Uniform

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Do School Uniforms Lead to Uniform

Minds?: School Uniforms and
Appearance Restrictions in Korean
Middle Schools and High Schools
a
Judy Park
a
Judy Park is CEO of Atelier Eleven (www.ateliereleven.com)
and a lecturer of fashion design at Sungkyunkwan University,
Inha University and Korea National Open University in Korea.
She has a PhD and MSc in clothing and textiles from Seoul
National University.
Published online: 21 Apr 2015.
To cite this article: Judy Park (2013) Do School Uniforms Lead to Uniform Minds?: School
Uniforms and Appearance Restrictions in Korean Middle Schools and High Schools, Fashion
Theory, 17:2, 159-177
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Do School
Uniforms Lead to
Uniform Minds?:
School Uniforms
and Appearance
Restrictions in
Korean Middle
Schools and
Judy Park High Schools
Judy Park is CEO of Atelier Eleven Abstract
(www.ateliereleven.com) and a
lecturer of fashion design at
Sungkyunkwan University, Inha Korean people possess impressive skills and abilities and are making a
University and Korea National Open mark in many different fields, but they are not usually considered the
University in Korea. She has a PhD most creative in a group. There may be different reasons for the rigid-
and MSc in clothing and textiles from
Seoul National University. ness or lack of creativity of Korea, but this article especially focuses on
judy5134@gmail.com the effect of school uniforms on the creativity of Korean students.
School uniforms are introduced for multiple reasons, including disci-
pline, eliminating class differences between peers, and better academic
performance. However, based on an examination of the history of
uniforms in Korean schools and the attitudes and habits of students
160 Judy Park
in relation to their uniforms, this article concludes that school uniforms

and appearance restrictions do not improve grades, but deny students
the expression of individuality and creativity.
KEYWORDS: school uniforms, Korea, Korean fashion, creativity
Introduction
Korean people have many skills and abilities and an attractive culture
that includes beautiful dance, fashion, art, and customs. However,

Korean people are usually not found to be the most creative in a group.
In fact, a recent study on thirty-three countries found that Korea was
the fifth most rigid society. In other words, Korean people tend to be
self-conscious of how they appear to other people and society, and this
strict atmosphere makes it difficult for Korean people to be creative
(Kim, Do-hyoung 2011).
Different views have been presented on the reasons behind the rigid-
ness or lack of creativity of Korea. Some say that the Korean education
system lacks focus on creativity and creative skills, while others say
Koreans teach their children to live a “safe” life by working hard for
a big company and not taking the risk of venturing out to try something
new, while still others even say Korean people are naturally not as cre-
ative as people from the USA or Europe, for example. This is supported
by the observation that young Korean students who attend schools in
foreign countries often excel in mathematics or computer classes but
do not perform so well in drama or sports because of their shyness
and unwillingness to move out of their comfort zone.
What about school uniforms? Could they have an effect on the cre-
ativity of students? Creativity, as with other aspects and abilities of the
mind, largely develops during school years, and clothing is frequently
described as an expression of creativity. Despite the observation above
about Korean students overseas, students with foreign experience
prove to be more creative than their peers who have lived in Korea all
their lives. Perhaps the observation is due to the awkwardness Korean
students feel as a minority in a foreign place rather than the fundamental
essence of Korean children. After all, mixed-race children who attend
Korean schools in Korea, where more than 90 percent of the students
are Korean, seem just as shy as Korean students in foreign schools. If
so, a hypothesis can be made that Korean students are born with the
same creative potential as students of any other country, but environ-
mental influences bring out characteristics that make them appear less
creative. Focusing on Korean students living in Korea, a further hypoth-
esis can be made that since Korean students wear their uniforms almost
every day and for the majority of their day, and since clothes are one of
the most direct methods of self-expression, school uniforms play a role in
Do School Uniforms Lead to Uniform Minds? 161
restricting the creativity of students. This is an interesting field of study,

especially in Korea, because school uniforms in Korea were almost iden-
tical by law regardless of school until the 1980s. They still generally tend
to look alike, and Korean schools have additional personal appearance
restrictions regarding everything from hairstyle to makeup, shoes, and
accessories. For example, most middle schools and high schools do not
allow students to grow their hair past a certain length, perm or color
their hair, or wear any hair products such as hairspray, gel, or wax.
The aim of this article was to find out whether or not school uni-
forms and other appearance restrictions have an effect on the grades
and creativity of Korean students. It also aims to investigate and create

