uids and their Proper y-specific volume. 1-5. Specific gravity. Newton's law of VISCosily—types of fluid: c c a Gace Of pressure on viscosity 1-7. Thee ot femperatin c 1-7. Thermodynami 5 Ssure o lynamic properties, 1-8. Surface mee AR 1 Compressibility and bulk modulus. 1-10, Vapour S —| ights—Objecti YI e ieee oe ‘ective Type Questions—Theoretical Questions Weight densit 1 . Density-mass 6. Viscosity— © On viscosity — 1-1. Introduction Hydraulics: Hydraulics (this word has been derived from a Greek work may be defined as follows : “lt is that branch of Engineering-science, which deals with wa 8 8 or “It is that branch of Engineering-science which is based on experimental observation of water flow."" Fluid Mechanics: Fluid mechanics may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science which deals with the behaviour of fluid under the conditions of rest and motion. The fluid mechanics may be divided into three parts: Statics, kinematics and dynamics, Statics. The study of incompressible fluids under static conditions is called hydrostatics a ing with the compressible static gases is termed as aerostatics. 7 ‘th ou es It deals with the velocities, accelerations and the patterns of flow only. Forces as ity and acceleration are not dealt under this heading. or energy causing velocity an‘ i oe Tt deals with the relations between velocities, accelerations of fluid with the “Hudour’ which means water) er (at rest or in motion).”” Dynamics. : fc ce i them. forces or energy causing them ne Properties of Fluids—General Aspects: : Tl ter can be classified on the basis of the spacing between the molecules of the he matter matter as follows: 1, Solid state, and 2. Fluid state, ~ Tt \d . (i) Liquid ee are very closely spaced whereas in liquids the spacing between the In solids, the mol ; i the spacing between the molecules is still : vely large and in gases g lecul different molecules is ea ay ene hesive forces are large in solids, smaller in liquids and large. It means that inert fT account of this fact, solids possess compact and rigid form, extremely small in Base, 2 iy within the liquid mass and the molecules of gases have greater liquid molecules can m 1 (ii) Gaseous state.2 Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Mas freedom of movement so that the gases fill the container completely in which they are A solid can resist tensile, compressive and shear stresses upto a certain limit whereas a fluid has no tensile strength or very little of it and it can resist the compressive forces only when it is kept in a container. When a fluid is subjected to a shearing force it deforms continuously as long as the force is applied. The amount of shear stress in a fluid depends on the magnitude of the rate of deformation of the fluid clement, Liquids and gases exhibit different characteristics. The liquids under ordinary conditions are quite difficult to compress (and therefore they may for most purposes be regarded as incompressible) whereas gases can be compressed much readily under the action of external Pressure (and when the external pressure is removed the gases tend to expand indefinitely) 12. Fluid A fluid may be defined as follows: “A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing.”* or fluid is @ substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing A fluid has the following characteristics: 1, _Ithas no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel. 2. Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a liquid/fluid will cause it to undergo 2 deformation which continues as long as the force continues to be applied. A fluid may be classified as follows: A. (0) Liquid, (ii) Gas, and (iii) Vapour, B. (i) Ideal fluids and (ii) Real fluids. Liquid * A liquid is a fluid which possesses a definite volume (which varies only slightly with temperature and pressure). * Liquids have bulk elastic modulus when under compression and will store up energy in the same manner as a solid. As the contraction of volume of a liquid under compression is extremely small, it is usually ignored and the liquid is assumed