Verification and Modeling of Three-Stage Permanent

Deformation Behavior of Asphalt Mixes

Fujie Zhou1; Tom Scullion2; and Lijun Sun3

Abstract: In laboratory testing of asphalt mixtures, the relationship between the number of load repetitions and permanent deformation
has been found to include three distinct stages, namely the primary, secondary and tertiary stages. Similar permanent deformation behavior
has also been observed in the field accelerated pavement testing data. It is argued that the three-stage permanent deformation behavior is
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

a basic material property and to comprehensively model asphalt layer behavior, it is necessary to develop a model that accurately
characterizes this behavior. In this paper, each of the well-known models critically reviewed appears that they are limited to characterizing
only the primary stage. Therefore, a new three-stage model is proposed to describe all three stages. Moreover, an algorithm is established
to determine the model parameters from typical laboratory data. The algorithm can also be used to identify the transition point between
stages, such as flow number. The proposed model and algorithm are demonstrated through laboratory test results. The analysis results
match the field performance.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-947X共2004兲130:4共486兲
CE Database subject headings: Asphalt mixes; Model verification; Deformation; Laboratory tests.

Introduction Background of Repeated Load Tests

With increasing truck traffic and tire pressure, a major concern of
Departments of Transportation 共DOTs兲 is the excessive permanent
deformation 共or rutting兲 and associated safety problem in asphalt
concrete pavements. Researchers 共Brown et al. 1989; Sousa et al.
1994; Chen et al. 2003兲 report that many ruts have occurred in the
asphalt layer共s兲 alone. It is therefore important to fully character-
ize the permanent deformation behavior of asphalt mixes and
identify problematic mixes before they are placed in roadways.
Among existing laboratory tests, the triaxial repeated load test
has been recommended as one of the simple performance tests for
permanent deformation 共Witczak et al. 2002兲. Furthermore, the
permanent deformation model of asphalt concrete proposed in the
upcoming AASHTO 2002 design guide 共Witczak 2001兲 was also
developed based on triaxial repeated load tests. Thus, it is critical
to correctly interpret the permanent deformation behavior of as-
phalt mixes measured from repeated load tests and develop an
associated prediction model.
1
Research Associate, Materials and Pavements Division, Texas Trans-
portation Institute, The Texas A&M Univ. System, 3135 TAMU, College
Station, TX 77843-3135. E-mail: f-zhou@tamu.edu
2
Research Engineer, Materials and Pavements Division, Texas Trans-
portation Institute, The Texas A&M Univ. System, 3135 TAMU, College
Station, TX 77843-3135. E-mail: t-scullion@tamu.edu
3
Professor, Dept. of Road and Traffic Engineering, Tongji Univ.,
1239 Siping Rd. Shanghai, 200092, P. R. China. E-mail: ljsun@
mail.tongji.edu.cn
Note. Discussion open until December 1, 2004. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on December 19, 2001; approved on July 29, 2003. This
paper is part of the Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 130,
No. 4, July 1, 2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/2004/4-486 – 494/$18.00.
and Three-Stage Permanent Deformation
Behavior
The repeated load permanent deformation test has been widely
used to determine permanent deformation characteristics of pav-
ing material since it was employed by Monismith et al. 共1975兲 in
the mid-1970’s. Normally, for asphalt mix, a haversine pulse
compressive load of 0.1 s and 0.9 s rest time is applied at 40°C or
more to determine its permanent deformation property. During the
testing, the cumulative permanent deformation is recorded as a
function of the number of load repetitions 共or time兲.
Fig. 1 shows the typical relationship between the total cumu-
lative permanent strain and the number of load repetitions. The
cumulative permanent strain, similar to the three-stage creep test
results 共Bernasconi and Piatti 1978兲, is composed of three stages:
Primary, secondary, and tertiary. In the primary stage, permanent
strain accumulates rapidly. However, permanent strain per cycle
tends to decrease, reaching a constant value that is defined as the
onset of the secondary stage. Finally, the permanent strain per
cycle starts to increase, and the permanent strain accumulates
rapidly again. This increase marks the onset of the tertiary stage.
The number of load repetitions at which the tertiary flow begins is
referred to as the ‘‘flow number’’ 共or F n ) by Witczak et al. 共2000,
2002兲. The flow number has also been recommended as a rutting
indicator of asphalt mixes.
In Figs. 1共a and b兲, the number of load repetitions and the
accumulated permanent strain at the transition point between the
primary and secondary stages are defined as N PS ,␧ PS , respec-
tively. Similarly, N ST 共or F n ) and ␧ ST represent the transition
point from the secondary to tertiary stage. Much attention should
be paid to the initial points of the secondary and tertiary stages.
The point at the end of the straight line in Fig. 1共a兲 共linear scale兲
is the tertiary point. However, the point at the end of the straight
line in Fig. 1共b兲 共log–log scale兲 is the initial point of the second-
ary stage rather than the tertiary point.

