REVIEWER NI JL sa COSC85 (MAPAGPAMAHAL SA TROPA)

Networks Support Communication

1. Email - Email is one of the most fundamental internet communication tools. Email
addresses are required to sign up for many services online, and it's generally assumed
that everyone on the internet has at least one email address. Email addresses are
available from many free services, most prominently from big companies like Microsoft
and Google. Some internet service providers also still provide their users with email
addresses.
2. Internet Relay - Chat Dating back to the 1980s, internet relay chat was one of the
earliest chat tools on the internet. It's still in use today for recreational purposes,
coordinating work teams and handling tech support for some open-source software
products. Using networks of internet servers and specialized client software, IRC let
anyone set up chat rooms, or "channels," devoted to topics of their choice. It influenced
subsequent chat systems such as AOL and Yahoo chat and even contributed the
convention of using the "@" symbol before a username and the "#" symbol to denote a
topic.
3. Instant Messaging Services - In the 1990s, computer-based instant messaging
tools such as ICQ, AOL Instant Messenger, MSN Messenger and Yahoo Messenger
became popular ways to stay in touch with people down the street or around the world
for no cost beyond whatever users already paid to connect to the internet. Some of
these tools developed cult followings among particular types of users, such as Yahoo
Messenger's rise among oil traders.
4. Smart Phone Messaging Apps - Most of the 1990s chat tools have since been
supplanted by a new breed of messaging tools, including Facebook Messenger, Google
Hangouts, Apple Messages and simple cellphone-based text messaging. