Section – 2

Urban Road Drainage

Precipitation
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 URBAN ROAD DRAINAGE PRECIPITATION 2-1

2.1 Introduction 2-1

2.1.1 Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) 2-1
2.1.2 Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP) 2-1
2.1.3 The Runoff Process 2-1
2.1.4 Illustration of Runoff Process 2-2
2.1.5 Effects of Basin Characteristics on Runoff 2-4
2.2 Precipitation Data 2-6

2.3 2.3 Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves 2-7

2.3.1 IDF Curves for Addis Ababa 2-7

2.4 Design Floods 2-13

2.5 Major and Minor Drainage Systems 2-13

2.6 Risk of Design Flood Being Exceeded 2-13

2.7 Environmental Impact 2-14

2.8 References 2-15

TABLES

Table 2.1: Minimum Infiltration Rates for Common Soil Groups .................................................................... 2-3
Table 2.2: Design Storm Selection Guideline............................................................................................... 2-13

FIGURES

Figure 2.1: The Runoff Process 2-2

Figure 2.2: Effects of Basin Characteristics on Flood Hydrograph 2-5
Figure 2.3: Presentation of Precipitation Data 2-7
Figure 2.4: Typical Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve 2-8
Figure 2.5: Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve (Addis Ababa, Bole) 2-12
Figure 2.6: Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve (Addis Ababa, Observatory) 2-12

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page i
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

SYMBOLS used in SECTION 2

ARI = average recurrence interval (years)

a, b, c = constants

F ( X ) = non exceedence probability function

IDF = intensity duration frequency

iT = average rainfall intensity for an ARI of T years (mm/hr.)

L = design life of the structure (years)

n = number of years of record

pi = annual maximum precipitation of the i th year (mm)

t d = duration of rainfall (hr)

x = mean of annual maximum precipitation (mm)

X = precipitation value for a given ARI (mm)

Y = design flood ARI (years)

y = the reduced variate

σ n −1 = standard deviation

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page ii
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

2 URBAN ROAD DRAINAGE PRECIPITATION

2.1 Introduction
The term "precipitation" is used to describe all types of moisture that can fall from the clouds to the ground.
In storm-generated runoff, rainfall is the primary form of precipitation.
The primary focus of highway drainage is the water that flows on the land surface and ultimately crosses the
roads. The other aspect of road drainage is the provision of interior drainage for roadways, median areas
and interchanges.
Some reliable principles and methods have been developed for treating the rainfall runoff process. The
application of these methods provides solutions that are functionally acceptable and form the basis for the
highway drainage.
This Chapter introduces factors relevant to the determination of quantity and frequency of surface runoff
generated by the rainfall. Chapter 3 presents some of the techniques to determine design discharges
relevant to the urban road drainage environment.
For the purpose of peak flow estimation, the available information is considered to belong to one of the two
following categories:
1. Sites with measured stream gauge data; and
2. Sites without gauged data.
When adequate stream gauge data are available, peak flows are estimated through statistical analysis of the
flow records. Stream gauge data are generally available for larger streams, consequently, these methods
have limited application to smaller catchments and are generally irrelevant to small areas which contribute
runoff to highway drainage structures. When the gauged data are not available the estimates are based on
empirical equations such as Rational Method or by the regional regression equations.

2.1.1 Average Recurrence Interval (ARI)

The average recurrence interval of a flood flow of specific magnitude is defined as the average interval
between exceedances of that flow. The word “average” does not imply that a flood of particular recurrence
interval will recur at that interval of nearly so.

2.1.2 Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP)

The annual exceedance probability is defined as the probability of exceedence of a given discharge within a
period of one year. The exceedance probability is the reciprocal of the recurrence interval. For example, the
probability that the 25-year ARI peak flow will be equalled or exceeded in one year is 0.04 or 4%.

2.1.3 The Runoff Process

The rainfall is input to the runoff process. Some abstractions take place before direct runoff occurs. This
section briefly describes the abstractions and overall process leading to generation of the outflow hydrograph
and the effect of basin characteristics on the runoff.

