing pafiicular theological
    ; .: fre\ents a functional models. However, these five are the components classically noted.
    r5For instance. Bar says, "There is no 'the Bible' that 'claims' to be divinely inspired, there is no
    -:ri' a \:\icnce and to guide
    'it'that has a vierv of itself. There is only this or that source, tike 2 Timothy or 2 Peter which makes
    statements about certain other rvritings, these rather undeflned" (1977:78).
    ::: ..tLru\ classics" (p. 130).
    r('Among many others, see Grudem 1983: l9-59; Ferguson 1988:47-66: and Marshall I 982: 19-30.
    .::-i:r \\ t)rk that transcends

    79

    christianlib.com

    ,*r -\
    r-See. r8John FeinberS -
    for instance, Marshall 1982; Carson and Woodbridge 1983 and 1986 as well as the many works !,'.'-
    on the issue of inerrancy. Gabriel Fackre states that the issue is so important that rather than discuss metaphorical an,i ..,.--
    revelation in volume tr,vo (his original intention) he plans to devote the entire third volume to that topic similar to literal co-- - --
    (1987:341). say "God is lor e _i ( - :r
    rSSoskice 1985:43-5l.Forinstance,theaspectsof a"bear"thatrelatetothemaninthesentence"The Yet if one accepi. ::: ,,,

    man is a bear" rvill differ depending on whether the context is that of a wrestler or a Wall Street broker. metaphor coflrfirL:.., :i: -

    incomprehensiL,ls -.. -'.


    The whole utterance controls the metaphor's meaning, not simply the interaction betrveen subject and
    metaphor. love is in tensior, ;..- -- .

    by being used t,' -. '.- - -,


    'eMcFague 1982:37-41. Following Black and Ricoeur she uses the example "war is a chess game" to loves) via humar. :-.:.:-
    demonstrate the world-changing yet reality-depicting value of metaphor. The dissimilarity betlveen war
    and thus redefin:- :-. -
    incompleteima::.: -.-
    and chess leads the reader to a new understanding ofu,ar. Both concepts are altered by their interaction,
    and nelv meaning results.
    reSinceRornanr'.:*
    roSee Gerald Casenave, who argues that metaphor in this way becomes an indispensable part of
    process of salr at;, : : -: -
    "language as disclosure" (197 9 :21 -24).
    to stress God'. .,. . ::1- :-
    rrOne voice of opposition is John Searle, rvho says that rvhen using metaphors a speaker means
    that this is indL-.; :-: -.-
    something different than what he says (due to the semantic opposition established in the metaphor) and r"McFague 19E-.-:- :-.
    so the true meaning must be explicated in literal terms to be understood (1979:81- 82). Therefore, three
    power" (1981:l-:
    situations are necessary for com m unication v ia metaphors (p. I I 2): shared strategies so the hearer can
    recognize that the utterance is not intended literally, shared principles so the hearer can understand the
    rrSoskice 1985: l,'-': S -.

    (a model airplan; . ": -


    possible uses of the metaphor, and shared knolvledge to enable the speaker and hearer to communicate
    rrl disagree u ith ::. -;
    the actual use of the metaphor in the particular speech act.
    rrSee also metaphorical filt:r..r - i-
    Miall 1982:xiii, xviii; Moore 1982:3-6; Tourangeau 198224-2'7.
    23Binkley 1981:149. See also Soskice 1985:83-96. Binkley finds three distinctions betr,veen literal
    ISeeBarbour le-: j -j
    IOn the fii5i5 pi 1 - 1, ,
    and metaphorical language: (1) The ability ofa sentence to be understood does not depend on literal
    vs. metaphorical distinctions. (2) Metaphor is a poetic device but not exclusively so, since it is also interpreted thl\ \i ir
    ernployed in propositional statements. The tems literal and metaphorical refer to the way sentences isOf coursc the.: :' ,,:
    mean not whether they mean. (3) One should not confuse the meaning of a metaphor lvith the explication rvithin each moii.'. - :=:
    of its meaning. Metaphorical language imparts information in its own right and is understandable as areas of general , : -.:- -

    metaphor. In fact the \ er\ :.i'- -'- -

    :aSee Gunton 1989:34-36. He argues further (pp. 37-38) that metaphor may well be a better device for r6Most rvould \.:r .-:'

    communicating God and the rvorld since both can be knorvn best indirectly. As such metaphor takes its regeneration i: lr,- -: '
    -.
    place in the referential process in helping us understand and address both the world around us and the is placed betore :..'. .: :

    presence of Cod in it. r'-Note ho* the r,::.: - -.