486 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004

J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 1. Typical three-stage curve of accumulated permanent strain
versus the number of load repetitions
Objectives
Up until now, the concept of three-stage permanent deformation
behavior of asphalt mixes was based only on laboratory repeated
load test results. However, it is well known that the test condi-
tions of repeated load tests in the laboratory are much different
from what asphalt concrete experiences in the field. Therefore, the
first objective of this paper is to verify the three-stage permanent
deformation behavior of asphalt concrete in roads. In addition, the
following issues are also examined in this paper.
• Can the three stages be characterized by existing permanent
deformation models? If not, which form of model should be
selected to describe all three stages?
• How can the parameters of permanent deformation model be
determined?
Besides these issues, case studies are presented to demonstrate
how to determine model parameters.
Verification of Three-Stage Permanent Deformation
Behavior of Asphalt Pavements
There are many available field pavement performance data and/or
accelerated pavement test results in literature. However, it is not
easy to verify the three-stage permanent deformation behavior of
asphalt mixes, because those tests are not designed to verify the
three-stage permanent deformation behavior of asphalt mixes, and
most of them do not separate the permanent deformation of the
asphalt layer from the total permanent deformation. Therefore, the
available data must be initially screened before this verification.
In addition, the temperature factor must be considered during
the verification, because temperature significantly affects the rut-
ting accumulation of asphalt mixes. For example, increasing the
JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 487
J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.
Fig. 2. Loading and average pavement temperature histories
temperature might lead to an increase in the rapid rutting of the
asphalt layer, which may be confused with the onsets of the sec-
ondary and tertiary stages. Therefore, the rut data should be dis-
carded if the temperature rises during the period of data collec-
tion. Finally, with the consideration of the conditions mentioned
previously, only accelerated load facility 共ALF兲 tests conducted
by Federal Highway Administration 共FHWA兲 are used to deter-
mine whether or not the three-stage permanent deformation phe-
nomena did indeed happen.
Federal Highway Administration-Accelerated Load
Facility Phase II Research Program without
Temperature Control
In 1989, the FHWA initiated a research program 共Bonaquist 1992兲
to assess the relative damage potential of wide-base single tires
through a comparative analysis of pavement performance 共rutting
and cracking兲. The test sections for this study were conventional
flexible pavements consisting of 89 mm and 178 mm thick as-
phalt concretes over a 305 mm crushed aggregate base. Pavement
performance data were collected on the 89 mm and 178 mm
asphalt sections under a load of 54.5 kN with a tire pressure of
703 kPa. The experiment section with the 89 mm asphalt layer
was conducted from September 20, 1990 through January 18,
1991. The 178 mm asphalt section was tested from April 15
through August 17, 1991. Fig. 2 illustrates the loading and tem-
perature histories during the period of testing. It is observed that
the temperature for the 89 mm asphalt section generally decreased
during the test period; however, just the opposite is true for the
178 mm asphalt section. Thus, only the 89 mm asphalt section is
used in the analysis in order to exclude the influence of increasing
temperature on rutting development.
Fig. 3 shows the associated ALF results for the 89 mm asphalt
section. Although Bonaquist 共1992兲 mentioned that asphalt layer
contributed 32% to the total rutting just before failure of the wide-
base single-tire test section, it is difficult to make the quantitative
analysis without the original quantitative rutting data. However, it
is clear for both wide-base single tire and conventional dual tires
that rut depth rapidly increased at the end of the ALF loading,
which is an indication of the secondary and/or tertiary stage.
Therefore, the three stages of permanent deformation occurred in
the field. It may be argued that this is not the onset of the sec-
ondary and/or tertiary stages of asphalt concrete, because the
rapid rutting increase could result from base course failure rather
than the asphalt layer. In order to further check the permanent