to be incompressible. A liquid will withstand a slight amount of tension due to molecular atraction between the particles which will cause an apparent shear resistance, between two adjacent layers, This phenomenon is known as viscosity, + All known liquids vaporise at narrow pressures above zero, depending on the temperature. Gas. It possesses no definite volume and is compressible, Vapour. It is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that itis very near the liquid state (¢.g., steam). Ideal fluids. An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension and is incompressible. In true sense no such fluid exists in nature. However fluids which have low viscosities such as water and air can be treated as ideal fluids under certain conditions. The assumption of ideal fluids helps in simplifying the mathematical analysis. Real fluids. A real practical fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and compressibility in addition to the density. The real fluids are actually available in nature Continuum. A continuous and homogeneous medium is called continuum. From the comtinuum view point, the overall properties and behaviour of fluids can be studied without regard for its atomic and molecular structure. 1.3, Liquids and their Properties A liquid can be easly distinguished (rom a solid or a gas.Properties of Fluids : + A solid has a definite shape. + A liquid takes the shape of vessel into which it is poured. + A gas completely fills the vessel which contains it, The properties of water are of much importance because the subject of hydraulics is mainly concerned with it, Some important properties of water which will be considered are: (i) Density, (ii) Specific gravity, (ii) Viscosity, (iv) Vapour pressure, () Cohesion, (vi) Adhesion, (vii) Surface tension, (viii) Capillarity, and Gx) Compressibility. 14, Density 14-1, Mass density The density (also known as mass density or specific mass) of a liquid may be defined as m the mass per unit volume (7) at a standard temperature and pressure. It is usually denoted by m Vv p(rho). Its units are kg/m? (ll) 1-4-2, Weight density The weight density (also known as specific weight) is defined as the weight per unit volume at the standard temperature and pressure. It is usually denoted by w. w=pg (1-2) For the purposes of all calculations, relating to Hydraulics and hydraulic machines, the specific weight of water is taken as follows: In SL. Units; — w=9-81 KN/m? (or 9-81 x 107° N/mm’) In MKS. Units: w= 1000 kg/m’, 1-43. Specific volume It is defined as volume per unit mass of fluid. It is denoted by v. Mathematically, a mp 1-3) 15. Specific Gravity Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid t0 the specific weight of a standard fluid. It is dimensionless and has no units. It is represented by S. For liquids, the standard fluid is pure water at 4°C. : i specific weightof liquid _ Migua Specific gravity = cific weight of pure Water Maier Example 1-1. Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 6 n? and weight of 44 kN. Sol. Volume of the liquid = 6 m° Weight of the liquid = 44 KN Specific weight, w + weightof liquid _ 44 1 ae cofliquid 7 6-7 7333KN/m? (Ans) Specific mass or mass density, p: w _ 7.333 x 1000 yar ATS kg/m’? (Ans.)Specific gravity, $+ wy, = Whguid _ 7-333 Se = ogy = 0747 (Ans) 16. Viscosity Viscosity may be defined as the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses. It is a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes resistance to flow. Itis primarily due 10 cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers, and as flow occurs, these effects appear as shearing stresses between the moving layers of fluid. An ideal fluid has no viscosity. There is no fluid which can be classified as a perfectly ideal fluid. However, the fluids with very little viscosity are sometimes considered as ideal fluids. Viscosity of fluids is due to cohesion and interaction between particles. Refer Fig. 1-1. When nwo layers of fluid, at a distance *dy" apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say wand w + du, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid Upper layer Lower layer layers. The top layer causes a shear stress on c + du the adjacent lower layer while the lower w layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top eae layer. This shear stress is proportional to the ai rate of change of velocity with respect to y. I It is denoted by t (called Tau). 