a record of how students feel about their school uniform and what
design preferences they have, and to reveal the positive and negative
effects of school uniforms and appearance restrictions.
The research methodology included documentary research, Internet
research, and focus group interviews (FGIs). Documentary research
was conducted using books, articles, dissertations, and newspapers to
examine Korean society and culture, the concept and mechanism of cre-
ativity, and clothing behavior. Then documentary research, Internet
research, and visits to schools were conducted to study Korean school
uniforms from the past to the present day. Newspapers, dissertations,
and books were examined to find out how society has felt about
school uniforms since they started, and the Internet was additionally
used to examine the aims of schools that have school uniforms and
whether they reach their aims, including better academic performance
and improved discipline. Lastly FGIs were conducted with Korean
middle school and high school students to learn more about how they
feel about school uniforms, what they want, any complaints, and
whether or not they think school uniforms have a connection with
lack of creativity in Korean students.
Relationship between Clothing and Creativity
Fashion is often considered as something that covers up the “true”

nature of the body (Craik 2005: 1). For example, fashion photographer
Juergen Teller is known for shooting designers, models, and people
around him in the nude because he thinks nudity shows them as their
true self. If school uniforms can be considered a part of fashion, they
can indeed be considered a type of fashion that covers up the “true”
appearance of students. Some may argue that school uniforms are cloth-
ing but not fashion, as they do not follow trends but are clothing set by
the school. However, considering that the school uniform designs
change and, as we will soon see, there are different school uniform
brands, students often alter their uniforms according to current trends,
and they are clothes that Korean students wear for most of their day
162 Judy Park
almost every day, school uniforms will be considered as a type of

“fashion” for Korean students in this article. The question is what
relationship school uniform has with the creativity of students.
In order to answer this question, we first need to define “creativity”
in this article and what “more creative” and “less creative” mean. Cre-
ativity is the ability to devise new, surprising, and valuable ideas (Boden
2004: 1). Generally, people associate creativity with artistic fields like
art, music, or drama, and call people “creative” when they conjure
up a design or idea that feels fresh and new. Then there is also the
aspect of creative problem-solving. This is where one has the ability
to approach and solve a problem in a new way that others fail to

think of, leading to better and effective results. There is a cognitive
factor approach and definitive factor approach to the development of
creative problem-solving skills. The cognitive factor includes an expan-
sive range of thinking and knowledge in both general and special fields,
the definitive factor includes motivation and faith in possibilities, and
different scholars support either side of this argument (Kim, Chung-ja
2006: 25–6). So if Korean students are as uncreative as they are gener-
ally perceived to be compared to students of other races, perhaps this is
due to a lack of training and knowledge in a wide range of fields, and
lack of faith in possibilities, leading to a lack of original ideas.
The argument that is generally made in Korea is that there is a
problem with the Korean education system. Students sit at desks that
are lined up in a uniform way facing the blackboard; there are rarely
discussions in class, students mostly listen to the teacher and take
notes, and are accustomed to memorizing everything when studying
for exams in almost all subjects. These are all elements that certainly
appear as if they could lead to a lack of creativity, but the Korean edu-
cation system is largely modeled on the Japanese education system. Yet,
while Japan is known for producing innovative products, including cre-
ative high-technology gadgets, automobiles, and everyday items such as
stationery, Korea does not have the same reputation.
A 2009 study that analyzed a creativity competition found that ele-
mentary school students had better creative ideas in terms of both
quality and quantity than middle school or high school students,
based on analysis of problem-solving results, and that foreign students
had more flexible thinking abilities than Korean students (Kim and
Ha 2009: 179). One major difference between elementary school stu-
dents and middle school or high school students is that almost all
public elementary schools do not have a school uniform, while almost
all middle schools and high schools do. There are many other differences,
of course, but this is the most obvious and visual difference, and
although creative thinking does not always result in something visual,
the hypothesis can be made that people need to see and experience
many things in order to gain expansive knowledge and develop faith
in possibilities. For example, one major difference between Korea and
Japan is that Japan has a very visually stimulating culture, including