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 3. Summary of 89 mm asphalt section performance test
deformation behavior of the asphalt layer, the FHWA-ALF Phase
III test results are cited in the following section.
Federal Highway Administration-Accelerated Load
Facility Phase III Research Program with Temperature
Control
From 1993 through 2001, the FHWA conducted a series of accel-
erated pavement tests to validate Superpave asphalt binder and
mixture tests and associated criteria for rutting and fatigue crack-
ing. Twelve pavements were constructed in 1993 at the Turner-
Fairbank Highway Research Center in McLean, Va. 共Stuart et al.
1999, 2002兲. Each pavement had a length of 44 m, a width of 4
m, and was divided into four test sites. The FHWA ALF was used
to load these pavements. The pavements were tested under con-
ditions that promoted either the rutting or the formation of fatigue
cracks. Fig. 4 shows a layout of the pavements, designated as
lanes 1 through 12. Table 1 presents the pavement cross sections
and the materials used in each layer. For fatigue cracking tests, all
pavements were tested at the temperature of 28, 19, or 10°C, and
loaded using a super-single load of 53 kN with a tire pressure of
690 kPa. For rutting validation tests, the pavement temperature
Fig. 4. Layout of the test lanes at the Federal Highway Administration pavement test facility
488 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004
J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.
ranged from 46 to 76°C and was controlled during trafficking
using infrared lamps; and the 43 kN ALF load was applied using
a super-single tire with a tire pressure of 690 kPa.
Rut depth in the asphalt layer, without the consideration of any
upward heaving outside the wheel path, was measured during
each distress survey using a survey rod and level. For tested sites
at both intermediate and high temperatures, the relationships be-
tween the measured rutting depths in an asphalt layer and the
number of ALF repetitions are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respec-
tively. For all of the curves in Fig. 5, the rate of rutting accumu-
lation initially decreased, then generally increased constantly,
which indicates that the secondary stage of permanent deforma-
tion occurred. Furthermore, some of them 共such as, L1-
AC5@28C, L4-AC20@28C, and L4-AC20@19C兲 were beyond
the secondary stage and approaching the tertiary stage. For rutting
development at high temperatures, the same phenomena were ob-
served. As shown in Fig. 6, the secondary stage permanent defor-
mation occurred in three test sites. Therefore, three stages of per-
manent deformation occurred in the field. The main reason why
the three stages of permanent deformation were observed in these
sites instead of others is the interaction between fatigue cracking
and rutting, which is not the focus of this paper and will be
discussed in a later paper.
Summary of Average Pavement Temperature Results
Based on the results of the FHWA-ALF Phase II test, it is clear
that the secondary and/or tertiary stages occurred in the late pe-
riod of pavement service. FHWA-ALF Phase III test data further
verified that three stages of permanent deformation could happen
in the asphalt layer. Therefore, the three-stage permanent defor-
mation behavior is a basic property of asphalt mix, and it should
be fully characterized in order to accurately predict the rutting
development during the pavement design life. The next section
discusses this topic.
 Table 1. Pavement Lanes for the Superpave Validation Study 共after Stuart et al. 2002兲.
Characteristics of the hot-mix asphalt pavement layer
Thickness of VDOT 21-A
Asphalt binder unbound crushed Thickness of
Layer VDOT designation Superpave Intermediate-temperature aggregate AASHTO A-4 uniform
Lane thickness aggregate prior to performance continuous grade base layer subgrade
no. 共mm兲 gradation superpave grade after RTFO and PAV 共mm兲 共mm兲 Test type
1 100 SM-3* AC-5 58-34 9 560 610 Fatigue
2 100 SM-3 AC-20 64-22 17 560 610 Fatigue
3 200 SM-3 AC-5 58-34 9 460 610 Fatigue
4 20 SM-3 AC-20 64-22 17 460 610 Fatigue
5 200 SM-3 AC-10 58-28 15 460 610 Rutting
6 200 SM-3 AC-20 64-22 17 460 610 Rutting
7 200 SM-3 Styrelf 82-22 18 460 610 Rutting
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

8 200 SM-3 Novophalt 76-22 20 460 610 Rutting

9 200 SM-3 AC-5 58-34 9 460 610 Rutting
10 200 SM-3 AC-20 64-22 17 460 610 Rutting
11 200 BM-3** AC-5 58-34 9 460 610 Rutting
12 200 BM-3 AC-20 64-22 17 460 610 Rutting
Note: SM-3⫽surface mixture gradation with the nominal maximum aggregate size of 19 mm; and BM-3⫽base mixture gradation with the nominal
maximum aggregate size of 37.5 mm.

Three-Stage Permanent Deformation Model
During the past 30 years, many models have been proposed to
characterize permanent deformation behavior of asphalt mixes
under repeated load tests. It is necessary to evaluate the capabili-
ties of these existing models to describe the three-stage permanent
deformation behavior of asphalt mix before new models are de-
veloped.
Existing Permanent Deformation Models
With the consideration of the possible application in DOTs in the
current situation, only three types of the well-known models
herein are discussed, although there are many advanced rutting
prediction models in the literature or under development:
1. Semi-log model 共Barksdale 1972兲:
␧p⫽a1⫹b1 log N (1)
or
b1
␧pn⫽ 共N⬎1兲 (2)
N
where ␧ p ⫽accumulated permanent strain; N⫽number of load
repetitions; ␧ pn ⫽permanent strain due to a single load applica-
tion, i.e., at the Nth application; and a 1 and b 1 ⫽positive regres-
sion constants.
Power-law model 共Monismith et al. 1975兲, which includes
VESYS model 共Kenis 1977兲, Ohio State model 共Majidzadeh et al.
1980兲, Superpave model 共Lytton et al. 1993兲, and AASHTO 2002
model 共Witczak 2001兲:
Power law model: ␧ p ⫽aN b (3)
VESYS model: ␧ pn ⫽␮•␧ r N ⫺␣
(4)
Ohio State model: ␧ p ⫽aN 1⫺m (5)
Superpave model: log ␧p⫽log ␧p共1兲⫹S log N (6)
␧p
AASHTO 2002 model: log ⫽log C⫹0.4262 log N (7)
␧r
where ␧ p ⫽accumulated permanent strain; N⫽number of load
repetitions; ␧ pn ⫽permanent strain due to a single load applica-
tion, i.e., at the Nth application; ␧ r ⫽resilient strain, generally
assumed to be independent of the load repetition 共N兲; ␧ p (1)
⫽the permanent strain at the first load application; a, b, m, and
S⫽positive regression constants; ␮⫽permanent deformation pa-
rameter representing the constant of proportionality between per-
manent strain and elastic strain 共i.e., permanent strain at N⫽1);
and ␣⫽1⫺b⫽permanent deformation parameter indicating the
rate of decrease in incremental permanent deformation as the
number of load repetitions increases. Normally, the ␣ value is
greater than 0. C⫽T 2.02755/5615.391 is a function of temperature
共°F兲, the detailed derivation is presented in Appendix I.