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page 2-1
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

2.1.4 Illustration of Runoff Process

The runoff process and method of its analysis to obtain a hydrograph are illustrated in the Figure 2.1 outlines
the development of the flood hydrograph from a typical rainfall event.

Figure 2.1: The Runoff Process

Source: HDS 2, 1996

(a) Rainfall Input

The rainfall experienced at a particular point can vary greatly as it is randomly distributed in time and space.
For simplification, consider the rainfall at only one point in space and assume that the variation of rainfall
intensity with time can be approximated by discrete time periods of constant intensity. This simplification is
illustrated in Fig. 2.1a. From the rainfall input (Fig. 2.1a), various abstractions like infiltration, interception and
depression storage are subtracted to obtain direct runoff hydrograph (Fig. 2.1f).

(b) Interception
The relative magnitude and time relationship for interception is illustrated in Fig. 2.1b. When the rainfall first
begins, the foliage and other intercepting surfaces are dry. As water adheres to these surfaces, a large
portion of the initial rainfall is abstracted. This occurs in a relatively short period of time and once the initial

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page 2-2
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

wetting is complete, the interception losses quickly decrease to a lower, nearly constant value. The rainfall
that has not been intercepted falls to the ground surface to continue in the runoff process.
(c) Depression Storage
Only the water that is in excess of that necessary to supply the interception is available for depression
storage. This is the reason that the depression storage curve begins at zero. Fig. 2.1c illustrates the relative
magnitude of depression storage with time.

(d) Infiltration
Infiltration depends on many factors. The important point to be illustrated in Fig. 2.1d is the time dependence
of the infiltration curve. It is also important to note the behaviour of the infiltration curve after the period of
relatively low rainfall intensity near the middle of the storm event. The infiltration rate increases over what it
was prior to the period of lower intensity because the upper layers of the soil are drained at a rate that is
independent of the rainfall intensity. Table 2.1 presents the minimum infiltration rates for common soil
groups.

Table 2.1: Minimum Infiltration Rates for Common Soil Groups

Source: TS-79-225, 1979

(e) Rainfall Excess

After interception, depression storage, and infiltration have been satisfied, there an excess of water available
to run off from the land surface. The rainfall excess is illustrated in Fig. 2.1e. Obviously this rainfall excess
differs with the actual rainfall input.

(f) Detention Storage

A volume of water is detained in temporary (detention) storage. This volume is proportional to the local
rainfall excess and is dependent on a number of other factors.

(g) Local Runoff

Local runoff is actually the residual of the rainfall input after all abstractions have been satisfied. It is similar
in shape to the excess rainfall (Fig. 2.1e), but is extended in time as the detention storage acts on the local
runoff.

(h) Outflow Hydrograph

Final outflow hydrograph from the watershed (Fig. 2.1f) is the cumulative effect of all the modifying factors
that act on the water as it flows through drainage channels. The total volume of water contained under the
direct runoff hydrograph of (Fig. 2.1f) and the rainfall excess (Fig. 2.1e) are the same, although the position

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page 2-3
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

of the outflow hydrograph in time is modified due to the smoothing of the surface runoff and the channel
processes.

2.1.5 Effects of Basin Characteristics on Runoff

The characteristics of the runoff from a given storm depend on spatial and temporal variations of precipitation
and the concurrent variations of the individual abstraction processes. The factors that determine the
hydraulic character of the natural drainage system include the drainage area, slope, hydraulic roughness,
natural and channel storage, drainage density, channel length, antecedent moisture conditions, and other
factors. The effect that each of these factors has on the important characteristics of runoff is often difficult to
quantify. The following paragraphs discuss some of the factors that affect the hydraulic character of a given
drainage system.

(a) Drainage Area

The peak flow is directly related to the drainage area, which is the most important watershed characteristic
that affects runoff. The larger the contributing drainage area, the larger will be the flood runoff (Fig. 2.2a).

