Section 1

Introduction to Drainage Design

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION TO DRAINAGE DESIGN 1-1

1.1 General 1-1

1.2 Scope of this Manual 1-1

1.3 Planning and Preliminary Concept Development 1-1

1.3.1 Project Base Map 1-2
1.3.2 Major vs. Minor Systems 1-2
1.3.3 Concept Plan 1-3
1.3.4 System Components 1-3

1.4 Levels of the Hydrologic and Hydraulic Analyses 1-6

1.5 Economics of Storm Drainage 1-7

1.6 Cost Considerations 1-7

1.7 Design Philosophy 1-7

1.8 References 1-9

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1 INTRODUCTION TO DRAINAGE DESIGN

1.1 General
Addis Ababa City Roads Authority (AACRA) engaged SMEC International PTY Limited (SMEC) to prepare
design manuals covering different aspects of urban roads and bridges. This Manual, entitled “Drainage
Design Manual”, covers urban road drainage aspects relevant to the city of Addis Ababa.

As laid down in the contract agreement, this Manual consists of “compilation and review of different
international standards adopting them to the required conditions of Addis Ababa”. The Manual
comprehensively addresses the Terms of Reference (TOR) given in Section 3.2.4 of the Contract for
Consulting Services for Preparation of Design and Construction Standards, and Technical Specifications
(dated October 2001) between AACRA and SMEC.

1.2 Scope of this Manual

This Manual includes all topics described in the TOR. The coverage can be broadly summarised to include
the following aspects of urban road drainage:

1. Hydrologic analysis for computing design discharges for urban road drainage;
2. Hydraulic design of road surface drainage;
3. Hydraulic design of bridges and culverts;
4. Erosion and scour protection;
5. Energy dissipation for culverts and river training for bridges; and
6. Quantity and quality control of the surface runoff.

The material has been organised in 11 Sections. The Manual has a focus on practical approach based on
material drawn from a wide resource of documented international practices with a specific relevance to the
Addis Ababa city roads.

Individual topics have been treated with essential details to be used as part of a larger design procedures.
Like any other design guide line, the Manual provides required tools to the designers for addressing a range
of design issues as opposed to providing solution to a specific design problem.

The TOR also requires standard drainage layout plans. Sketches and figures included in the Manual
sufficiently elaborate the description of all components of the drainage system. Guideline 8-Technical
Specifications provide set of standard drawings applicable to the urban road drainage.

The following description covers the planning and the concept development of the drainage system design.
The related topics of economic, environmental and technical considerations leading to basic design
decisions are also treated in this Section.

1.3 Planning and Preliminary Concept Development

Stormwater drainage practice and policies have undergone substantial change in recent years. Historically,
there has been an emphasis on intercepting, collecting and disposing of stormwater runoff as quickly as

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possible. This practice has contributed to an increased frequency of downstream flooding and also to
somewhat diminished groundwater supplies resulting from urbanisation.

On-site detention of rainfall runoff has received increased attention in recent years in urban planning of the
storm drainage system. Short term and localized inconvenience is accepted in the interest of wider benefits.
An urban drainage master plan of today should include storage along with traditional concepts of interception
and disposal.

Development of the preliminary concept must follow an urban drainage plan. First step for preparation of the
layout for design of storm drainage system is the development of sketches and schematics identifying all
components of the proposed system. The following description provides the essentials of a preliminary
concept plan.

1.3.1 Project Base Map

The preliminary concept development starts with the preparation of a project base map. The primary focus of
the base map is to identify the following:

ƒ water shed areas to be drained;

ƒ topographic features;
ƒ soil types encountered;
ƒ cover types for subsequent determination of runoff;
ƒ land use patterns, existing as well as projected over the design life of the drainage system;
ƒ details of the existing drainage system;
ƒ details of the underground utility locations and their elevations; and
ƒ a preliminary roadway plan and profile with location of existing and proposed structures.