Fig. 5. Federal Highway Administration-Accelerated Load Facility Fig. 6. Federal Highway Administration-Accelerated Load Facility
Phase III test results at intermediate temperatures Phase III test results at high temperatures

JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 489

J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.

 Tseng and Lytton’s model 共Tseng and Lytton 1989兲
␤ tion 23; N⫽number of load repetitions; ESAL⫽equivalent single
␧ p ⫽␧ 0 e ⫺ 共 ␳/N 兲
冑A
␤
N
␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 ␤␳ ␤
N 共 ␤⫹1 兲
where ␧ p ⫽accumulated permanent strain; N⫽number of load
repetitions; ␧ pn ⫽permanent strain due to a single load applica-
tion, i.e., at the Nth application; ␧ r ⫽resilient strain, generally
assumed to be independent of the load repetition 共N兲; ␧ 0 , ␤, and
␤ As mentioned previously, the power-law model has been
␳ are the positive regression constants; and A⫽1/e ␳ is a constant
and less than 1, the detailed derivation is presented in Appendix
II.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Discussion of Existing Models
The best way to determine whether or not the existing models can
describe the three-stage permanent deformation curve is based on
permanent strain per cycle (␧ pn ), which has been used to define
each stage. For the semilog and power-law models, Eqs. 共2兲 and
共4兲 clearly show that ␧ pn decreases continuously with an increase
in the number of load repetitions, since the parameters b 1 , ␮, ␣,
and ␧ r are all positive. Thus, both the semilog and power-law
models can only represent the primary stage of the measured
rutting curve.
For Tseng and Lytton’s model, it is not easy to simply judge
whether or not the model can represent the three-stage permanent
deformation curve based on Eq. 共9兲. However, ␧ 0 , ␤, and ␳ in Eq.
共9兲 are positive regression constants. Thus, ␧ pn is a function of
N冑␤
A/N ␤⫹1 . With the increase of the number of load repetitions,
␤ After the secondary stage, permanent strain per cycle increases
the rate of increase of N 冑A is clearly slower than that of N ␤⫹1 ,
because A is in the range between 0 and 1. This means that
N冑␤
A/N ␤⫹1 reduces gradually. Furthermore, ␧ pn decreases gradu-
ally with an increase in the number of load repetitions. Therefore,
Tseng and Lytton’s model cannot characterize either the second-
ary or tertiary stage. In summary, these typical models appear to
adequately characterize only the primary stage, and none of them
can describe effectively the secondary and/or tertiary stages.
In addition, two types of models were also employed to de-
scribe permanent deformation of asphalt mixes. One is the log–
log third-order-polynomial model 关Eq. 共10兲兴 proposed by McLean
and Monismith 共Monismith et al. 1975兲. The third-order-
polynomial model can characterize the three-stage permanent de-
formation curve, but it is a pure regression equation, and it is
difficult to utilize this equation to locate the onsets of the second-
ary and tertiary stages. The others were proposed by Bayomy
共1982兲 and Kaloush and Witczak 共2002兲. Actually, both the Bay-
omy model 关Eq. 共11兲兴 and Kaloush and Witczak model 关Eq. 共12兲兴
are similar and are composed of two components: The first is the
power-law model (b⬍1), which can describe the primary stage;
the second is the exponential function which represents the ter-
tiary stage. There is no component to characterize the secondary
stage. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a three-stage perma-
nent deformation model for rutting prediction
log ␧ p ⫽C 0 ⫹C 1 共 log N 兲 ⫹C 2 共 log N 兲 2 ⫹C 3 共 log N 兲 3
For the prefailure 共 or primary plus secondary兲 zone:
␧ p ⫽aN b
For failure 共 or tertiary兲 zone ␧ p ⫽A 1 e b 1 N
RD23⫽a•ESALb ⫹c * 共 e d•ESAL⫺1 兲
490 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004
J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.
where ␧ p ⫽permanent strain; RD23⫽rut depth of WesTrack sec-
(8) axle load; and a, b, c, d, A 1 , b 1 , and C 0 – C 3 ⫽regression con-
stants.
(9)
Proposed Three-Stage Permanent Deformation Model
The simple way to develop the three-stage permanent deforma-
tion model is based on the definition of each stage. A separate
model is proposed for each stage.
widely used in many pavement performance prediction software
packages, such as VESYS 共Kenis 1977兲, Superpave 共Lytton et al.
1993兲, and upcoming AASHTO 2002 共Witczak 2001兲. Thus, the
power-law model is selected to describe the primary stage of the
permanent deformation curve. That is,
␧ p ⫽aN b , N⭐N PS (13a)
where a and b⫽material constant; and N ps⫽number of load rep-
etitions corresponding to the initiation of the secondary stage.
Based on the definition of the secondary stage, permanent
strain accumulates linearly. Thus, the following simple linear
model is recommended to characterize the secondary stage.
␧ p ⫽␧ PS⫹c 共 N⫺N PS兲 , N PS⭐N⭐N ST , and ␧ PS⫽aN PS
b
(13b)
where c⫽material constant; N ST 共or flow number兲 is the number
of load repetitions corresponding to the initiation of the tertiary
stage; and ␧ PS is permanent strain corresponding to the initiation
of the secondary stage.
rapidly and asphalt mixes gradually break. The following form of
model 关Eq. 共13c兴 is proposed to characterize the tertiary stage
␧ p ⫽␧ ST⫹d 共 e f 共 N⫺N ST兲 ⫺1 兲 , N⭓N ST
and
␧ ST⫽␧ PS⫹c 共 N ST⫺N PS兲 (13c)
where d and f ⫽material constants; and ␧ ST⫽permanent strain
corresponding to the initiation of the tertiary stage.
Therefore, based on the definition of the three-stage permanent
strain curve, the complete three-stage permanent deformation
model is proposed in the following equations. The next sections
present the algorithms to determine the model parameters and
case study.
Primary stage: ␧ p ⫽aN b , N⬍N PS (14a)
Secondary stage: ␧ p ⫽␧ PS⫹c 共 N⫺N PS兲 , N PS⭐N⬍N ST
(14b)
Tertiary stage: ␧ p ⫽␧ ST⫹d 共 e f 共 N⫺N ST兲 ⫺1 兲 , N⭓N ST
(14c)
(10) Algorithm Used to Determine the Transition Points
and Parameters of the Three-Stage Permanent
Deformation Model
(11a) The three-stage permanent deformation model is comprised of
(11b) Eqs. 共14a兲–共14c兲. Each equation and the associated two 共or one兲
parameters can be easily determined by simple regression analy-
(12) sis, if N PS , ␧ PS , N ST , and ␧ ST are known. Therefore, the key to