    2sMcFague 198239-41. See also Roger Hazelton, who says that metaphorical statements rsTracy
    about God are l98l:i.'t '--:l >::
    kept "as free and open as possible. rather than becoming locked into a particular theory" (1978:169). scheme.
    Nerv images respond to and criticize each other and even replace one another lvhen a better metaphor reSee van Hur ..:.-:: -!
    Feinberg I989: I -:---
    (more apt for a particular nerv situation) is created.
    '
    'nMcFague 1982:41-42. The example she uses for this "metaphorical" rather than literal theological *rThis means nL\: :
    ., -
    truth is substitutionary atonement, r.vhich she obviously sees as viable for one stage ofChristianity but equal wei-sht r Ih,'::' -i
    not for all. authority. each ;3:!: - -
    rrAlston 1980:133-36, 145-48. He goes even further and says that metaphorical truth claims must be (1) those derir:: :: - :
    translated to be verillable. For him literal predictability is necessary for knowledge acquisition in a Scripture. (3r thi'-;- ::
    meaningful sense. Scripture. (5 r ct r.,-- . -
    80

    christianlib.com
    Notes

    .;.1 rs the many works r8John Feinberg goes in a dift-erent direction rvhen he states that the very demarcation betrveen
    :r.rl rather than discuss metaphorical and literal language is misguided (1989:180-81). If metaphor is analogical then it is
    :J \ (rlume to that topic similar to literal communication, since an analogy is a literal link between two corresponding ideas. To
    say "God is love" goes beyond pure metaphor, for the assertion means that God is literally a loving God.
    Yet if one accepts the dynamic model of metaphor there is no need to find an analogical element. The
    i rr.,:r ;r'r the sentence "The
    metaphor communicates as metaphor and not as analogous to a literal statement. The metaphor on the
    .: ..
    : ., \\ rrll Street broker.
    incomprehensible divine love does not simply compare it to the finite human experience of love. God's
    :a-:. :r t(-t\\een SUbjeCt and
    love is in tension lvith and transcends the human experience, so the very meaning of love is transformed
    by being used to describe God. In other words, the phrase does not just express a literal truth (God
    :: . .,.:r r. a chess game" to
    loves) via human metaphor (our concept of love), it dynamically pictures a God who "loves" perfectly
    < -. -.1:rrlaritl, betrveen rvar
    and thus redefines the meaning of love as well as redescribes God. Yet it is not thereby a partial and
    : r,':: i'r rheir interaction. incomplete image. for as a referential concept the metaphor is both binding and authoritative.
    reSince Romans 9 is a diatribe, it is indeed possible to argue that Paul is not describing the divine
    - r: r.dlspcnsable part of process of salvation but rather is utilizing the Old Testament metaphor of predestination metaphorically.
    to stress God's sovereignty. At this point I have not studied Romans 9 sufflciently to state unequivocally
    :,.'-i:-. :. a Speaker means that this is indeed the case. but my preliminary study suggests that it may be so.
    '..:.:l n the metaphor) and r()McFague 1987 34. Previously she deflned a model
    as "a dominant metaphor, a metaphor r.vith staying
    -- : . ' \l ,. Therefore. three
    porver" (1982:23).
    -ll:i:irr'. so the hearer Can 3rSoskice 1985: l0l -3. She notes two types ofmodels: one in which the source and subject are identical
    ,. :ri::r ran underStand the (a model airplane), and one in which they differ (billiard balls utilized to model the propenies of gases).
    :- j -.r'.rfdI tO COmmUniCate
    IIdisagree with those who say titular models become dead metaphors. Yahweh maintains its rich
    metaphorical meaning throughout the biblical period.
    ISee Barbour 1974:34-38, for his excellent presentation of these approaches.
    .:.-. --:,rn\ betu,een literal
    raOn the basis of his book I do not believe that van Huyssteen himself intended his statement to be
    : : "!- :..,r Jepend on literal
    interpreted this rvay.
    ..-...:.r :o. since it is also
    rsOf course these models by necessity are general and representative rather than specific. Every step
    :::::: lha \\ay sentences
    r.:tr: - :'.', ith the explication rvithin each model is debated by scholars ofthat particular persuasion. I have attempted to reproduce
    ri :r-- .. understandable as areas of general consensus while recognizing that individuals may rvell differ at one point or another.
    In fact the very necessity of making this caveat is proof of the heuristic nature of theological models.
    r6Most rvould say that the two (regeneration and belief) are simultaneous but that God's act of
    . .i;. 'trc' a better device for
    I- ---:r nretaphortakes its regeneration is logically the causative agent that produces belief. Therefore, in the diagram regeneration
    '.:: :,i uround us and the is placed before belief.
    37Note how the order is reversed from the Calvinist system.
    . r .:r:i:llentS about GOd are r8Tracy 1981 : 130-32. See also Werner Jeanrond 1988: 129-50 for a sympathetic redescription of Tracy's
    rl -- :i :leor)" (1978:169). scheme.
    :::: .. : a:r a bctter metaphor reSee van Huyssteen 1989 47-67 and Vern Poythress
    1988:39-63 for a positive assessment; and John
    Feinberg 1989:l'76-'19 for a strongly cautionary assessment. See also my interaction in app. 2.
    ,-.::- ::J:r literal theological aoThis means not only collecting all the passages that support one's position but also including (with
    :: -:.::i .l Christianity but equal rveight) those utilized to support competing positions. Millard Erickson hypothesizes six levels of
    authority, each depending on the degree of certitude one can expect from the scriptural underpinning:
    ' : - i :ruth claims must be (1) those derived from direct statements of Scripture. (2) those stemming from direct implications of
    i': ' rij.- acquisition in a Scripture, (3) those coming from probable implications of Scripture, (4) inductive conclusions from
    Scripture, (5) conclusions derived from general revelation, (6) outright speculations, often derived from