1.3.2 Major vs. Minor Systems

An effective design approach must treat the storm drainage in two components of minor and major drainage
systems. The minor system consists of sub-components that have been historically considered to be part of
the “storm drainage system”. It is also referred to as the “Convenience” system.

The minor system is normally designed to carry a runoff from storm events up to 10-year ARI (HEC22 1996).
It includes:
ƒ curbs;
ƒ gutters;
ƒ inlets;
ƒ access holes;
ƒ ditches;
ƒ open channels;
ƒ pipes and other conduits;
ƒ pumps;
ƒ detention and retention basins; and
ƒ water quality control facilities.

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Floods of higher frequency are beyond the capacity of the minor system. An overland relief for stormwater
flows exceeding the capacity of the minor system is provided by the major system. The major system is
designed for more infrequent storm events, such as the 25-, 50-, and 100-year storms (HEC22 1996).

The major system essentially consists of pathways provided for the runoff to flow to natural or manmade
receiving channels such as streams, creeks, or rivers. The designer should undertake a basic hydraulic
investigation of flow along identified pathways to determine the range of flow velocities and flow depths
resulting from less frequent storm conditions. Typically a 100 year event is used as the check storm for the
major system (HEC22 1996).

An approach to consider the drainage system being composed of major and minor drainage systems is
relatively new. Traditionally, the drainage design efforts have focused on components of the minor system
with little attention paid to the major system. Relevant details of the major and minor systems have been
discussed in Section 10 of this Manual. Topography of a city like Addis Ababa lends itself favourably to the
identification of pathways contributing to the surface drainage as part of the major system.

1.3.3 Concept Plan

Pre-requisites of a concept plan are the base map and identification of major and minor components of the
proposed drainage system as discussed in Sections 1.3.1 and 1.3.2. Preparation of the concept plan
includes following main activities:

ƒ locate and space inlets;

ƒ locate storm mains and other conveyance elements;
ƒ locate main outfall;
ƒ define detention and retention strategy and storage locations;
ƒ define water quality control strategy and facility locations; and
ƒ define elements of major drainage system.

The above details presented in a schematic will enable the designer to proceed with the process of storm
drainage design calculations, adjustments, and refinements as defined in the following septs.

1.3.4 System Components

Main components of a minor storm drainage system are categorized according to their functions as follows:

ƒ collection of the runoff from the roadway surface and the right-of-way;
ƒ conveyance of the stormwater from the roadway surface and right-of-way; and
ƒ discharge of the stormwater to a receiving body without causing adverse impacts on the
environment.
The following description provides overview of the functions of the system components.

(a) Stormwater Collection

The function of the stormwater collection is performed through the use of roadside and median ditches,
gutters and drainage inlets.

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(i) Roadside and Median Ditches

The roadside and median ditches are used to intercept runoff and carry it to an adequate storm drain. They
should have adequate capacity for the design runoff and should be located and shaped in a manner that
does not present a traffic hazard. If necessary, channel linings should be provided to control erosion in
ditches. Where design velocities will permit, vegetative linings should be used.

(ii) Gutters

Gutters intercept pavement runoff and carry it along the roadway to a storm drain inlet. The gutters are
sometimes supplemented by the curbs which are installed where runoff from the pavement surface would
erode fill slopes and/or where right-of-way requirements or topographic conditions will not permit the
development of roadside ditches. In urban setting, the pavement sections are typically curbed.

(iii) Drainage Inlets

The drainage inlets receive the surface water collected in ditches and gutters and serve to convey the
surface water to storm drains. They also limit the spread of surface water onto travel lanes when located
along shoulder of the roadway. The term "inlets" also refers to all types of inlets such as grate inlets, curb
inlets, slotted inlets, etc.

The roadway geometries determine the drainage inlet locations. The inlets are placed at low points in the
gutter grade, intersections, crosswalks, cross-slope reversals, and on side streets to prevent the water from
flowing onto the main road. They should also be placed upgrade of bridges to prevent drainage onto bridge
decks and downgrade of bridges to prevent the flow of water from the bridge onto the roadway surface.