Fig. 7. Determination of the secondary stage based on permanent
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
strain per cycle
determining the parameters of the three-stage permanent deforma-
tion model becomes how to locate the transition points between
stages. There are two ways to identify the transition points: One is
based on permanent strain per cycle; the other is based on the
three-stage permanent deformation model. The first has been tried
by Bayomy 共1982兲, Witczak et al. 共2000, 2002兲, and Kaloush and
Witczak 共2002兲. Bayomy 共1982兲 found that this procedure was
quite misleading due to the infinitesimal ⌬␧ P /⌬N. As shown in
Fig. 7, the same problem is found by the writers as well. There-
fore, only the second method is discussed herein.
Based on the definition of the secondary stage, its initiation is
at the end of the primary stage, and its end is the onset of the
tertiary stage. Therefore, the key becomes how to determine the
boundaries of the secondary stage. The first step is to determine
the initial point of the secondary stage using the power-law model
关Eq. 共14a兲兴. Then, the linear model 关Eq. 共14b兲兴 is used to deter-
mine the tertiary point. This two-step process also is the key to
developing the three-stage model. Its advantage is that both the
transition points and the parameters of the three-stage permanent
deformation model can be determined at the same time.
Algorithm to Identify the Initial Point of the Secondary
Stage
The power-law algorithm has been developed to search for the
end of the primary stage 共or the initial point of the secondary
stage兲. An iterative process is proposed and demonstrated below.
Assumption. There are K sets of permanent strain data collected
from 100 to N max 共the number of total load applications 共say
N max⫽20,000)兲 under repeated load test.
Step 1: Determine the regression coefficients 共a,b兲 of power-law
model using the collected K sets of data.
Step 2: Calculate the cumulative permanent strain at the number
of load repetitions corresponding to the current Kth set using the
power-law equation determined in Step 1.
Step 3: Compare the measured accumulative permanent strain
with that predicted at the number of load repetitions correspond-
ing to the current Kth set.
If the deviation (D e ) defined in the form of Eq. 共15兲 is less
than 3% and the number of load repetitions corresponding to the
current Kth group is equal to N max , there is no secondary stage.
Stop!
⌬ 兩 ␧ pMeasured⫺␧ pPredicted兩
D e⫽ ⫽ ⫻100%
␧ pMeasured ␧ pMeasured
JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 491
J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.
Fig. 8. Repeated load test results at 40°C
If D e is less than 3% and the number of load repetitions cor-
responding to the current Kth set is less than N max , the onset of
the secondary stage is determined. That is, the point correspond-
ing to current Kth group.
Otherwise, go to Step 4.
Step 4: Remove the Kth set of data, then, set K⫽K⫺1. Repeat
Steps 2 and 3 until the initial point of the secondary stage is
determined.
Algorithm to Identify the Tertiary Point
In a similar manner, accumulated permanent strain method is also
employed to locate the tertiary point 共or the end of the secondary
stage兲. Based on the definition of the secondary stage, the increas-
ing rate of cumulative permanent strain with the number of load
repetitions is linear. Therefore, a simple linear model defined in
the form of Eq. 共16兲 is proposed
␧ ⬘p ⫽cN ⬘ ⫹d (16)
The same assumption is made. That is, there are K sets of
permanent strain data collected from 100 to N max 关the number of
total load applications 共say N max⫽20,000)兴 under repeated load
tests. In addition, it is also assumed that the primary stage just
determined using the previous algorithm includes x sets of data.
Hence, there are still M ⫽K⫺x⫹1 sets of data left, which in-
clude the point at the end of the primary stage corresponding to
␧ PS and N PS .
The following steps describe the detailed algorithm:
Step 1: Preprocess the left-hand side M sets of data, and let the
initial point of the secondary stage become the new origin of the
coordinate axis.
Deduct the ␧ PS and N PS value from accumulated permanent
strain and the number of load repetitions in all left-hand side data.
Name permanent strain and the number of load repetitions after
adjustment as ␧ ⬘p and N ⬘ , respectively.
Step 2: Regress the linear model parameters 共c,d兲 using M sets of
data after adjusting the origin.
The absolute ratio of d to the current maximum ␧ ⬘p is defined
as R d in the form of Eq. 共17兲. If R d is less than 1% 共or the d value
is larger than 0兲 and the number of load repetitions corresponding
to the current M th group is equal to (N max⫺NPS), there is no
tertiary stage. Stop!
d
R d⫽ ⫻100% (17)
␧ ⬘p
If R d is less than 1% 共or the d value is bigger than 0兲 and the
(15)
number of load repetitions corresponding to the current M th
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 9. Sample S162:共a兲 relationship between cumulative permanent microstrain and the number of load repetitions after preprocessing; 共b兲
determination of initial point of the secondary stage; 共c兲 cumulative permanent microstrain versus the number of load repetitions after deducting
the data of the primary stage; 共d兲 determination of the tertiary point; and 共e兲 the tertiary stage model