widespread pachinkos, video games, and mangas, and is open to indivi-
duals expressing themselves in exaggerated ways, as long as it does not
offend or cause damage to others (Park 2010a: 18).
In addition, a study on the brain found that students with highly de-
veloped emotional sensitivity had higher levels of scientific creativity
(Lee et al. 2010: 522). There are two aspects to emotional sensitivity:
innate sensitivity and the sensitivity that develops later in life based
on lifestyle and habits. Some people are born with more emotional sen-
sitivity than others, but even the very emotionally sensitive frequently
lose their sensitivity as they grow into adults because of the ways of
society, such as how people are expected to dress or act in certain cir-
cumstances or as a person of a certain status. An employee in charge of
life culture at the Department of Creativity and Character Education at
the Daegu Office of Education, Kim Young-tak, says that uniforms and
clothing regulations that regulate everything from hairstyles to even the
color of socks and sneakers of students inevitably trap the sensitivity of
students in a uniform cage (Han 2011).
Women frequently say they feel more “feminine” when they wear a
skirt, not only because of how they look, but also because wearing the
clothes actually requires them to act in a more “feminine” way, such as
keeping their legs together or walking more lightly in high heels than
they would in sneakers, for example. Clothes can therefore compara-
tively restrict or liberate a person because of the design, and people
often choose their clothes based on their values and how they want
to act. A study on Korean youth subcultures found that Korean skate-
boarders wear clothes that are more baggy than riders but not as baggy
as hip hoppers, because they need the right amount of comfort to do
tricks on the skateboard (Ha and Park 2011: 24). A study on Japanese
youth subcultures found that gyarus, who pursue an exaggerated girlish
style and enjoy nightlife and being young, like to wear big bows to show
their girlish side and multiple layers of plastic necklaces to show a child-
like side in a society where child-like innocence is considered a virtue
(Park 2010b: 2–8).
Korean middle school and high school students especially spend
most of their time in school, and increasingly more time wearing
their uniform to spaces outside of school, making it take up a significant
part of their clothing life (Lee and Lim 2010: 180). Asia Economy re-
ported that adolescents spend around thirteen hours per day in their
school uniform (Park 2011). Classes finish in Korea at around 4 p.m.,
but most schools have afterschool studies, and even if students do not
have afterschool studies, almost all students go straight to academic
institutes to further study key subjects in the university entrance exam-
ination, such as math, Korean, English, and science, still wearing their
uniform. Middle school students might make it home in time for dinner
if they have lenient parents, but most high school students stay until
164 Judy Park
midnight, or come home for dinner but have lessons with a private tutor
afterwards. Korean students also attend school for half-days on Satur-
days. Therefore, they do not have many opportunities to express them-
selves through clothes, try new looks and designs, and experience how
they feel, act, or think differently from when they wear their school
uniform.
Korean School Uniform Designs from the

Nineteenth Century to 2012
Wearing a school uniform for most of their day almost every day looks
like it could possibly have a negative effect on the creativity of students,
but what about the design of the school uniform? Do different school
uniform designs make students feel, act, or think in different ways?
School uniforms may all seem the same to people in some countries,
but in Korea, people are more sensitive about the different designs, in-
cluding color, silhouette, and details, because the country has a brief
history of diversity in uniforms. Although school uniforms started in
the nineteenth century, they were generally the same regardless of
school, and different designs for different schools were only permitted
in the 1980s.
The first women’s hanbok, or traditional Korean dress, school
uniform was the uniform worn by students of the American missionary
Mrs F. Scranton in 1886. The first school uniform that was modern-
day “Western” clothing adopted from the West was the uniform of
Sookmyung Women’s School in 1907, consisting of a purple dress
and bonnet with a pink lining. Uniforms returned to the traditional
hanbok in 1910, and modern school uniforms returned in the 1930s,
usually consisting of a blouse, sweater, sailor’s top, and pleated skirt
for girls (Lee and Lim 2010: 180–1). Boys first wore traditional
Korean dress uniforms at Baejaehakdang School in 1898, and switched
to military-style uniforms they could wear both for studying and training
in 1939, as ordered by Japan during Japanese rule (Naver Encyclopedia
2011).
Then, in 1969, the standardization policy of middle schools came
into effect, and all schools in all cities and regions had to wear the
same school uniform. Girls wore a black or brown skirt and white
top in the summer and double-breasted jacket and pleated skirt in the
winter; boys had to shave their heads and wear black suits (Figure 1).
All students even wore similar shoes and carried the same bags. The
idea was to make all students look the same regardless of the school
they attended, but they could be differentiated with a small name tag,
school badge, and grade mark on their chest (Naver Encyclopedia 2011).
The strict uniform regulations started to ease in 1983, when the
Ministry of Education permitted schools to select their own unique
Figure 1
A scene from the film Spirit of Jeet Keun
Do showing Korean boys’ school
uniforms in the 1970s. Copyright ©
2012 CJ E&M Corporation, all rights
reserved.
school uniform design with the goal of relieving psychological suppres-