(b) Slope
Steep slope cause the runoff to be quickly removed from the watershed. It results in the short hydrograph
with a high peak (fig. 2.2b). The stage-discharge relationship is highly dependent upon the local
characteristics of the cross section of the drainage channel, and if the slope is sufficiently steep, supercritical
flow may prevail.
The slope also affects the total volume of runoff. If the slope is very flat, the rainfall will not be removed as
rapidly. The process of infiltration will have more time to affect the rainfall excess, thereby increasing the
abstractions and resulting in a reduction of the total volume of rainfall that appears directly as runoff.

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page 2-4
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

Figure 2.2: Effects of Basin Characteristics on Flood Hydrograph

Source: HDS 2, 1996

(c) Hydraulic Roughness

Hydraulic roughness is a measure of resistance that the surface offers to the flow. It has a marked effect on
the characteristics of the runoff resulting from a given storm. The peak rate is usually inversely proportional
to the roughness. It affects the runoff in a manner opposite to the slope (Fig. 2.2c).

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page 2-5
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

(d) Storage
Storage characteristics of a watershed affect the runoff. High storage capability can significantly reduce the
peak rate of discharge. . As shown in Fig 2.2d, storage generally spreads the hydrograph out in time, delays
the time to peak, and alters the shape of the resulting hydrograph from a given storm.
(e) Drainage Density
Geology and geography determine the drainage density of a watershed which is usually assumed to equal
the total length of continuously flowing streams (km) divided by the drainage area (km2). High drainage
densities are associated with increased response of a watershed leading to higher peak discharges and
shorter hydrographs for a given precipitation event (fig. 2.2e).
(f) Channel Length
For longer channel, it takes more time for water to be conveyed from the headwaters of the watershed to the
outlet. Consequently, if all other factors are the same, a watershed with a longer channel length will usually
have a slower response to a given precipitation input than a watershed with a shorter channel length. As the
hydrograph travels along a channel, it is attenuated and extended in time due to the effects of channel
storage and hydraulic roughness. As shown in (Fig. 2.2f) longer channels result in lower peak discharges
and longer hydrographs.
(g) Antecedent Moisture Conditions
The soil moisture conditions of the watershed at the beginning of a storm, known as antecedent moisture
conditions, affect the volume of runoff generated by a particular storm event. The smaller the moisture in the
ground at the beginning of precipitation, the lower will be the runoff.
(h) Other Factors
There are other factors that determine the characteristics of runoff, including the extent and type of
vegetation, the presence of channel modifications, and flood control structures. These factors modify the
runoff by either augmenting or negating some of the basin characteristics described above.

2.2 Precipitation Data

The rainfall intensity-duration relationship can be presented as a rainfall hyetograph of as a mass curve
shown in Figure 2.1.The current practice is to represent rainfall in mm instead of inches. However, it is often
useful to present the temporal pattern of the rainfall event as a bar graph with each short interval. Distribution
of intensities during a storm is important where storage or pumping is considered for the storm water
management.

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page 2-6
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

Figure 2.3: Presentation of Precipitation Data

Source: TS 79-225, 1979

2.3 Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves

Essential data for design of a drainage structure includes the intensity of rainfall that can be expected for a
specific time period for a given recurrence interval. Intensity is defined as the rate of rainfall and is typically
given in units of millimeters per hour. Although rainfall intensity varies during precipitation events, many of
the procedures used to derive peak flow are based on an assumed constant rainfall intensity.
Pre-developed Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves are used to determine peak design discharges.
The IDF curves provide a summary of a site's rainfall characteristics by relating storm duration and
exceedence probability (frequency) to rainfall intensity (assumed constant over the duration). Figure 2.4
illustrates an example IDF curve.
To interpret an IDF curve, find the rainfall duration along the X-axis, go vertically up the graph until reaching
the proper return period, then go horizontally to the left and read the intensity off of the Y-axis. For example,
a 2-hr rainfall with a 10-yr return period would have an intensity of 38 mm/hr using Figure 2.4. If the IDF
curves are not available, the designer needs to develop them on a project by project basis.

2.3.1 IDF Curves for Addis Ababa

The following procedure describes the steps taken for preparing IDF curves for Addis Ababa. The procedure
can be used for preparing IDF curves for other sites as the rainfall data becomes available.