group is less than (N max⫺NPS), the tertiary point is determined,
that is, the point corresponding to the current M th group. Then,
deduce the original number of load repetitions by plus N PS .
Otherwise, go to Step 3.
Step 3: Remove the M th group of data from the data set, let M
⫽M ⫺1. Repeat Step 2 until the tertiary point is determined.
After both transition points are identified, the parameters of
the three-stage permanent deformation model can easily be deter-
mined by regression analysis. The following case studies details
the determination of transition points and parameters of the three-
stage model.
Case Studies: Determination of Transition Points
and Parameters of the Three-Stage Permanent
Deformation Model
In this case study, the determination of transition points and pa-
rameters of the three-stage permanent deformation model is dem-
onstrated through repeated load test results. A compression load
was applied to achieve a controlled compression stress level of
138 kPa at 40°C. The compression loading was applied in the
form of a haversine with a loading time of 0.1 s and a time
interval between load applications of 0.9 s. This test was con-
ducted for 20,000 load cycles or until a large deformation caused
the linear variable differential transformers to go out of range.
The asphalt mixes used were obtained from seven sections of a
long-term pavement performance experimental site on U.S. 281
in south Texas. These sections had identical traffic loading. The
rut depths after three years service were 6, 7, 13, 21, 4, 24, and 4
mm for seven sections S113, S122, S161, S162, S164NR, S164R,
and S166, respectively. The problematic top 50.8 mm asphalt
mixes found by Chen et al. 共2003兲 were utilized to remold cylin-
der samples for repeated load tests. After many trials, samples
with 101.6 mm diameter by 177.8 mm high were molded using
the Superpave Gyratory Compactor based on the same air void as
that of the field cores. The test results are presented in Fig. 8.

492 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004

J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.