(b) Stormwater Conveyance

The main storm drainage system conveys the stormwater through the right-of-way to its discharge points.
The storm drains are connected with the access holes or other access structures.

(i) Storm Drains

Storm Drains constitute that portion of the storm drainage system that receives runoff from inlets and
conveys the runoff to some point where it is discharged into a channel, waterbody, or other piped system.
Storm drains can be closed conduit or open channel. They consist of one or more pipes or conveyance
channels connecting two or more inlets.

(ii) Access Holes, Junction Boxes, and Inlets

These elements are the access structures and alignment control points in storm drainage systems. These
structures are located at the intersections of two or more storm drains when there is a change in the pipe
size, and at changes in the alignment. Their spacing and storm drain deflection are the critical design
parameters. The spacing is also influenced by the longitudinal gradient and the maintenance agency’s
capacity to clear the maximum length of a clogged pipe.

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(c) Stormwater Discharge Controls

Stormwater discharge controls can be categorized as quantity and quality controls. These controls aim to off-
set potential runoff impact on the environment.

(i) Detention and Retention Facilities

A retention facility is an extended detention facility. The detention and retention facilities control the quantity
and quality of the runoff discharged to receiving waters. The control is achieved by the storage of runoff in
detention or retention basins, storm drainage pipes, channels, or other storage facilities. The rate of
stormwater discharge is controlled through the outlet facilities.

The detention or retention facilities are useful in highway drainage design where:
ƒ existing downstream receiving channels are inadequate to handle peak flow rates from the highway
project;
ƒ highway development would contribute to increased peak flow rates and aggravate downstream
flooding problems; or
ƒ this facility will reduce the size and associated cost of outfalls from highway storm drainage facilities.

(ii) Water Quality Controls

These controls are considered as mitigation measures where the road runoff may significantly impact the
quality of the receiving waters. Typical pollutants associated with the road runoff include suspended solids,
heavy metals, nutrients and organics. The water quality controls in road drainage include:

ƒ extended detention ponds;

ƒ wet ponds;
ƒ infiltration trenches;
ƒ infiltration basins;

ƒ porous pavements;
ƒ sand filters;
ƒ water quality inlets;
ƒ vegetative practices;
ƒ erosion control practices; and
ƒ wetlands.

(d) Floodwater Relief

Flood relief is the main function of a major drainage system. Pathways used to convey stormwater in access
of minor drainage system can be provided by streets, surface swales, ditches, streams and flow conduits.

(e) Special Considerations

In addition to the above described factors, the following should receive consideration of the designer in the
development of the conceptual storm drainage plan:

1. Deep cuts and utilities should be avoided whenever possible.

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2. Impact of construction on traffic should be identified and included as design guides.

3. Temporary drainage must be considered for temporary bypasses and other traffic control realities.
4. Construction sequencing must also be considered as it relate to the constructability of laterals and
storm drains.

1.4 Levels of the Hydrologic and Hydraulic Analyses

Three basic elements of typical hydrologic analyses include:

ƒ measurement, recording, compilation and publication of data;

ƒ interpretation and analysis of data; and
ƒ application to design problems.

Each of the above tasks must be performed before design of urban road drainage can be undertaken. Level
of sophistication of the involved hydrologic aspects depend on the following factors:
ƒ amount of the available data;
ƒ level of the required accuracy;
ƒ importance of the structure to be designed in terms of its cost and the risks associated with its
failure; and
ƒ time and other resource constraints.

Changing conditions of the watershed or potential for such changes need attention of the designer. This is
particularly true for stream flow data for a watershed that has undergone urban development.

For their hydraulic behaviour, the urban road drainage facilities can be broadly classified into two major
categories:
1. Open-channel flow; and
2. Closed-conduit flow.

Principles of the open-channel flow apply to roadway channels, median swales, curbs and gutters. The
principles are also applied to bridge hydraulics where backwater elevations, water surface profiles and
erosion or scour hazards become design considerations. River stability at bridge crossing is a fundamental
concern of the design engineer. River response to external changes is of particular interest in this regard.