sion and isolation of adolescents, and encouraging individuality and a
democratic mind. In the 1990s, as more and more schools started to
adopt uniforms and young students gained more interest in fashionable
uniforms, large companies started school uniform chains and major
school uniform brands started to establish strong positions. The compa-
nies offered something new to consumers through marketing, such as
“the uniform that makes your legs appear longer” slogan by Ivy Club
in 1996.
In the 2000s, school uniforms started to be recognized as an impor-
tant fashion code that could help youth express their identity, and more
schools and uniform companies started to combine mainstream trends
and different colors in the uniform designs (Lee and Lim 2010: 180–1).
School uniforms vary these days according to school, but favorite
colors are navy, gray, and maroon with white shirts (Figure 2). Some
are solid while some have checkered patterns, and most of the skirts
are pleated.
Youth are especially highly influenced by the media in Korea. School
uniforms portrayed in television drama series are often considered
trendy, either in the designs themselves or the way they are coordinated
with accessories, and many young people follow the school uniform
styles worn by their favorite stars on television. The sitcom Bold
High Kick was extremely popular in 2007, and the school uniform
design worn by the “heart-throb” in the series, Chung Il-woo, or a
similar version of the design, was actually selected as the new school
uniform for around ten schools in the country (Lee and Lim 2010:
180). This was based on a survey of students’ suggestions, and not
166 Judy Park
Figure 2
A typical Korean middle school uniform.
Courtesy of the author.
only shows the strong influence of the media, but the lack of creativity
and tendency for copying of Korean students, too.
Nevertheless, as Gabrielle “Coco” Chanel once said, “He who
insists on his own creativity has no memory.” Being inspired by
others and making their ideas your own is one way of exploring and de-
veloping creativity and individual style, and as students do all around
the world, students in Korea have their own trends, usually inspired
by celebrities, which they adapt into their everyday school uniform
styles. There is a slight difference in style according to which area stu-
dents live in Seoul. Students who live in the Gangbuk area in Seoul,
north of the Han River, especially alter their school uniforms and
wear them very tight. The clothes are so tight that some people joke
that “they were probably stitched on to the wearer.” However, this
trend is no laughing matter. Not only do some most schools punish stu-
dents for their attire, but a study even found that tight uniforms cause
stress and damage the digestive system of students (Cheong et al. 2003:
76). Meanwhile, some girls wear their school uniform skirts much
shorter than the original design, and this is leading to complaints
and, possibly, financial implications for some schools. Many girls get
their skirts altered or roll up their skirts—something girls do in many
other countries, too—but living in a quite conservative society, a skirt

length around 10–15 cm shorter than ten years ago is making adults
feel uncomfortable. The Gangwon Province Office of Education even
has plans to spend around 820 million won in the second half of
2011 to install cover boards onto the front of about 5,500 school
desks that currently have a simple top and four legs, allowing anyone
standing in front of the class to see straight up the skirts of girls
sitting wearing short skirts (Hankyung News 2011).
Every few years, schools update their school uniform and take the
initiative to create fresh designs that will please students, parents, and
teachers, but this is not an easy task. Students living in Daegu, pro-
moted as a “colorful” city, complain about their dark and dreary
uniform styles, but school uniform designers and fashion design profes-
sors asked to design new uniforms for schools point out that it is diffi-
cult to meet the many demands and suggestions. Since school uniforms
are worn by all students, requests regarding silhouette, cost, design, and
so on cannot realistically be met, and the end result sadly rarely breaks
away from the usual colors or designs because of the many conditions
and restrictions (Han 2011).
School uniform design and manufacturing companies may not be
able to randomly change the design of school uniforms, but they are
building competitiveness through less visual areas of design, such as
function and comfort. For the 2011 summer season, Skool Looks pro-
vided clothing with a perspiration evaporation function, UV-ray protec-
tion, and ergonomic designs for comfort. Ivy Club presented a mesh
lining for cooler and more durable boys’ pants and a concealed zipper
inside girls’ skirt pockets so the pockets do not open up if you close
the zipper, creating a smoother and slimmer line. Elite Basic added a
lining with pictures printed in between girls’ blouse buttons to prevent
exposure of skin in between buttons and add a fun design, slightly
reduced the width of boys’ shirts for a slimmer line, and added buttons
on skirt and pants waistlines for easy waist adjustments (Park 2011).
With school uniform skirt lengths growing shorter and shorter, some
schools announced that they would send girls home if they wore skirts
that were too short. However, skirt length is not the only thing that is
restricted in Korean middle schools and high schools. Students today
can enhance their appearance even while wearing a school uniform in
many more ways than the days when the standardization policy of
middle schools was in effect, but the boys still have to keep their hair
short, normally less than 4 cm long, and girls not only have to keep
their hair at a length that is 4 cm under their ear or shorter, but are
also banned from coloring, perms, and even using styling products,
such as hairspray, mousse, gel, or hair wax. Students are not allowed
to wear any makeup or accessories, except for a watch, and still have
to wear certain socks and shoes according to school regulations. Con-
sidering that schools in the USA and Europe generally allow a single
168 Judy Park
pair of earrings and other accessories, and have no problems with hair
or makeup, the restrictions in Korea may appear harsh. This is the norm
for middle school and high school students in Korea, but now that they
are able to watch and indirectly experience Western culture via televi-
sion and Internet, today’s Korean students have a stronger desire to
beautify themselves compared to students did in the past—a desire
they have to suppress every day.
Effects of Uniforms on Society and Schools