 Table 2. Three-Stage Models and Transition Points
Primary stage Secondary stage
Sample Model End point Initial point End point
S113 ␧ p ⫽15.699N 0.3374 a a a a
S122 ␧ P ⫽53.810N 0.3055 a a a
S161 ␧ p ⫽52.144N 0.3431 N⫽4500 N⫽4500 a
S162 ␧ p ⫽59.904N 0.431 N⫽1500 N⫽1500 N⫽9000
S164NR ␧ p ⫽17.887N 0.3187 a a a
S164R ␧ p ⫽63.913N 0.4771 N⫽1000 N⫽1000 N⫽5500
S166 ␧ p ⫽10.434N 0.396 a a a
a
Not found at the end of 20,000 load repetitions.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Three issues are discussed in this case study:
1. Does the secondary stage appear? If it appears, where is the
onset point?
2. Does the tertiary stage appear? If it appears, where is the
initial point?
3. How can the parameters of the three-stage permanent defor-
mation model be determined?
Only one case, S162, is detailed herein. The test results for
sample S162 are shown in Figs. 1 and 8. In this case, K is equal
to 31, and N max being 13,000. The analysis result shown in Figs.
9共a兲 indicates a secondary stage. After 22 iterations, the onset of
the secondary stage was determined and shown in Fig. 9共b兲. The
regressed model for the primary stage is as follows:
␧ p ⫽59.904N 0.431, N⭐N PS⫽1,500
␧ PS⫽59.904⫻1,500∧0.431⫽1,401
Then, 22 sets of data were used to determine the tertiary point.
As shown in Fig. 9共c兲, the calculated R d is 2.2%, which is greater
than the criterion of 1%. Thus, for the sample S162, the tertiary
stage occurred. Finally, the tertiary point was identified and
shown in Fig. 9共d兲 after six iterations. The number of load rep-
etitions corresponding to the tertiary point 共or flow number兲 is
9,000. The model for the secondary stage is also determined in
the following forms:
␧ p ⫽␧ PS⫹0.4649共 N⫺N PS兲 , N PS⭐N⭐N ST
␧ ST⫽1,401⫹0.4649共 9,000⫺1,500兲 ⫽4,887.8
Finally, the origin of the coordinate axis shifts from the initial
point of the secondary stage to the tertiary point. Then, the model
关Eq. 共20兲兴 for the tertiary stage, as shown in Fig. 9共d兲, can be
developed using the remaining five sets of data.
␧ p ⫽␧ ST⫹251.01共 e 0.0006共 N⫺N ST兲 ⫺1 兲 , N⭓N ST⫽9,000 (20)
The same process as S162 has been utilized in the analysis of
other samples. Table 2 tabulates all the analysis results of seven
samples, including the initial points of the secondary and tertiary
stages and the associated three-stage model parameters.
It can be seen from previous analysis that asphalt mixes from
S164R and S162 performed the worst in field and reached tertiary
stage in the laboratory tests. The asphalt mix from S161 was
determined to be in the secondary stage. Moreover, for sections
with little rutting 共S113, S122, S164NR, and S166兲, only the pri-
mary stage was identified. These laboratory findings appear to be
consistent with the measured field rut depth. These results also
preliminarily validated one of the simple performance tests for
permanent deformation: repeated load test and associated indica-
tor 共flow number兲.
JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 493
J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.
Tertiary stage
Flow
Model number Model
a a
a a a
␧ p ⫽934.56⫹0.0653(N⫺4500) a a
␧ p ⫽1401.00⫹0.4649(N⫺1500) N⫽9000 ␧ p ⫽4887.8⫹251.01(e 0.0006(N⫺9000) ⫺1)
a a a
␧ p ⫽1751.41⫹0.8614(N⫺1000) N⫽5500 ␧ p ⫽5627.7⫹492.98(e 0.0007(N⫺5500) ⫺1)
a a a
Summary and Conclusions
This paper discusses the characterization of three-stage permanent
deformation behavior of asphalt mixes. The following conclu-
sions are offered:
• The plot of permanent deformation versus the number of load
repetitions has been found to include three distinct stages: Pri-
mary, secondary, and tertiary. Besides, in laboratory repeated
load tests at high temperatures, the three-stage permanent de-
formation was further verified by the FHWA accelerated pave-
ment tests at different temperatures. Therefore, the three-stage
permanent deformation behavior is the basic mechanical prop-
erties of asphalt mixes.
(18a) • A new three-stage model is proposed to describe the primary,
secondary, and tertiary stages. Then, an algorithm is presented
(18b) for determining the proposed three-stage model. The algorithm
can also be used to identify the transition point between stages,
especially the new rut indicator of asphalt mixes: Flow num-
ber.
• The proposed model and algorithm are demonstrated through
repeated load test results from seven different field mixes with
the same environmental and traffic conditions. The asphalt
mixes from S162 and S164R performed the worst in the field
and reached the tertiary stage in laboratory tests. The asphalt
mix from S161 was determined to be in the secondary stage.
(19a) Moreover, for good mixes including S113, S122, S164NR, and
S166, only the primary stage was identified. These laboratory
(19b)
findings appear to be consistent with the measured field rut
depths. These results also preliminarily validated one of the
simple performance tests for permanent deformation: Re-
peated load test and associated indicator 共flow number兲.
Acknowledgments
The writers would like to acknowledge Dr. Kelvin D. Stuart and
Mr. Xicheng Qi of the FHWA for providing valuable FHWA-ALF
Phase III rutting data used in this paper.
Appendix I. Derivation of Constant ‘‘C’’
AASHTO 2002 Rutting Model for Asphalt Concrete
冉 冊
␧p
log ⫽⫺3.74938⫹0.4262 log共 N 兲 ⫹2.02755 log共 T 兲
␧r
(21)
Let
 log C⫽⫺3.74938⫹2.02755 log共 T 兲 (22) Bonaquist, R. 共1992兲. ‘‘An assessment of the increased damage potential
of wide based single tires.’’ Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Asphalt Pave-
C⫽10共 ⫺3.74938⫹2.02755 log共 T 兲兲 ⫽10⫺3.74938⫻102.02755 log共 T 兲 ments, Univ. Nottingham, 3, 1–16.
Brown, E., et al. 共1989兲. ‘‘A study of in-place rutting of asphalt pave-
T 2.02755 T 2.02755 ments.’’ J. Asphalt Paving Technol., 58, 1–30.
⫽ 3.74938 ⫽ (23) Chen, D., Bilyeu, J., Scullion, T., Lin, D., and Zhou, F. 共2003兲. ‘‘Forensic
10 5,615.391