    81

    christianlib.com
    biblical hints (1983:79-80). Of course, even at the top level Erickson warns that we must be "certain and his letters re.: i :
    that we are dealing here with the teaching of Scripture, and not an interpretation imposed upon it." "The gospel is a r:.: --:
    The problem is that we can never be absolutely certain, and so rve must always be open to further keys" as the uritl:.. -.
    clarification and arguments. Nevertheless, we can make probability decisions and these have great and olfering lhci: -
    "-- : -
    authority; we need never retreat to a full-blown relativism. 3See the discussrr':. : --
    lrObviously these percentages are based on my own estimation of the clarity of the biblical teaching "analogous" lo r:r - .:.:
    on each issue as well as my assessment of the viability of my opponents' challenges. My colleagues Padilla clarifie. r":. -

    undoubtedly would have quite different percentages depending on their own degree of sureness 'Eugene Nida rn.: \\
    regarding these issues.
    -. . . :
    also betr.veen \ ariLr
    azThis hardly means that it is impossible to attain a high degree of probability or even certainty (for rr:. - -:
    phrase structurc.
    cardinal doctrines) regarding which theological systems or doctrines are correct or to demonstrate this Themoreoptrrrn, .--- -
    to others. However, I am calling for a "hermeneutics of humility" that leads the competing communities probably will nor
    to listen and learn from each other. We do not decide doctrinal truth on the basis of consensus or sSee also
    Olthui. -. -
    majority but rather on the basis of which position best coheres rvith the whole of scriptural teaching. is found at the dee: : . .
    For that we all need opposing schools to drive us away from our o'"vn "logical" systems and back to 6Kraft lists "the er.:::.-:
    the biblical text.
    conditions, the n.-,.'.. :..
    a3Forexcellent discussions of the relationship of critical realism to theology, see Hiebert 1985a:5-10; (1979:1891. Derrr .'' r'
    van Huyssteen 1989:142-97; and especially N. T. Wright 1992.
    also Padillu . --. .-
    -See
    aaFor an excellent survey ofthe biblical and church historical data, see Tucker and Liefeld 1987. situation, the inrerr::::: .
    asA slightly different list was provided by Bernard Ramm (1973:152f, as in Vanhoozer 2000:68): (1) by placing the nr.r : ---. -
    be students of Scripture; (2) understand the structure of evangelical theology and center on the major for Scripture Io hc . : - -
    doctrines; (3) know the cultural climate and communicate the gospel clearly :in it; (4) continually fusion proces: i. p- -: -
    rethink the God-world relation; and (5) study linguistics, philosophy, and communication, from which iln actuality there .. . -: :
    the next theological movement will come. source in the sectrn- .:.:
    ar'One such attempt is Lervis and Demarest (1987), buttheir Integrative Theology is more innovative elarkin 1988:31-t- I ^ >:.
    in method (moving from the theological problem to church history to the biblical data to other relevant for Larkin's thesi:.
    doctrines and competing models and finally to current life situations addressed; see pp.7-13) than in InSee p. .1 l5 rr here -. -,- .

    actual organization and construction. It is a step in the right direction, but not exactly what I am talking
    ernphases."
    about. 'rSee
    aTGood examples are the current ongoing dialogues betlveen covenant and dispensational scholars and also Alalr Jr,: -: -
    along these lines.
    between amillennial and premillennial proponents. A11 sides have changed their positions slightly as a
    r2McQuilkin 198o :
    result of these dialogues (e.g., the development of progressive dispensationalism). '
    seven criteria fbr c::.-: -
    Chapter 17: Homiletics I: Contextualization the appl icat ion ( \ Lr! :. : . - :
    rHesselgrave and Rommen 1989:chap. 11. William Larkin relates three "roots" behind the crisis in Testament larvs a: i.: :-.
    biblical authority in nonevangelical missiology, following the World Council of Churches 1971 biblical passase5. *:..- -
    Louvain statement on "TheAuthority of the Bible": (l) Modern society's rebellion against authority necessity of rhon h:. - - -
    mitigates against acceptance of Scripture as a standard, and this is compounded by the tendency to as norTnative (sueh ,. , -

    treat the Bible like any other book. (2) The contradictions within Scripture (according to the historical- behind it &re oorrnui..: :
    critical method) make it difficult to choose which aspect is authoritative. (3) The historical and cultural historical conte\i J\ :-r-
    distances between the ancient text and the modem context cause many to doubt whether the Bible has limited.
    any relevance whatsoever for our day (1988:136). r3See
    Alan Johnson . -:..- -
    zSee the excellent recent study of contextualization in the New Testament conducted by New Testament iaSee Harvie Conn . :: ::
    scholar and missiologist Dean Fleming (2005), rvho traces early church contextualization in Acts, Paul obligate one to app.L r: :