3 Solid boundary maa du Mathematically t Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines Specific V tl Specific Volume, v = 7 Fa7g 7 0.00134 mcg (Ans) | | j | | | du ‘i . cn tan eo(4) Fig. 1-1. Velocity variation near a solid boundary. where = constant of proportionality and is known as co-efficient of dynamic viseosity or only viscosity. dit _ sate of shear stress or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient. dy 1 From Fig. Il, we have it (1-5) ‘Thus viscosity may also be defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain Units of Viscosity: In SL. Units: Nas/m? In M.K.S. Units: kg, . sec/™ force/area _ force/lengtl force x time 2 i (length)? (lengtlvtime) * agi dyne The unit of viscosity in C.G.S. is also called poise = yee . . Note. The viscosity of water st 20°C is 7pp Poise or one centipoise. ote.ydraulic Machines Fluid Mechanics and Hydrawd be exceeded to cause a Substance which is non-Newtonian fluid an initial yield stress is ists fine intersecting the Continuous deformation, These substances are represented by stra Vertical axis at the “yield stress"” (Refer Fig. 1.2). An ideal plastic (or Binigham plastic) has a definite yield s relation between shear stress and the rate of angular deformation. drilling muds etc, : ionshi A thyxotropic substance, which is non-Newtonian fluid, has 2 noe: tineae deen between the shear stress and the rate of angular deformation, beyond an initial y! Printer's ink is an example of thyxotropic substance. eee er 4. Ideal fluid. An ideal Muid is one which is incompressible and has zero ane beh other words shear stress is always zero regardless of the motion of the fluid). Thus an i is represented by the horizontal axis (t= 0). : A true elastic solid may be represented by the vertical axis of the diagram. / Summary of relations between shear stress (t) and rate of angular deformation for various types of fluids: tress and a constant linear Examples: Sewage sludge, (i) Ideal fluids: t= 0, (ii) Newtonian fluids: (i) Ideal plastics: += const + w+ du iv) Thyxorropic fluids: t= const. + | sand (») Non-Newtonian fluids: += ( *) : In case of non-Newtonian fluids, if n is less than unity they are called pseudo-plastics (c-8.. paper pulp, rubber suspension paints) while fluids in which n is greater than unity are known as dilatents. (e.g. Butter, printing ink). Ostwald-de-Wacle Equation: It is an empirical solution to express steaty-state shear stress as a function of velocity gradient, and is given as ee du)" du ve dy dy I'm = | this reduces to Newton's law of viscosity, with o = Example 1.2. (a). What are the characteristics of an ideal fluid ? (b) The general relation berween shear stress and vs locity gradient of a fluid can be written as duy raal(& dy _: where A, B and n are constants that depend upon the ry ; ol a i ie ene a ed oy god (i) an ideal fluid; nay behave as: Gi) a Newtonian fluid; (iii) A non-Newtonian fluid. (c) Indicate whether the fluid with non-Newtonian, (i) t = Ay+B and u =C, + Cy + Cy (i) t = Ay" “and u = Cy" Sol. (a) An ideal fluid has the following characteristcg No viscosity (Le. w = 0) th 7 * following characteristics is q Newtonian orproperties of Fluids © No surface tension, * Incompressible (ie. 9 = constant) os ideal uld can slip near a solid boundary and cannot sustain any shear force however sanall i be. (byteAa ‘| +B (i) An ideal fluid: Since an ideal fluid has zero viscosity (i.e, shear stress is always zero regardless of the motion of the fluid), therefore, A=B=0 (ii) A Newtonian fluid: Since a newtonian fluid follows Newton's law of viscosity; 1 = pM therefore: dy en=1 andB=0 ©The constant A takes the value of dynamic viscosity 4 for the fluid. Air, water, kerosene etc. behave as Newtonian