School uniforms were first adopted in Korea through the influence of

other countries. People from the United States or Japan suggested or
forced school uniforms on Korea, and the policy has stayed with the
country and expanded over the years. Most middle schools and high
schools have a school uniform and appearance restrictions policy, and
implement these for a variety of reasons, including discipline, safety,
and better academic performance.
The goal to restore order and safety in the school is a common goal
in the USA. In his 1996 State of the Union message, President Bill
Clinton said he would support school uniform policies if they help
deter violence, and there is evidence that school uniforms not only
control violence but also promote ideas and achievement as students
focus more on academic pursuits (Stanley 1996: 424). On the other
hand, there was a study in 1998 that showed that uniform policies
did not have any connection to attendance problems, behavioral prob-
lems, substance use problems, academic preparedness, or pro-school
attitudes (Brunsma 2004: xx).
Some of the advantages of a school uniform include reducing the
visual difference of wealth between students, lessening the economic
burden for clothes on parents, and helping students focus on things
other than clothing, such as their studies (Kim 2002: 16). Yet with
the brand power of some uniform manufacturers gaining weight, uni-
forms are not necessarily reducing the economic burden, and are some-
times even adding a burden for parents. Recently, a major school
uniform company started to add an embroidered company logo on
their uniforms, which are generally a few hundred thousand won
more expensive than smaller brands. This brand is very well-known
and uses popular celebrities as models. A newspaper article reported
that students are asking their parents for the expensive uniforms, and
some who cannot afford them are even cutting the logo embroidery
off other unused uniforms and stitching them on their own (Kim,
Dae-young 2010).
Although most parents and teachers are still for uniforms in Korea in
general, there is an opinion to be considered that middle school and
high school students are at a stage in their life where they develop
individuality and an interest in appearance and clothes, and wearing

school uniforms that provide little room for choice in terms of design
or color can interfere with development of individuality or aesthetic
sense (Kaiser 1990). Korean designer Juun J. once said in an interview
that he believes clothes are an important element that stimulates the sen-
sitivity of students. He said that students choosing their own clothes,
especially the school uniform they spend most of their day in, would
help widen their range of thinking and freedom, but the Korean govern-
ment and schools were indifferent to such needs. Major designer Noh
Seung-eun said it pains her that Korean school uniforms are so rigid.
She believes clothes are the result of art and philosophy, and a lack of
fashion sense will prevent a person from developing insight into other
objects, life, and creativity. Noh said, “I hope school uniforms will
be the starting point to developing creativity and competitiveness”
(Park 2005). Principal Kim Jong-mo of the alternative high school in
Gongju, Korea, is another person who believes school uniforms can
restrict creativity. Hanil High School is a boarding school that provides
an alternative education, including cultural exchange with China and
Japan, sports education, and special lectures by invited lecturers,
unlike most high schools in Korea that focus on bulldozer-style teaching
and memorization in preparation for the university entrance examina-
tion. Principal Kim says that Hanil High School has a “three nos” envi-
ronment, “no school gate, no school uniform and no pollution,” which
eliminates three major elements that the block creative thinking of
students, and focuses on students learning to discipline and think for
themselves (Kwon 2009).
However, uniforms are known to instill a sense of belonging in
people and lead to better teamwork, which is why Korean banks still
have uniforms for their workers. Also, one can always see members
of NASA wearing a uniform when they hold a press conference for
any space project or successful satellite launch. Being unified and
working together as a team is important, even when the world’s top
scientists work together on something that requires great creativity
from each individual.
Positive and negative effects of the uniform policy aside, are the
school uniform and appearance restrictions in Korea too strict? The
purpose of the school uniform and appearance restrictions is to elimi-
nate the element of students having to pay attention to how they
look, but strict restrictions sometimes make them focus even more on
their looks, as they try to express individuality and look good within
the restraints set upon them. It was reported in the news in March
2011, that a high school in Incheon held a hair length inspection for
all students one morning in front of the school gate, and sent around
150 students away to get their hair cut before they could enter the
school and take classes. Some students went to a nearby hair salon
and got a haircut, but others just stood outside the gate not knowing
170 Judy Park
what to do. Some parents complained that this was not a rational
reason to deny their children classes, but most agreed that there is a
need to restrict hair length for discipline and effective education.
Almost all Korean high schools have appearance restrictions, and the
only teenagers who have long and colored or permed hair in Korean
society are those with special talents recognized by the school, such
as professional junior dancers or those who attend international
schools. Yet, there are no records to show that wearing school uniforms
or strengthening appearance restrictions lead to better academic perfor-
mance of schools, and students of international schools who have no
uniform and wear their hair, accessories, or makeup as they please