Step1: Data Collection

Compile maximum annual precipitation data of the available shorter durations. In Addis Ababa, the National
Meteorological Service Agency is in charge of providing such data. For preparing the IDF curves, annual
maximum precipitation data of 10, 20, 30 and 60 minutes duration were collected for the two stations -
Observatory and Bole - found in the city with length or records of 26 years and 14 years respectively.

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page 2-7
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

Figure 2.4: Typical Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve

Source: HEC 22, 1996

Step 2: Computation of Mean and Standard Deviation

The means and standard deviations of precipitation records of each duration are computed employing the
following two relationships.

∑p i
x= i =1
(2.1)
n

Where: x = mean of annual maximum precipitation for the duration under consideration

pi = annual maximum precipitation of the i th year for the duration under consideration
n = number of years of record

n n
n∑ pi − (∑ p i ) 2
σ n −1 = 1=1 i =1
(2.2)
n(n − 1)

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page 2-8
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

Where: σ n −1 = standard deviation for the precipitation data set of a given duration

pi = annual maximum precipitation of the ith year for the duration under consideration
n = number of years of record

Step 3: Application of Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I (EVI) Distribution

a) Gumbel’s Extreme Value Type I (EVI) distribution is given by:

−y
F ( X ) = e −e (2.3)

Where: F ( X ) = non exceedence probability function

y = the reduced variate

1.0628( X − x)
y= + 0.5236 (2.4)
σ −1

where: X = precipitation value to be computed for a given average recurrence interval (ARI)

σ n −1 = standard deviation for the precipitation data set of a given duration

x = mean of annual maximum precipitation for the duration under consideration

Taking natural logarithms of the EVI distribution equation and putting the expression given to the reduced
variate, y , yields:

y = − ln(− ln F ( X )) (2.5)

b) For precipitation record of a given duration an ARI (say 2 years) is picked. The reciprocal of the
ARI gives the non-exceedence probability.

c) Putting the value obtained in ‘b’ and rearranging gives a precipitation value of that duration with
the picked ARI.

d) The steps in ‘b’ and ‘c’ are repeated for the same duration with different ARI values

e) The steps in ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ are repeated for other durations and ARIs.
FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation
Page 2-9
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

The above steps give precipitation values of different durations and different ARIs.

f) The general rainfall, duration and frequency relationship is expressed by a formula (TS-79-225,
1979):

a
iT = (2.6)
(b + t d ) c

Where: iT = average rainfall intensity for an ARI of T years (mm/hr.)

td = duration of rainfall (hr)

a, b, c = constants computed for a given ARI

Taking logarithms of both sides of the general form IDF equation yields a linear type of equation.

log iT = log a − c log(b + t d ) (2.7)

which can be written as:

y = k − Cχ (2.8)

where: y = log iT

k = log a

χ = b + td

g) For trial values of b , the constants k and C are determined, for the sets of computed data of
different durations with similar ARI, by linear regression analysis which assumes the following
relationships

(∑ χ 2 )(∑ y) − (∑ χ )(∑ χy)

k= (2.9)
n (∑ χ 2 ) − (∑ χ ) 2

n (∑ χy) − (∑ χ )(∑ y)
C= (2.10)
n (∑ χ 2 ) − (∑ χ ) 2

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page 2-10
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

That value of b with the highest correlation coefficient is computed and the value of a calculated as
the inverse logarithm of k . The regression analysis is undertaken and the correlation coefficients
are computed by the following formula:

n (∑ χy) − (∑ χ )(∑ y)
r= (2.11)
n (∑ χ 2 ) − ( ∑ χ ) 2 n ( ∑ y 2 ) − ( ∑ y) 2

Step 4: Plotting IDF Curves

Rainfall intensity relation is now ready for a given ARI. A graph is prepared for the each selected ARI time as
abscissa and intensity as ordinate. Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6 IDF curves for Bole and Observatory stations
respectively.