冉 冊
evaluation of premature failures of texas specific pavement study-1
␧p sections.’’ J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 17共2兲, 67–74.
log ⫽log C⫹0.4262 log共 N 兲 (24) Kaloush, K., and Witczak, M. W. 共2002兲. ‘‘Tertiary flow characteristics of
␧r
asphalt mixtures.’’ J. Asphalt Paving Technol., 71, 248 –280.
Kenis, W. J. 共1977兲. ‘‘Predictive design procedures, VESYS users
manual.’’ Rep. No. FHWA-RD-77-154, Federal Highway Administra-
Appendix II. Derivation of Constant ‘‘A’’
tion, McLean, Va.
␤
␧ p ⫽␧ 0 e ⫺ 共 ␳/N 兲 (25) Lytton, R. L., et al. 共1993兲. ‘‘Development and validation of performance

冉 冉 冊冊
prediction models and specifications for asphalt binders and paving
␤
␳
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Seattle University on 09/15/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

mixes.’’ Rep. No. SHRP-A-357, Strategic Highway Research Program,

d ⫺ National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
d␧ p ␤ N
⫽␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 e ⫺ 共 ␳/N 兲 (26) Majidzadeh, K., Aly, M., Bayomy, F., and El-Laithy, A. 共1980兲. ‘‘Imple-
dN dN
mentation of a pavement design system, Vol. 1 and 2.’’ Final Rep. No.
␤
N ⫺␤ 兲
d 共 N ⫺␤ 兲 EES 578, The Ohio State Univ. Engineering Experiment Station, Co-
␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 e ⫺ 共 ␳ 共 ⫺␳ ␤ 兲 (27) lumbus, Ohio.
dN
Monismith, C. L., Ogawa, N., and Freeme, C. R. 共1975兲. ‘‘Permanent
␤ ⫺␤ deformation characterization of subgrade soils due to repeated load-
␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 共 e ⫺␳ 兲 N 共 ⫺␳ ␤ 兲共 ⫺␤ 兲共 N ⫺␤⫺1 兲 (28)
ing.’’ Transportation Research Record. 537, Transportation Research

␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 ␤␳ ␤ 冉 冊1
e␳
␤
1/N ␤
N ⫺ 共 ␤⫹1 兲 (29)
Board, Washington, D.C., 1–17.
Sousa, J. B., et al. 共1994兲. ‘‘Permanent deformation response of asphalt
aggregate mixes.’’ Rep. No. SHRP-A-415, Strategic Highway Re-
Let search Program, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Stuart, K. D., Mogawer, W. S., and Romero, P. 共1999兲. ‘‘Validation of the

A⫽ 冉 冊 e␳
1
␤ (30)
superpave asphalt binder and mixture tests that measure rutting sus-
ceptibility using an accelerated loading facility.’’ Rep. No. FHWA-RD-
99-204, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Va.
␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 ␤␳ ␤ A 1/N N ⫺ 共 ␤⫹1 兲
␤
(31) Stuart, K. D., Mogawer, W. S., and Romero, P. 共2002兲. ‘‘Validation of the
superpave asphalt binder fatigue cracking parameter using an acceler-
␤
冑AN ⫺ 共 ␤⫹1 兲 ated loading facility.’’ Rep. No. FHWA-RD-01-093, Federal Highway
N
␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 ␤␳ ␤ (32)
Administration, McLean, Va.
N␤ 冑A Tseng, K. H., and Lytton, R. L. 共1989兲. ‘‘Prediction of permanent defor-
␧ pn ⫽␧ 0 ␤␳ ␤ (33) mation in flexible pavement materials, in implication of aggregate in
N 共 ␤⫹1 兲 the design, construction, and performance of flexible pavements.’’
STP 106, H. G. Schreuders and C. R. Marek, eds., ASTM, Philadel-
phia, 154 –172.
References Witczak, M. W., Bonaquist, B., Von Quintus, H., and Kaloush, K. 共2000兲.
‘‘Specimen geometry and aggregate size effects in uniaxial compres-
Barksdale, R. D. 共1972兲. ‘‘Laboratory evaluation of rutting in base course sion and constant height shear tests.’’ J. Asphalt Paving Technol., 69,
materials.’’ Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Structure Design of Asphalt Pave- 733–782.
ments, Univ. of Michigan, Mich. 161–174. Witczak, M. W. 共2001兲. ‘‘Development of the 2002 guide for the design
Bayomy, F. 共1982兲. ‘‘Development and analysis of a cement coating tech- of new and rehabilitated pavements-flexible pavements overview.’’
nique: An approach towards distress minimization and failure delay in Hot topics, 具http://www.2002designguide.com典 共Mar. 5, 2001兲.
flexible pavements.’’ PhD dissertation, Ohio State Univ., Ohio. Witczak, M. W., Kaloush, K., Pellinen, T., El-Basyouny, M., and Von
Bernasconi, G., and Piatti, G. 共1978兲. Creep of engineering materials and Quintus, H. 共2002兲. ‘‘Simple performance test for superpave mix de-
structures, Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London, ISBN 0-85334- sign.’’ NCHRP Rep. No. 465, Transportation Research Board, Na-
878-2. tional Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington D.C.

494 / JOURNAL OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004

J. Transp. Eng. 2004.130:486-494.