often go on to attend Ivy League universities.
Although Korean society may prefer to have youths in smart-looking
school uniforms, with short hair and without makeup “fitting of a
student,” there is no evidence that wearing school uniforms leads to
better academic performance and the appearance of preferred uniform
brands is leading to another form of financial burden for parents.
Most think that school uniforms have a negative effect on the sensitivity
and creativity of students.
School Uniforms from the Perspective of Wearers
The most significant group to examine in order to gain a good under-

standing of the effects of school uniforms is students themselves. As
people who wear school uniforms and experience the stresses of appear-
ance restrictions or not on a daily basis, they can give a detailed and
personal account of how they feel, what they want, what kinds of com-
plaints they have, and what they think about the link between school
uniforms and creativity. An FGI was conducted on two groups of stu-
dents. The first group was seven middle school students—two girls
and five boys; the second group was six high school students—four
girls and two boys. All students lived in Seoul and attended schools
with school uniforms and appearance restrictions.
None of the students interviewed said they wore their uniform
without altering it. All of them altered the uniform because they
wanted a better or more fashionable fit, and the major changes made
were to the pants or skirt, to create a slimmer fit and shorter length.
A 2002 study found that although parents and teachers have a strong
preference for school uniforms, students do not, and a large percentage
of students wear custom-made uniforms. Students were also least satis-
fied with design and comfort, and most satisfied with the significance of
their uniforms (Kim 2002: 24). The results of the FGIs were similar.
Most students were actually for school uniforms while some were
against and some said they did not care, but none of the students
were satisfied with their uniform.
The main complaints were that the design was not unique, pretty, or
trendy, and too boring. One middle school girl said she really wanted to
wear the school uniform in the recent television drama series Dream
High. Dream High was based on an arts high school, and although
arts high schools exist in Korea, the school portrayed in the television
series was unlike any arts school in the country. The students in the
series debuted as singers, had close friendships with their teachers,
and spent most of their classes dancing and singing, which is something
you would more likely see in a Western school. The school uniform in-
cluded a slim-fitting brown jacket, slim trousers for boys, a big red and
blue bow and a matching short red and blue checkered pleated miniskirt
for girls, and no additional restrictions, allowing the cast to wear color-
ful shoes, outerwear, and accessories, and style their hair in a variety of
different ways, including colored and permed hair and hair styled with
gel or hair wax (Figure 3). Another high school boy said he wanted to
wear the uniform in the popular Harry Potter films, which consists of
gray trousers and a gray V-necked sweater with yellow and red trim-
ming, a matching yellow and red striped tie, and a black cloak with a
red and yellow school emblem embroidered on the chest, with a white
shirt.
I don’t care if we have to uniform or not, but I really don’t like

the color and design of our current school uniform. It’s navy,
just like any other school. I like the colors and design of the
uniform in Harry Potter. Korean schools never use bright
yellow or red, and they always make us wear tailored vests
instead of a cozy sweater. We’re not allowed to wear any acces-
sories; we can’t grow our hair longer than past our collar …
although this isn’t as harsh as 4 cm maximum, for example.
We are not allowed to alter our uniforms, but we all do
anyway. I think restrictions are natural in Korea, but if I could
change school rules I would get rid of the uniform and all restric-
tions and make school a comfortable place like in other countries.
With so many rules, we are so restricted that it is difficult to make
our own decisions.
He said he did not like that everyone looked the same, and instead of a
sense of belonging, he felt trapped. He added that he believes wearing
school uniforms decreases creativity in students, making them less cre-
ative than students who do not wear uniforms, and that students could
probably develop in a more creative way if they did not wear uniforms.
How can we be expected to grow into creative adults if we