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    Notes

    ri.. :l-.:t \\e must be "certain and his letters (esp. Corinthians and Colossians), the Gospels and Revelation (in order), concluding,
    Trir;iit)n imposed upon it." "The gospel is a rich and compelling song capable of being sung in many variations and in different
    i: :, ,i .i) ) be open to further keys" as the writings "model for us a process of doing theology in context, of engaging their cultures
    'i:t ,n. afld these have great and offering their audiences a fresh and fitting articulation ofthe good news" (p.296).
    rSee the discussion of this in Ren6 Padilla 197990-91. These are positive cultural elements that are
    ;L:::,. r': the bibtical teaching "analogous" to the gospel and can become the means for contextualizing the gospel in that culture.
    ,' -r :rlL-nres. My colleagues Padilla clarifies this in "The Contextualization ofthe Gospel" (1978:12-30).
    r: .,. n degree of sureness aEugene Nida and William Reyburn say it is "essential to distinguish" not only form from content but
    also between various levels ofform ( 198 1:6). "Form" includes transliteration, morphological structures,
    :r :.. 'r c\cn eenainty (lor phrase structure, rhetorical devices, poetry, figurative language, discourse structure and literary genre.
    ..-r-: ,r tL' demonstrate this The more optional (such as transliteration) can be changed easily. The more significant (such as genre)
    ! '..-: - rrnpeting communities probably will not.
    ,: ::= l.a:is of consensus or sSee also
    Olthuis 1987: 1 1-52, where he develops a "hermeneutics of ultimacy," arguing that "certitude"
    .r - 3 ,ri \.riptural teaching. is found at the deep level of principial meaning rather than at the surface level of culture-bound symbols.
    . :.. .. i\ \tems and baCk tO 6Kraft lists "the existence of God, human sinfulness, God's willingness
    to relate to humans on ceftain
    conditions, the necessity of a human faithfulness response to God as preconditional to salvation"
    : it.. ..'L' Hiebert 1985a:5-10; ( I 979:189). Details for Kraft become case studies that should be contextualized.

    TSee
    also Padilla 1979:84-102.He places tbur elements r.vithin the circle: the interpreter's historical
    .. r.i: ::'.J Liet'eld 1987. situation, the interpreter's world-and-life view, his theology, and Scripture. I would clarify this further
    ! i: -\:rhoozer 2000:68): (l) by placing the first three under my category of "interyreter." It is too easy in Padilla's diagram (p. 99)

    =..
    .-J !cnter on the major for Scripture to be overwhelmed by the others. Instead, it must transform them; the true dynamic in the
    .: ;":lr in rt: (4) continually fusion process is provided by the text, which forces me out of my own situation in life.
    ; :r::runication, from which 8In actuality there is a reversal ofroles. The preacher/missionary is the receptor in the first step but the
    source in the second step. See Nida and Reyburn 1981:20 for more on this topic.
    T:i .,-\ is more innovative elarkin 1988:314-16. See also J. Robertson McQuilkin (1984,217-40), who provides the underpinning
    :-:i.-,1 .lata to other relevant for Larkin's thesis.
    -::.-r-..ec pp.7-l3t than in roSee p. 315 where he says that the two sides describe "the same application process but r,vith different
    : : :' \r.-tl\ s hat I am talking
    ernphases."
    llSee also Alan Johnson's critique of McQuilkin (1984:255-82), for further detailed
    argumentation
    .:-iii\ational scholars and
    along these lines.
    .:i: ptrsitions slightly as a
    DMcQuilkin 1980 and 1984:230-40, 113-24.: Larkin 1988:ll8-25, 314-15. McQuilkin develops
    seven criteria for detecting a scripturally limited command: (1) if the context of the passage limits
    the application (such as celibacy in 1 Cor 7:8),(2) if subsequent revelation limits it (as in such Old

    : ':. :. behind the crisis in


    Testament laws as divorce, food laws and the sacrificial system), (3) if the teaching conflicts with other
    t-- -:.. r1 of Churches 1971 biblical passages, which limits both to their proper sphere (such as the Nazirite vow [Num 6:5] vs. the
    ': ::'l]':-lrtrn against authority necessity of short hair on males [ 1 Cor 1 i: 14]), (4) if the basis for the teaching is explicit and is treated
    as normative (such as woman's silence in I Cor 14:34), (5) if the speciflc teaching and the principle
    :i:i -ri3J bv the tendency to
    "r .-.,rrdrnS to the historical- behind it are normative (such as sexual sins like homosexuality or adultery), (6) if the Bible treats the
    historical context as normative (such as the Logia Jesu), (7) if the Bible treats the cultural context as
    -: T:.: hi:torical and cultural
    :, J -:: uhether the Bible has
    limited.
    IrSee Alan Johnson's critique of McQuilkin (1984:255-82).
    raSee Harvie Conn's more responsible statement: "A belief in the vatidity of other cultures does not
    ; :,:.: -ited by New Testament
    r,'::ri:ualization in Acts. Paul obligate one to approve of such practices as cannibalism, widow burning, infanticide, premarital sex,