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page 2-11
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

160.00

140.00

120.00
Rainfall Intensity (mm/h)

100.00

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Duration (hrs)
ARI = 2yrs. ARI = 5yrs. ARI = 10yrs. ARI = 25yrs. ARI = 50yrs. ARI = 100yrs.

Figure 2.5: Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve (Addis Ababa, Bole)

250.00

200.00
Rainfall Intensity (mm/h)

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Duration (hrs)

ARI = 2yrs. ARI = 5yrs. ARI = 10yrs ARI = 25yrs. ARI = 50yrs ARI = 100yrs

Figure 2.6: Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curve (Addis Ababa, Observatory)

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page 2-12
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

2.4 Design Floods

While the selection of an average recurrence interval for a specific drainage structure is essentially a
question of balancing average annual benefits against average annual costs, there are other factors involved
such as the nature of its use, the level of serviceability provided by it and the environmental considerations.
While the stream crossings are generally designed to pass floods with ARIs up to 50 or 100 years
(Austroads, 1994), other drainage facilities are based on different design floods. Table 2.2 presents the
design storm guidelines (HDS2 1996).

Table 2.2: Design Storm Selection Guideline

Source: HDS2 1996

Exceedence Probability
Roadway Classification Return Period

Urban Principal Arterial System 4% - 2% 25-50-year

Urban Minor Arterial System 4% 25-year

Urban Collector Street System 10% 10-year

Urban Local Street System 20%-10% 5-10-year

2.5 Major and Minor Drainage Systems

A complete drainage system is composed of minor and major drainage systems. Minor system consists of
components historically considered to be part of ‘storm drainage system’. These components include curbs,
gutters, ditches, inlets, pipes and other conduits. The minor system is normally designed for a design flood of
10-year ARI (HEC 22, 1996).

The major system provides the overland relief for stormwater exceeding the capacity of minor system. This
relief is necessitated during less frequent storms, such as the 25-, 50- and 100-year events. The major
system is composed of pathways provided for the runoff flow to natural or man-made channels. Chapter 10
provides further details of major and minor drainage systems.

2.6 Risk of Design Flood Being Exceeded

Risk of the design flood being exceeded during the design life of a structure can be used as an aid in the
selection of the level of serviceability of a major structure like a stream crossing. The probability, P, of one or
more exceedances of the design capacity during the design life of a structure can be expressed as:

(− L Y )
P = 1− e (2.12)

Where, L = design life of the structure (years)

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page 2-13
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

Y = design flood ARI (years)

2.4 Environmental Impact

Considerations of minimising possible environmental damage are part of every project concerned with
design and construction of drainage system. These considerations are based on factors other than a particular
ARI of flood. The environmental impacts are specific to the nature of the project and would relate to the
following:
ƒ Selection of suitable site;
ƒ Changes in the water levels as a result of the project;
ƒ Stability of the channel;
ƒ Effects on natural vegetation and other aspects of the surrounding; and
ƒ Control of the roadside drainage where it enters the streams.

The runoff collects pollutant loads. One such pollutant is sediment in Addis Ababa environment. Water
quality can be improved by removing these pollutants by the use of appropriate treatment devices. Issues
related to the storm water quality control are addressed in chapter 11.

Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation FINAL - November 2004

Page 2-14
 GUIDELINE 6
AACRA DRAINAGE DESIGN MANUAL

2.7 References
ACT Government (1994), “Urban Stormwater – Edition 1: Standard Engineering Practices”.
Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA - 2001), “Drainage Design Manual”, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
HDS 2 (1996)- Federal Highway Administration, “Highway Hydrology”, US Department of Transportation.
HEC 22 (1996) - Federal Highway Administration, ”Urban Drainage Design Manual”, US Department of
Transportation.
Institute of Engineers, Australia (2001), “Australian Rainfall and Runoff – A Guide to Flood Estimation
Volume 1”.
TS -79-225 (1979), Federal Highway Administration “Design of Urban Highway Drainage”, US Department of
Transportation.

FINAL - November 2004 Section – 2 Urban Road Drainage Precipitation

Page 2-15