are not even allowed to express ourselves in a creative way?
We don’t really do art in art class or music in music class, we
just memorize everything in the book. The least we should be
172 Judy Park
allowed to do is wear our own clothes and accessories so we can

experiment with visual things in daily life.
The biggest complaint of students was that they did not like the color of
their uniform. One middle school girl said although she attends a better
school and wants to go on to a general high school, she envies the
uniform of the technical high school in her neighborhood—technical
high schools are schools of a lower academic level than general high
schools and mainly for students who do not wish to attend university
but aim to get a job right after high school. The school’s winter uniform
is maroon and beige, and they have dark gray trousers or skirts with a
gray striped shirt in the summer. Two other girls said they wanted pink
or red checkered skirts.
A study in 1981 found that 78 percent of female high school students
felt the need for a school uniform, yet only 6 percent were “very satis-
fied” with their uniforms while 60 percent felt “neither satisfied nor
dissatisfied” (Chung et al. 1981: 28). All the subjects interviewed for
this study were dissatisfied, and some did not want a uniform.
Adults think we will just focus on studying if we wear uniforms

and are not allowed to grow our hair or wear makeup, but in
fact, this makes us even more obsessed. My friends and I are
always trying to think of ways to grow our hair or wear
makeup without getting caught, because even growing it slightly
more than others makes you look and feel much prettier. Some-
times I think if we were all allowed to do whatever we wanted,
there would be diversity anyway and we wouldn’t try so hard
to compete and be the only one that is different.
Not only girls, but even boys shared this view, saying it was considered
very “cool” to have longer hair; they tried to grow their hair by tucking
it in, and took it out after school.
This was one interesting comment that surfaced a few times only
with the girls:
One of the positive sides of wearing a school uniform is that it

narrows the difference between prettier girls and less prettier
girls. A pretty girl would look much prettier if she wore tight-
fitting clothes and makeup, but she can’t so there is less pressure
for average or less pretty girls.
None of the boys shared this view, which can be linked to the focus
of appearance and self-esteem problems of young girls. A study found
that Korean female high school students are more dissatisfied with
expression of individuality when wearing school uniform if they are
more satisfied with their physical appearance, and have an increasingly
negative view on the sense of belonging that comes from wearing a

school uniform if they have a higher sense of social self-efficacy. The
higher the self-esteem they have, the less importance they place on
the positive effect of the sense of belonging and gaining approval
from peers (Koh et al. 1999: 36). So although the girls interviewed
thought not being compared drastically with the prettier girls was a
good thing, perhaps that is just a reflection of their lower self-esteem,
and if school uniforms console their lower self-esteem in any way,
perhaps this is a negative result as it fails to prepare young girls for
the real world, where there are prettier girls and people sometimes
get judged or compared based on looks.

It was also indicated from the interviews that although Korean
schools aimed to divert the attention of students away from focusing
on appearance or relationships with members of the opposite sex by
regulating their appearance—it may be natural for teenagers to have
boyfriends and girlfriends in some countries, but it is frowned upon
in Korea, and having a boyfriend or girlfriend is generally acceptable
after one enters college—it does not work. Students are still interested
in looking good to satisfy themselves, their peers, or members of the
opposite sex, and said they focus more on aspects that are not regu-
lated, such as the brand and design of their bag or shoes. One
student pointed out, “Not everyone is interested in clothes and
makeup. The students who are going to just wash their face and go
study will still do that if we don’t have a uniform, and the students
who are interested in fashion will still be even if we wear a uniform.”
Another student said, “What clothes you wear and what you do with
your hair or face is part of your freedom. I hate that the school tries
to take away my basic freedom. Each individual is different, and I am
so unhappy with how little I can express myself that it distracts me
from focusing on schoolwork.”
Most subjects said they purchased their uniform at the store that
was closest to them, but they all had a preference for a certain brand
because of the brand image. The favorites were Smart, Ivy Club, and
Elite Basic. In other words, some of the elements considered to be
the negative elements of not wearing a uniform still seemed to exist
with school uniforms and appearance restrictions, such as students
paying too much attention to how they look, spending a lot of
money on clothes and accessories, and financially less well-off students
feeling left out for not wearing a certain brand, with the added factor of
school uniforms possibly leading to less creativity development in
students.
According to Craik (2005: 10), fashion is a method people use to feel
visually at home with their culture by dressing appropriately for a par-
ticular time, occasion, or place. This is an especially strong element for
Korean people who have a strong groupist tendency and desire to fit in
(Ha and Park 2011: 25–9), and therefore can be inferred as one of
174 Judy Park
Figure 3
The school uniform worn by the cast in
the popular television series Dream
High.
the reasons why some of the Korean students interviewed said they
preferred having a school uniform to not having one. Talking more in
depth with the students showed that they were all dissatisfied with
their uniform, and either wanted “prettier” or “cooler” uniforms or
freedom of dress and expression.
Conclusion
There is no evidence that wearing school uniforms leads to better