fluids under normal working conditions. (ii) A non-Newtonian fluid: Depending on the value of power index n, the non-Newtonian fluids are classified as: lt a> 1 and B = 0... Dilatant fluids. E ifn < Land B = 0... Pseudo plastic fluids. Examples : Blood, milk, liquid cement and clay. amples: Sugar solution, aqueous suspension and printing ink. © If n= 1 and B = t) Bingham fluid or ideal plastic. An ideal plastic fluid has a definite yield stress and a constant-linear relation between shear stress developed and rate of deformation: du too ay i Examples: Sewage sludge, water suspension of clay and flyash etc. (t= Ay t Band u=C,+ Gy+ Gy du a a (C+ Cyt GY) =O + 2Qy Now, = Ay+B where A = 210; and B = Cy Since this has the same form as the given shear stress, therefore the fluid characteristicsFluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines For « Newtonian fluid t = jt uu = Eno! Anis expression does not conform to the value of shear stzess and as such the fluid i non-Newtonian in character, 163. Effect of Temperature on Viscosity Viscosity is effected by temperature, The viscosity of liquids decreases but that of gases increases with increase in temperature, This is due to the reason that in liquids the shear stress is due to the inter-molecular cohesion which decreases with increase of temperature, In gases the inter-molecular cohesion is negligible and the shear stress is duc to exchange of momentum of the molecules, normal to the direction of motion, The molecular activity increases with rise in temperature and so does the viscosity of gas. For liquids: (1B) oA 1-9) For gases: MTT where H,= dynamic viscosity at absolute temperature A, B = constants (for a given liquid), and a, b = constants (for a given gas). 1-6-4, Effect of Pressure on Viscosity The viscosity under ordinary conditions is not appreciably affected by the changes in pressure. However, the viscosity of some oils has been found to increase with increase in pressure. . Example 1:3. A plate 0.05 mm distant from a fixed plate moves at 1:2 m/s and requires a force of 22. N/m? to maintain this speed. Find the viscosity of the fluid between the plates. Sol. Velocity of the moving plate, w= 1-2 m/s Distance between the plates, dy = 0-05 mm = 0.05 x 10-* m Force on the moving plate, 2. N/m? Viscosity of the fluid, p : Moving plate du w= 12 ms We know, t= Hy where 1 = shear stress or oa 2 force per unit area = 22N/m’, du= change of velocity =u-0=12m/s and Fixed plate dy= change of distance plat =0.05 x 107° m. Feta 12 : 222 BX D5 x10" 2 x 0-05 x 10-7 rs BEAOT ES =H1610 Naim? | toe Ns] 29-16% 10-4 poise (Ans.) is a of Om is sliding 1.4, A plate having an arm ‘liding down the inclined pla a wih a velocity of O36%/s, There isa cushion of pn lane a 30° 10 the 4 or # horizontal iP erties of Fluids 9 berween the plane and the plate dames he plate Sol. Area of plate, A=06m? Weight of plate, oe W= 280 Pinte Velocity of plate, 5 OS " = 0:36 m/s Thickness of film, Find the viscosity of the fluid if the weight of the plate is Viscosity of the Muid, uz Component of W along the plate = Wsin 0 = 280 sin 30° = 140N Shear force on the bottom surface of the plate, F = 140N and shear stress, F_ 140 OG 723333 N/m? We know, T=: Where 2 8x10? or pe 233334 oxo = 1-166 N.s/m? = 11-66 poise (Ans.) Example 15. The space berveen vo square la paraltel plate is filled with oft Each side ofthe planes 720 mm. The thickness ofthe oil flm i 15 mm. The upper plate, which moves dar 3 nus requires a force of 120 N to maintain the speed. Determine: (i), The dynamic viscosity of the oil; kinematic viscosity of oil if the specific gravity of oil is 095. plate = 720 min = 072m o1sm (ii) The Sol. Each side of a square ‘The thickness of the oil, dy = 15 mm Velocity of the upper plate, =3 m/s Change of velocity between plates, di=3 -0=3m/s Force required on upper plate, F= 120 Shear stress, ( Dynamic viscosity ju We know that : rene IS WX DOGS 231-5 0-015 _ y.4@N-s/m* (Ans) Me 3 (ii) Kinematic viscosity, Weight density of oil, w= 0% 15 x 9-81 KN/m? = 9:32 N/m? or 9320 N/m?° Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines Mass density of oil, p= ™ = 9320 =e or 7 950 Using the relation: y=. 116 s ig the relation: v p~ 950 0-00122 m*/s Hence v= 0-00122 m?/s (Ans,) naan ive by « y? where Example 1-6. The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is give by u is the velocity in m/s at a distance y metres above the plate, Determine the velocity gradient and shear stress at the boundary and 0-15 m from it, Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.9 Ns/m?. Ore ; du 4 ry Sol. u=2y-y? (given) ay 2 = du (i) Velocity gradient, a ‘At the boundary : At v=o( St) =2s"! (Ans. =o At O:15m from the boundary: At y=0 ism (4), out 2x 015=1-75"? (Ans) (ii) Shear stress, t: @yeo=n: 4) yor H | ay | and (,-015-4(#) = 09x 1-7=183N/m? (Ans) Jyaons = 09 x 2=1-8N/m? (Ans.) ° (where 1 = 0-9 N.s/m? ... (given)) Example 1.7. 4 lubricating oil of viscosity 1 undergoes steady shear between a fixed lower plate and an upper plate moving at speed V. The clearance benveen the plates is. Show that a linear velocity profile results if the fluid does not slip at either plate, ol. For the given geometry and motion, the shear stress News's lew of eae Hear ei “ress + is constant throughout. From du dy or ou=ly+m The constants / and m are evaluated from the no slip conditions at the upper and lower plates, Aty=0, p=0 .m=0 Aty=tu=V, v Ves 0orl=— x ~ = constant Moving plate —euey um u(y) .. The velocity profile between plates is then given by: ue and is linear as Fig Ls indicated in Fig. 1.5 (Ans.) Example 1-8. The velocity distribution of flow over a plate is parabo| {from the plate, where the velocity is 180 cms, If the viscos lic wit - i of the ee mith verter 30 om 'S 09 Ns/n? find theAt ye Oasen[ du dy Fluid Mechanics and Hyd: ] =0-9x 6 = 5-4 N/m? (Ans.) nis At 300,024 ($] =09x0=0(Ans,) = 30renee, = vvoue purse atts, Example LAS, Two large fixed parallel planes are 12 mm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with oil of viscosity 0972 Ns/n’, A flat thin plate 0-25 m? area moves through the oil at a velocity of 0-3 m/s. Calculate the drag force : (®) When the plate is equidistant from both the planes, and (ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 4 mm from one of the plane surfaces. Sol. Distance between the fixed parallel planes = 12 mm=0-012 m Area of thin plate, A= 0-25 m? Velocity of plate, «= 0-3 m/s 0.972 N-s/m? . Fixed parallel pla Viscosity of of ixed parallel plane Drag force, (i) When the plate is equidistant from both Let F, = shear force on the upper side of the thin plate, shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, F = total force required to drag the plate (= F\ + F3) a | , |: Y . Fig. 1. ‘The shear stress, t,, on the upper side of the thin Plate is gi ig. 1-11 iven by:Properties of Fluids ane(#) ' dy), where du=0-3 m/s (relative velocity between upper fixed plane and the plate), and dy=6 mm = 0-006 m (distance between the upper fixed plane and the plate) (Thickness of the plate neglected), Bix 0:3) 3 9, 2 1 1 5 0972x Fo = 48.6 N/m Shear force, P= -A=48-6 x 0-25 = 1215N Similarly shear stress (1) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by 3 0 ($= 097ax 3 a8 N/m? t, dy and Fy =A = 48-6 x 0-25 = 1215 N a F =F, + F,= 1215 + 12-15 = 2430 N (Ans.) (ii) When the thin plate is at a distance of 40 mm from one of the plane surfaces: Refer Fig. 1-12. The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate, du Fan Aan) xA 91IN dy The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, )xA ~0972x{ agg )x025= 1822 N 9.11 + 18:22 = 27.33 N (Ans) Fagxaan[ Total force F=F, + Fy1-8. Surface Tension and Capillarity 1-8-1. Surface Tension Cohesion. Cohesion means intermolecular attraction betwee! liquid. It enables a liquid to resist small amount of tensile stresses. the liquid to remain as one assemblage of particles. Surface tension is du particles at the free surface. ‘Adhesion. Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules ofa solid boundary surface in contact with the liquid. This property enables a liquid to stick to another body. Capillary action is due to both cohesion and adhesion. ___ Surface tension is caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface. A liquid molecule in the interior of the liquid mass is surrounded by other molecules all around and is in equilibrium. At the free surface of the liquid, there are no liquid Free surface molecules above the surface to balance the force of the molecules below it. Consequently, as shown in Fig. 1-17, there is a net inward force on the molecule. The force is normal to the liquid surface. At the free surface a thin layer of molecules is formed. This is because of this film that a thin small needle can float on the free surface (the layer acis as a membrane). n molecules of the same Cohesion is a tendency of eto cohesion between Molecule Fig. 117Properties of Fluids ' 23 Some important examples of phenomenon of surface tension are as follows: () Rain drops (A fallin, n tension). (ii) Rise of sap ina tree, (iil) Birds ean drink water from ponds, (iv) Capillary rise and capillary siphoning, (») Collection of dust particles on water surface, (vi) Break up of liquid jets. Dimensional formula for surface tension: The dimensional formula for surface tension is given by: E M [7] « [¥] It is usually expressed in N/m. The value of surface tension depends upon the following factors: (i) Nature of the liquid, (i) Nature of the surrounding matter (e.g. solid, liquid or gas), and (iii) Kinetic energy (and hence the temperature of the liquid molecules). Note. As compared to pressure and gravitational forces surface tension forces are generally negligible; but become quite significant when there is a free surface and the boundary conditions are small as in the case of small scale models of hydraulic engineering structures. Surface tension of water and mercury when in contact with air: Water-air 0.073 Nim at 20°C; Water-air —.. 0.058 N/m at 100°C; Mercury-air 0-1 N/m length, 1.8-1-1. Pressure Inside a Water Droplet, Soap Bubble and a Liquid Jet Case I, Water droplet: Let p = pres- sure inside the — droplet above out- +> ° side pressure (i.e. }— 4p = p-O=p above 1g Fain drop becomes spherical due to cohesion and surface : sere (a) Water droplet (by Pressure forces (o) Surface tension fessure d = diameter hn . of the droplet; occa ies o = surface 1 bos 5 tension ofthe — liquid. s ion From free ree body diagra body diagram (Fig. ore 118 4), we have: Fig. 148, Pressure inside a water droplet (®) Pressure force snxGdi, and ree acting around the circumference = 0X Td. ion fo : tei (ii) Surface tension rove these two forces will be equal and opposite, i. Under equilibrium condi x =n soxnd ” pxgeydraulic Machines | . Finid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines pressure intensity decreases, Ean. 1-17 shows that with an increase in size of the droplet the Pr Case Il. Soap (or hollow) bubble: Soap bubbles have two surfaces on ts which surface tension o acts ion From the free body di Fig. 1-19), ea we have yee = . ‘ Died x = id PRU =2x(oxnd) — 2oxnd 80 ag 8 +t § Rp od 7 Free body diagram Since the soap solution has a high value Fig. 119. Pressure inside a soap bubble. of surface tension a, even with small pressure of blowing a soap bubble will tend to grow larger in diameter (hence formation of large soap bubbles), Case III. A Liquid jet : i Let us consider a cylindrical liquid jet of diameter d and length J. Fig. 1-20 shows a semi-jet Pressure force =p x/xd Surface tension force = 0x 2! Equating the two forces, we have pxixd=ox2l ' x21 _20 eG 1-19) Example 1-21. In order to form a stream of bubbles, air is introduced through a nozzle into a tank of water at 20°C. If the process requires 3-0 mm diameter bubbles to be formed, by how much the air pressure at the nozzle must exceed that of the surrounding water? What would be the absolute pressure inside the bubble if the surrounding water is ot 1003 kN/mn’ Take surface tension of water at 20°C = 0.9735 N/m, Semi - jet Sol. Diameter of a bubble, = d=3-0mm=3x 10-3 m Surface tension of water at 20°C, 6 =0:0735 N/m The excess pressure intensity of air over that of surn We know. pa enrce 98 N/m? (Ans) ‘Absolute pressure inside the bubble, p,y,: Pabs= P+ Pam = 98x10"? + 1003 = 0.098 + 1003 = 100 398 kN/m? (Ans Example 122. A soap publ 62:5 mm diometer has er inten : onside pressure of 20 Nint. What is tension in the soap fig 9 Pressure in excess of the Sot. Diameter of the bubble, d= 62:5 mm = 62.5 4-3 the outside pressure, p= 20 N/m Fig. 1-20. Forces on liquid jet. Ounding water, Ap =p. m. In ; "ermal pressure in excess ofProperties of Fluids 8 Surface tension, o Using the relation, io 4 ps 1 20a ee 6257 ae Bsn? = 20, OAM «4.156 N/m (Ans.) Example 1.23. What do you mean by surface tension? If the pressure difference between the Inside and outside of the air bubble of diameter 0.01 mm is 29.2 kPa, what ill be the surface tension at air-water interface? (AMIE Winter 1994, Sol. Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface hetween twa immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like « membrane under tension, The magnitude of this force per unit jength of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by the letter 6 and is expressed as Nin, nx @ = a(nd) 4 d or O= pxe Substituting the values; d = 0.01% 107 m; p = 29.2% 10? Pa(or N/m), we get 3, 0.01% 107 i @ = 292% 10 x 2 = 0.073N/m (Ans.) 1-82, Capillarity Capillarity is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its specific gravity) rises into a thin glass tbe above or below its general level. This phenomenon is due to the combined effect of cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles. Fig. 1-21 shows the phenomenon of rising water in the tube of smaller diameters. Let d= diameter of the capillary tube, = angle of contact of the water ° e surface, h= height of capillary rise, @= surface tension force for unit length, and w= weight density (pg). — Now, upward surface tension force Uifting force) = weight of the water column in the tube (gravity force) f= Capillary rise nd, ocos0= Fd xhxw pn dgcoe® (1-20) E wd Adhesion > Cohesion For water and glass: 6=0. (Miniscus concave) 1 capilla i f water in the ee Fig. 121, Effect of capilanty , = 21) he wd ( In case of mercury there is a capillary depression as shown in Fig. 1-22, and the angle of 140°. (It may be noted that here cos@=cos140° =cos (180-40) depression is 0 = be not a 6 h is negative indicating capillary depression). = -cos4(?, therefore,Following Small Gi) Th Points are worth noting: cr the diameter o} © Measurem mm, (iii) Capillary, effe Gv) For wetting ti With clean glass. But 0 becomes as high as 25° when water is slightly contaminated, For non O>n/2. (For mercury : 130° to 150°) Refer Fig. the liquid ga surface. wetting liquid (mercury): © varies between 1:23 which illustrates s interface with a solid () The effects of surface tension are negligible in many flow except those involving, capillary rise; Problems formation of drops and bubbles; the break up of liquid jets, and hydraulic model studies where the Model or flow depth is small, Capillary inversion: Due to surface tension the liquid Passing out of an elliptical orifice tends to assume a circular or minimum perimeter cross-section. Here transformation of surface energy into kinetic energy takes place; the flow Pattern varies as the Weber number changes and the motion continues giving rise to a series of standing waves. This phenomenon is known a5 capillary inversion of jet for orifices non-circular cross-section. As shown in the Fig. 1-24 the jet issuing from a small elliptical orifice can be observed to undergo two inversion eycleg in @ given length. of The phenomenon of capillary inversion of jets is significant for industries involving the production and size control of liquid droplets like: — paint, — molten shot, and agricultural insecticides etc. f= Capillary F fechanics and raulic Machines uid Mechani d Hydraulic Me id illary rise or depression. f the capillary tube, greater is the me ne ives coe lent of liquid level in laboratory capillary (glass) smaller than g cts are negligible for tubes longer than 12 mm. quid (water) : 0 < /2. For water : 0 when pure water is in contact Glass tube depression O>n/2 / Mercury Cohesion > Adhesion (Miniscus convex) Fig. 1.22as pasta Example 1:25, A U-tube is made up of ive capillaries of bores L2 mm and 2-4 mm tube is held vertical and Jy filled with liquid of surface tension and zero comact angle, If the difference in the level of two 15 mm determine the mass density respectively Fig. 1-24. Capillary inversion of « liquid jet liquid. Sol. Bores of the capillaries : 1-2 mm =0-0012m 24 mm = 0-0024m Difference of level, hy = /ty = 15 mm = 0.015 m; Angle of contact, 0=0 of the Mass density of the liquid, p: ag = © iwhere w(=p g) = weight density of the liquid)] na jn, = AG 888 and y= wd of 1 1 _ ny-h=2[ 4-3] (+ 0=0) 1 L 02446 0.015 [ sans- soon | DX 41667 = 679-45 kg/m’ (Ans.) Example 1.26. Derive an expression for the capillary rise at of a liquid having surface benveen two vertical parallel plates a distance W apart. If the tension & and contact angle @ plates are of glass, what will be the capillary rise of water having o = 0.073N/m, (AMIE Summer, 1997) @ = 0°2. Take W = J mm. Sol. Refer Fig. 1.25. Consider two vertical parallel plates immersed in a liquid whose weight density is w. Given : 6 = surface tension; ontact angle. height of liquid between plates above general liquid surface. Let Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height h is balanced by the force’ at the surface of liquid between the plates.: Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines cee liquid of height f is balanced by the force = volume of liquid of height A between the plates * =Wxbxhxw » Where L = length of plate, and w= weight density of the liquid Vertical component of surface tensile force = (© x circumference) x cos 0 = 6 x2Lx cos0 on) For equilibrium eqns. (1) and (2) must balance WxLxhxw =o x 2Lxcos0 Fig. 1.25 on j= 22080 3) Wxw Eqn. (3) is the expression for capillary rise. (Ans.) When plates are of glass, 0=0.6 W = 1mm = 0.001 m, w Capillary rise of water, h 0.073 N/m. 9810N/m* 20 cos 0 Ww + _ 2x 0.073 x cos 0° = Toor onIo = 0.0149m or 14.9 mm Hence capillary rise = 14.9 mm (Ans.) Example 1.27. A single column U-tube manometer, made of glass tubing having a nominal inside diameter of 2.4 mm, has been used to measure pressure in a pipe or vessel containing air, If the limb opened 10 atmosphere is 10 percent oversize; find the error in mm of mercury in the measurement of air pressure due to surface tension effects. It is stated that mercury is the manometric fluid for which surface tension o= 0.52N/m and angle of contact a = 140°, Sol. Given ; dy = 24mm, d; = 24x 1.1 = 2.64 mm, o = 0.52N/m, a = 140° Error in measurement due to surface tension effects : " 0 The surface tension manifests the phenomenon of capillary action due to which rise ot depression of manometric liquid in a tube is given by 4ocos0 wd) 4x 0.52 x cos 140" __ Now, hi = (73.6 9810) x (2.4% 10) (Negative sign indi " ' 4 x 0.52 x cos 140° : ey depression) co cdc lah oe is hy (13.6 « 9810) x (2.64 10) x10? m n measurement due to surface tension effects = (4.97% 4.52) x10" = 0.45 x 107 m= 0.45 the capillary effect i U1 1-28. Calculate the cap! ffect in millimetres in q a inmersed in () water and (0) mercury. The tomperatea ine, 4 mm of surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C wn —.) . jiaquid 7 ith air are r water @ = ‘ cific weight of water at 20°C as equal 19 9790 Njq) and Sor mercury (Engg, Services) h = = -4.97%10?m Hence, error I mm (Ans,) Example i, phe diameter, W" 20° an eos Paz respectively. The contact angle fo 007. g = 130”. Take speProperties of Fluids 29 Sol. Diameter of glass tube, d= 4 mm = 0.004 m Surface tension at 20° C, 0: cater = 00735 N/m, Gnercury= 0-051 N/m Specific weight of water at 20°C =9790 N/m? The rise or depression / of a liquid in a capillary tube is given by j= 4.0089 wd where o= surface tension, = angle of contact, and w = specific weight. () Capillary effect for water: X 0.0735 cos 0° 7 9790 x 0-004 =7-51x 1073 m=7-51 mm (rise) (Ans) (ii) Capillary effect for mercury: 4.x 0.051 x cos 130° . 13:6 x 9790) x 0.004 ¢ 2-46 x 10°? m= 2-46 mm = 2-46 mm (depression) (Ans.) @varer= 0° -». given) h= Gnercun= 130° ...given)