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    -rd
    polygamy, and the like. But it does insist that one take such customs seriously rvithin the cultural Monsma. Reli.r:--:.-: : -
    context in rvhich they appear and attempt to appreciate the importance of their function within that oAdams ( 1986:15:-::
    context. Understanding is not acceptance!"' (1984:329).
    calls for sense-(rr-.:: ::- :
    r5See Osborne 1911l337-52.I am updating the list found here with more recent literature. Here I must gestures to pun.:!::: .::
    render my appreciation to Guth ( 198 I :chap. 2), who has done a great deal of this for me. TFor a good \unr:::j:,
    r6See also Larkin 1988:334-56; McQuilkin 1984:230-40.
    see De Koster l!\- : :
    rrSee Fee 1976 113 and Scott 19'79:75. This is similar to Kraft's distinction of general vs. speciflc
    categories, since moral truths by definition are nonspecific. Appendix 1: The Prr,
    r8Gunther (1976:2:576, 578-79) points out that while polygamy is mentioned. it is not truly rSeeGadarn.r lc^a:.-t

    countenanced and monogamy "occupies the central position" (such as Gen l:26-27;2:18- 24;Deil rFrei 1974:86-lr'- i.-:
    17:17). Furthermore, polygamy was practiced among Jervs even in Nelv Testament times-Herod, for rFrei 197,1:31-r P"- i. -
    example, had ten wives-and it r.vas common among the aristocracy. Interestingly, it."vas allowed only
    The classical p€ri .r -: ir:
    by the Jews and was not allorved in Greco-Roman society generally.
    Then Schleiemi-::: :.-
    leln one sense contextualization could virtually be identified with hermeneutics, since the exposition -
    base for hermen.'- - -
    of a text's meaning is also a "contextualization" of its message. This indeed is how the term is used Gadamer took a:
    in missiological circles. However, I am using it in a more restricted sense, that of determining the meaningpanak.'. - -j-
    signilicance or application of the biblical meaning for this modern age. so present hernrl:..'-: --

    ']0Dietrich 1981:30. Horvever, his dialogue with popular religion and ideologies fails to meet his orvn aThiselton 19El ) I -:-: .
    criteria, for they are given prominence over the biblical worldvierv. sGadamer 1965:l:.'-'
    rrHiebert 1987:109-l0.SeealsoConn 1984:2ll-60,whoarguesfordoingthisinacovenantal context. concern (1981: ''-:- -
    Conn argues for six criteria: (l) a biblical-theological concept of "revelation-as-process." (2) a Nevertheless. uh:,: - ;:
    covenantal dimension demanding faithfulness in rvord and deed, (3) a culturespecific theology. (4) does open up iun-:: :, ::
    theology as an ever-renewed evangelistic response to contextual needs, (5) the unity of the church in tri .,. -.
    "The number .
    developing communal faith statements, (6) a prophetic function in challenging cultures and ideologies. (1979:443-631.
    ",.: -- r
    2rSee the excellent discussion in Fee and Stuart 1982:46-49. conclusion of Ku::...'
    1978:329--l-5 ani S
    " -
    Chapter 18: Homiletics II: The Sermon
    lNote the excellent and extensive discussion of the relation of the historical-grammatical and historical-
    TEdith Kurzu .-il
    ;: . :.
    portrait of the e.: . -
    critical methods to the sermonic process in Greidanus 1988:24-101. r. -.
    rejected. in fact.
    zln these four points, I am building on the excellent discussion in Greidanus 1988:159-66. . -.. -
    linguistics. Senri,
    3John Bettler (1986:344-4'7
    ) speaks of a "funnel," as preaching moves from the general ("pray") to the Derridaasaphii,.- .- -
    particular ("pray sincerely") to the concrete ("pray in secret"). sMost biblical .J:'. .::-
    aRobinson 2001:159. Jay Adams adds four principles for a proper use of stories or illustrations "functions" or ;l:"-.- :-' -
    (1986:361-65): (1) Make certain that the story is drawn from and appeals to the shared background of analysis (perttrrnr':. . . :.
    the congregation (e.g., agricultural allusions in a farming community. (2) If you utilize stories nerv to story); and Todr,: - -,.

    the congregation, explain them carefully and colorfully. (3) Teil the familiar example in a new, startling reconstructs the i;,. - -:
    qRegarding
    way (such as Jesus' "I am" sayings in John's Gospel). (4) Avoid trite, r'vell-rvorn clich6s. Above all, the i;.:: :
    involve all the senses of the congregation as you open their eyes, ears and total being to the truth of course I do not pr.:-- - '.-

    the text. ar.vay from the e,:..:- -'


    sI must thank an ad hoc committee that met at the Third Congress for Missions at Trinity Evangelical roln addition to T(': :r. -.
    Divinity School in May 1982 for developing a preliminary form of this. The committee consisted 8i:Derrida 19-e':- -
    of Alan Andres, Canadian director of Navigators: Timothy F. Conklin, Grace Bible College; Roger lrBafthes 197-i:l- .- --
    S. Greenway, Westminster Theological Seminary; Robert H. Matzken, the Netherlands; Timothy my use of tert an; B.:: - :

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    I{otes

    -.jr *ithin the cultural Monsma, Reformed Bible College; Edward C. Pentecost, Dallas Theological Seminary; and myself.
    it ;- iunction rvithin that
    "Adams (1986:35,1-55) calls vivid language "sense appeal" or utilizing "evocative language." He
    calls for sense-oriented language that evokes emotional response as rvell as a vivid use of sounds and
    'e.:r: l)terature . Here I must ge\tures to punctuate the poinls.
    : ::1 .lLrr fne. TFor a good summary of the historical development of rhetoric r,vith application to preaching,
    see De Koster 1986:303-30.
    .:. . ,i Seneral vs. specific
    Appendix 1: The Problem of Meaning: The Issues
    rSee Gadamer 1965:460-91: compare
    : :-:. ,nL'd. it is not truly Bleicher 1980:117-27 .