Closed-conduit facilities include culverts and storm drainage system. Computation of hydraulic losses in
conduits and pipes is a frequent design exercise.

Hydraulic principles of open-channel flow and closed-conduit flow are well established. These principles and
the applicable hydraulic procedures constitute handy tools which can be used in a range of conditions to
address the design problems.

In many cases, the insufficient available data present a limit on the level of details of the analyses. It is not
practical to use analytical methods, both in hydrology and hydraulics, which require extensive time and
manpower where the available data are inadequate to justify a sophisticated analysis. This constraint also
applies to a situation where the data are difficult to obtain. The choice of an analytical method must be made
in accordance with the nature of each problem. The designer must be aware of the level of a justifiable
analysis in terms of its applicability, accuracy and cost.

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1.5 Economics of Storm Drainage

The economics of storm drainage are mainly based on the costs of proper handling of the runoffs of various
frequencies versus the inconvenience or damages in the absence of the drainage system. The design
capacities increase in case of rarer design storms. This means larger first cost which translates in to larger
annual investment.

With the increase of storm system capacities, the storm sewers will be overtaxed less frequently resulting in
less inconvenience and damage related to such overflows. The design cost objectives aim to minimize the
total annual cost of the storm drainage facility which includes the capitol costs and maintenance and
operating costs. The other objective is to reduce the annual cost of damages by overflow due to inadequate
capacity of the system.

It is not always practical to develop a realistic evaluation of damages associated with several alternative
systems. The relative hazards to persons, property and traffic resulting from each of the runoffs of several
selected frequencies should be used in the storm drainage design. Potential mitigation of drainage-related
damages or losses is theoretically balanced as a benefit against the involved drainage costs.

1.6 Cost Considerations

The total cost of the highway drainage system depends on the following:
ƒ capitol investment costs;
ƒ land acquisition cost for the right-of-way;
ƒ costs of damages to other properties;
ƒ costs of environmental studies;
ƒ construction costs;
ƒ costs of traffic delays;
ƒ maintenance and operating costs; and
ƒ the administrative costs.

Costs can be reduced by using the existing serviceable facilities including natural swales, creeks, ditches,
ponding areas, etc. The existing water courses, ravines or other property unlikely to become developed
should be used for the location of drainage facilities.

The condition influencing the design of drainage systems are unique and the designer must select a system
based on the total costs applicable to specific circumstances. Overall cost during the project life should be
considered rather than the initial installation costs only.

Every site or situation presents a unique array of physical conditions, land use patterns and environmental
constraints. All these factors demand variation in design standards for an optimal management of the runoff.
The designer must seek a balance among the capital costs, operating and maintenance costs, public
convenience and environmental enhancement. No fixed rules can be laid down for this because such a
balance is dynamic and changes over time with the change in physical conditions and value perceptions.

1.7 Design Philosophy

The prime objective of the urban road drainage facility is to prevent the surface runoff from reaching the
roadway and to efficiently remove it from the roadway. Drainage design seeks a balance between the cost
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and the risk of damage from the runoff. As explained in Section 1.5, it is not easy to accomplish such a
balance, therefore it is customary to select a particular flood frequency for each class of highway to establish
the design discharge for sizing the drainage system. The design flow is further adjusted to cover special risks
posed by specific conditions such as traffic, structure size and value of the adjacent property.

An alternative and more involved process to select the design flood frequency is through the concept of
economics by establishing the least total cost of the structure (HDS4 2001). In this process, the sum of
capital costs, maintenance costs and the flood hazard costs are considered for a range of flood frequencies.
The flood frequency that generates the least total cost for the life of the project should be selected for design.

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1.8 References
HDS 4 (2001)- Federal Highway Administration, “Introduction to Highway Hydraulics”, US Department of
Transportation.

HEC 22 (1996) - Federal Highway Administration, ”Urban Drainage Design Manual”, US Department of
Transportation.

TS -79-225 (1979), Federal Highway Administration “Design of Urban Highway Drainage”, US Department of
Transportation.

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