grades, one of the biggest aims of schools when adopting a school
uniform and appearance regulations policy, and it is the opinion of stu-
dents who actually wear uniforms for most of their day almost every
day that overt restrictions lessen freedom and creativity. Needless to
say, there are many other aspects that probably contribute to a lack
of creativity in young Korean people, but with school uniforms and
strict appearance restrictions, students are denied an outlet of expres-
sion of individuality, and the opportunity to experiment with new
ideas on a daily basis and personal level.
Korean students are dissatisfied with their school uniform, and when
asked about their preferences most give examples of what they see in
films or television drama series, which gives another glimpse of their

lack of creativity and eager willingness to copy and imitate. However,
there is a difference between different areas of Seoul, such as between
Gangnam, south of the Han River, and Gangbuk, north of the Han
River, showing that different areas have different style aesthetics and
giving a peek into the possibility of potential for personal creativity
development. The way in which students alter their uniforms shows
how they are affected by celebrities, peers, and trends, and indicates
that there would be trends but also a much wider range of styles worn
by students at an earlier age if they were allowed freedom of dress.
In the meantime, Korean students are mostly seen wearing similar

navy or gray uniforms all day long, and Korean university freshmen
often have exaggerated or awkward, strange styles for they only start
to experiment with fashion in a creative way in college. Korean people
establish their personal style at a later age than youth of other countries,
and if this is the case with dress, which directly touches their body and
is a primary method of self-expression, there is a good chance this
is the case with other areas, such as matters of the mind, ways of think-
ing, and creativity. Therefore, there is a need to relieve or lessen appear-
ance restrictions at schools and listen to the requests of students at a
young age, before they start to lose their sense of individuality and cre-
ativity, and not discourage diverse methods of personal expression, for
youth are truly the future, and Korea could use more creativity, color,
and aesthetic stimulation.
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This article was downloaded by: [University of Sussex Library]

On: 12 August 2015, At: 11:35

Do School Uniforms Lead to Uniform

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175174113X13541091797607

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in relation to their uniforms, this article concludes that school uniforms

KEYWORDS: school uniforms, Korea, Korean fashion, creativity

that includes beautiful dance, fashion, art, and customs. However,

restricting the creativity of students. This is an interesting field of study,

and creativity of Korean students. It also aims to investigate and create

Relationship between Clothing and Creativity

Fashion is often considered as something that covers up the “true”

almost every day, school uniforms will be considered as a type of

to approach and solve a problem in a new way that others fail to

Japan is that Japan has a very visually stimulating culture, including

Korean School Uniform Designs from the

school uniform design with the goal of relieving psychological suppres-

other countries, too—but living in a quite conservative society, a skirt

Effects of Uniforms on Society and Schools

School uniforms were first adopted in Korea through the influence of

individuality and an interest in appearance and clothes, and wearing

uniform and wear their hair, accessories, or makeup as they please

School Uniforms from the Perspective of Wearers

The most significant group to examine in order to gain a good under-

I don’t care if we have to uniform or not, but I really don’t like

How can we be expected to grow into creative adults if we

allowed to do is wear our own clothes and accessories so we can

Adults think we will just focus on studying if we wear uniforms

One of the positive sides of wearing a school uniform is that it

negative view on the sense of belonging that comes from wearing a

get judged or compared based on looks.

There is no evidence that wearing school uniforms leads to better

films or television drama series, which gives another glimpse of their

In the meantime, Korean students are mostly seen wearing similar

Boden, Margaret A. 2004. The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms.

Han, Yoon-jo. 2011. “‘Colorful Daegu?’ Please Do Something about

Kim, Chung-ja. 2006. “The Relationship between Self-determination

Park, Judy Joohee. 2010a. “An Investigation of the Significance of

Urban Society 28(4): 424–35.

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