    :: . 16-ll: 2:18- 24; Deut rFrei 1974:86-104. See also the more succinct survey ofChilds 1977:80-90.
    i;.:.:r:nI times - Herod. for rFrei 1974:323. Paul Ricoeur traces three stages in the development of hermeneutics (1973:112- 41).
    ":.:.-:l:. rt *as allolvedonly The classical period depended on a classification method that utilized a genre-based approach to the text.

    Then Schleiermacher and the neo-Kantian movement along rvith Dilthey erected an epistemological
    -.. .ince the exposition base for hermeneutics, characterized by a diachronic interest in history. Finally, Heidegger along with
    .. hou the term is used Gadamer took an ontological approach, centering on the synchronic problem of bein-e. The search for
    .i-.rr of determining the meaning partakes of that "alienating distanciation" (Gadamer) that characterizes human reflection and
    so present hermeneutics faces a dilemma of understanding that demands a neu, approach.

    . ..r'- l.til: to meet his own rThiselton 1980:103-5 aligns this rvith one's "preunderstanding."
    sGadamer 1965:258-78. Mark C. Taylor believes that this disclosure of futurity is Gadamer's major
    .:- . :: r crxenantal context. concern (1982:18-19). Horvever, as he himself adrnits, this comes more from Heidegger than Gadamer.
    : .: i,.:,,r-e\-process," (2) a Nevertheless, rvhile not explicated fully by Gadamer. it does emerge logically from his system. The text
    .- :-::'pecific theology, (4) does open up future potentialities for appropriation.
    i :-: ..rritr ol the church in 6The number of works detailing this school can hardly be listed here. See Harari's bibliography
    :-: r- - ..r.iures and ideologies. (1919:443-63'1, rvhich deals rvith nonbiblical areas, and Pane 1976. See also the introduction and
    conclusion of Kurzweil 1980 and Harari 1979l.l'7 -12.For conservative biblical critiques. see Thiselton
    1978:329-35 and Stancil 1980:4-59. An excellent survey of the issue can be found in Perpich I 984.
    TEdith Kurzweil provides an illuminating (to those of us more acquainted rvith its biblical counterpart)
    ,- - ::.'-': :rntrcal and historical- poftrait of the early movement (1980:227-45). She distinguishes semiotics as a later development
    rejected, in fact, by Levi-Strauss, rvho derided its lack of social involvement and preoccupation rvith
    -- J\ \ l-s9_66. linguistics. Semiology developed '"vith Barthes as a literary-critical movement and semiotics with
    ,:, :-: leneral ("pray") to the Derrida as a philosophico-linguistic enterprise.
    sMost biblical scholars also utilize V. I. Propp's functional analysis (he developed thirty-one basic

    r ' .r,rries or illustrations "functions" or characteristic plot developments that determine all stories); A. J. Greimas's actantial
    i: :ri .hared background of analysis (performative features and disjunctive sequences by which the binary opposites interact in the
    ll . ': utilize stories new to story); and Todorov's theory of narrative discourse (which deconstructs the grammatical sequence and
    r .r.iirrle in a nerv, startling reconstructs the text in terms of its propositional sequence).
    r:i - ,'::r clichds. Above all,
    ,', eRegarding the death of structuralism see Kurzweil 1980:229-30.210-45 and Detweiler 1978:166. Of
    i:.: :, ::rl hc-rng to the truth of course I do not pretend that it rvas ever a unified movement. Horvever. the consensus has clearly shifted
    away from the earlier model.
    \\ -\ Jt Trinity Evangelical r0lnadditiontoTompkins 1980,Frei 1974andChilds 1977,seePeterson 197824-26;Penin 1976:168-
    ::. l:..' committee consisted 8 I ; Derrida 197 9 :82- 120 : Ricoeur 197 4a:250 -66.

    Cr.-e Bible College; Roger rlBarthes 1915l.2'7 as quoted in Taylor 1982:47. I recognize, ofcourse, the semantic difference between
    :. :rs \etherlands; Timothy my use oftext and Barthes's use ofauthor. By text-related interpretation, I mean an act that is concerned

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    n irh hi:torlcal intentionality. Therefore, analysis of text in my system includes what Barthes means by
    rsSeeVanhooze: . -'- -
    the.iuthtrr. r6Kelsey 19--i:. --'- -
    :lntenertualitl
    . as Det*'eiler points out, has become a major issue in the postformalist debate ( 1980:10- possible "mean:::- : !
    I i r. 'The te\t is its own interpretation ... and reveals itself as insufficient for serious analysis, so that rTThiselton shc,.,. . :'.' ---

    one turns to playfulness with the text as a way of encountering it" (p. ll). British empirici.r-. :-.- :
    I r.\gain. rve are forced to juxtapose two diff'erent ways of considering text. "Reader-response" criticism
    Appendix 2: The Pn:,
    uses text to distinguish the historical production of the author from his or her intended meaning.
    rRamsey belier e- :,. . . .
    Poststructuralism, on the other hand, utilizes text to depict that autonomous entity rvhich separates
    itself from the author and completes its meaning only in the act of reading. and"total commltxr.::
    raAs Tompkins points rSearle 1969:l-1 1-j^ :
    out, the problem here is that the "self as an independent entity vanishes"
    ( 1980:xxiii). statements c?Ilntri :].:
    lsFor good suryeys of this, see Freund I 987 (esp. chap. 1 Jeanrond relationship betrr e.:
    ); 1 988: 1 05- I 5; and Porter t 990. Van
    theperforman.e,::r:
    der Weede (1991:132-42) separates reader-response types into psychological models of understanding
    (Holland and Bleich), rvith meaning depending entirely on the mental situation of the reader; social
    occurring in cr'nr.: :--..
    models (Culler and Fish), with reading conventions inherited from a community determining meaning;
    3Habermas i9-l .- --
    and intersubjective models (Iser, Jauss, Rosenblatt), with both the inner mental preunderstanding and aFor a good reac-lr:
    - ---.
    the social conventions interacting to produce meaning. sSee Hockin_s lc:, -: .
    '6Fish 1980a:13. For a good discussion of Fish's influence on biblical studies see Moore 1986:707- 19. 6Hough argue\ th:: ---:

    '7See Eagleton 1983:85-90 and Jeanrond 1988:111-15, both of r.vhom recognize the problem of not mutuall) er;.-- .. -
    arbitrariness in this approach. 1976:139-57 an.t F .:
    r8English translations: On Grammatology, trans. G. Chakravorty (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, THough 1976:ll,i :. -
    1976); Writing and Difference. trans. A. Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978)l Speech 'Intentionalist F;i .., _,

    and Phenomena, trans. D. Allison (Evanston: Northrvestern University Press. 1973). Good discussions Intentions and th; -:.. -:
    of his thought are found in the introductions. Derrida himself says that one should read the first half SIt is interestinr ::..: }'
    of On Grammatoiogy (on the history of the notion of the sign) as an elaboration of themes scattered paradigm of genr: :' , -
    through Writing and Difference (Bass 1978:x). class can control ,:. .:
    reNietzsche 1982.46-47 . Larv of Genre. C' .. : - -
    roSee Norris 1982:24-32,46-47 .for an excellent discussion of this. Blanchot's tt0ri, .r.-
    2rDerida 197829-30. Gayatri Spirak, in her preface to On Grammatology, states, "In Delrida's eSee alsoAler lv-i :-''
    relvorking, the structure preface-tert becomes open at both ends. The text has no stable identity, no present a modrhr'; :-.
    stable origin, no stable end. Each act of reading the 'text' is a preface to the next" (p. xii). Glymour 198().
    22Harari 1979 37 . Derrida considers the "metaphysical opposition of calculus and genesis" (of intention roFor an imponr:..

    and writing), which produces a "lever of disorganization" rvith respect to "the authority of an 'author' discussion ol B:r. =. .- -
    over his very 'own'corpus" (1980:41-49).In other words, the relationship betr,veen the author and his Kyburg.
    creation has been deconstructed or erased. riPaul Heln-r ar,gur'. :-
    -' -
    23Michel Foucault argues that the individualization of the author and the separation of an author from concerned sith ' :..--
    his r.vork is a product of modern culture (1979:141-60). Writing has "freed itself from... the con{ines of adduces to prLr\ i ::: -, -
    its interiority" and become "identified with its own unfolded exteriority" (.p. 142). As a result. writing Jesus'orvn clair:'... -, :.
    has become "its author's murderer" because "the writing subject cancels out the signs ofhis particular is further ancho.;- - '-:
    individuality" (pp. 142-43).The unity of author and writer effaces the former and transcends him or her, 1rI. Howard \lar-:.
    so that the author disappears. All that remains is a name. significance firii\ . :-.
    2aSee also Keck 1980:11-5-28, r.vho argues that a plurality of methods. including historical-critical and is a functir,r: -: - .

    reconstruction, is necessary to the survival ofthe church's canon. (Yet) it is of spe,.. ^':,

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    Notes

    rsSee Vanhoozer 1990 for an excellent analysis ofthis development in Ricoeur's thought.
    :Je. ',,. hat Barthes means by
    26Kelsey 1975:197-20'7. See also Lynn Ross-Bryant 1981, who argues that "imagination" creates

    .:: --:rrli.r debate ( 1980: l0- possible "meanings" in the dialogue betrveen reader and text.
    j-: .:nous analysis, so that rTThiselton shows that the Tractatus rvas a product more of the Viennese neo-Kantian school than of
    British empiricism and so should not be radically separated from his later work (1980:358-59).
    R: : j:r--r!'\ponse" CIitiCism
    Appendix 2: The Problem of Meaning: Toward a Solution
    . - - -'r rrrtcntled meaning.
    rRamsey believes two aspects of religious language give it an empirical character: "odd discernniEnt"
    :, -. :rtrt\ rvhich separates
    and "total commitment." Most today, however, no longer claim an "empirical" foundation for God-talk.
    2Searle 1969:l3l-56. These fallacies are the naturalistic fallacy, which argues that descriptive
    i(:".:.J3nt entity vanishes"
    statements cannot entail evaluative statements; speech act analysis, which depends on an analogous
    relationship between words and performative verbs; and assertion, rvhich confuses "the conditions for
    :- ,< : :rnd Porter 1990. Van
    the performance of the speech act of assertion rvith the analysis of the meaning of pafticular words
    .r r ,.rjl: of understanding
    occulTing in certain assertions."
    .-.: :- .ri the reader: social
    rHabermas l9'7 1 : 190 -203 ; see Gadamer's response in Apel I 97 283-3 1 7.
    ! :.. : : J..termining rr-reaning;
    1 :

    'r.-.:r :iL'understanding aFor a good recent discussion see Poythress 1988.


    and
    5See Hocking 1980: l-5 and Poythress 1988:39-49.
    :. .;: \fitrrc 1986:'707- 19. 6Hough argues that "the presented surface of the text" and "the inferred intention of the author" are
    ::. --:tr.1c the problem of not mutually exclusive goals but are complementary (1976:224; see pp.222-23). See also Peckham,
    191 6: 139 -51 and Forvler 197 6:242-55.
    THough 1976225. He mentions two rvho have proclaimed this: A. J. Close, "Don Quixote and the
    'i-:: P:e.i. 1978): Speech 'Intentionalist Fallacy,' " British Journal of Aesthetics 12,no.2 (19'72); and Quentin Skinner, "Motives.
    --: Gooddiscussions Intentions and the Interpretation of Texts," New Literary History 3, no.2 (19'72).
    :r:-- ,.J read the first half 8It is interesting that Derrida uses one of the nerv novels (Maurice Blanchot's La Folie du jour) as a
    1 r;i : .,i themes scattered paradigm of genre mixture to prove his case that the intermixing of genre demonstrates that no genre
    class can control the text and that thereby the nonclosure of the text declasses genre. See his "The
    Larv of Genre." Glyph 7 (1980): 210-13. In actuality, this demonstrates the validity of genre because
    Blanchot's work r.vas r.vritten to illustrate that very point. In other words, the argument is circular.
    eSee also Ayer 191254-88. For a defense of necessity, see Plantinga 197.1, and for a recent attempt to
    :_.. -t.,t.'r. "In Derrida's
    present a modified version of logical empiricism centering on "causal modeis." see
    \.1 -.-. -r.. .table identity, no
    .:::: :.\ii). Glymour 1980.
    roFor an important work developing these themes, see Maxrvell and Anderson 1975, especially the
    -. j. i -!':tl.iis"
    (of intention
    -::. -.,r:l,rnt) Of an 'authOr' discussion of Bayesian rnethods by Hesse and Maxwell and the essay on probabitity and reference by
    : -,- .::. thc xuthor and his Kyburg.
    rrPaul Helm argues that the major reasons for believing that the Bible is the Word of God are "religious."
    <r*r,:i of an author from
    ,r, concerned with "a person's bounden allegiance to God" (1983:303-20). Further. the evidence one
    .:.: - ':,rnr... the confines of adduces to prove the point is "internal." the clairns ofthe text itself, rather than external. On the basis of

    r -: . \\ a result. writing Jesus'ou,n clairns. one takes a stand and views objections rationally from rvithin that stand. This stance
    is further anchored in the life and erpelience ofthe one rvho takes that stand.
    -i r-: . lnS ofhis particular
    Ei :: i ricinsCr-nds him or her. rrI. Hor,vard Marshall says, "The point is that the meaning of a text is constant and objective, rvhereas its

    significance may vary for different readers. The significance depends on both the text and the readers.
    ::,,J.nr historical-critical and is a function of their mutual interaction. Change the context. and you change the significance. ...
    (Yet) it is of special impofiance to recognize that the signilicance flows out of the meaning. There can

    81

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    -=
    be no by-passing ofexegesis on the way to exposition and significance" (1980:5). I find this article to
    be an excellent. concise study ofthe problems Caird considers at greater length.
    rrTroeltsch, on the basis of positivistic
    developments in historiography, argued that historical claims
    (such as miracles) could be accepted only if they were analogous or cohered to modern experience.
    raBloch 1954:48-T5.R.G.Collingwoodstatesthattheinductiveapproachandtheformulationofgeneral
    larvs are crucial (1965:35-36). Only the examination of evidence according to previously tletermined B r liro_::.:
    guidelines can produce viable history.
    isStanton 1978:60-71' Stuhlmacher
    1977:83-90. See also Braaten 1966:50-52 and Bulrmann 1960:289-
    96. In this discussion I will interact with several scholars, especially Graham Stanton and Peter
    Stuhlmacher.

    '6While one could argue that these concepts are a twentieth-century product of literary criticism,
    I would respond that they fit ancient texts as well as modern ones.

    Achtemer::. --.-

    Adanr

    Adam.. E: .

    Ad:tn... -'

    Adanr.
    I

    Adler, N{ortin.:
    Charle.
    "=

    {li :: \-
    Aland, Kurt. an.:

    Alexander. P:

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    christianlib.com
    : ' I rrnd this afticle to

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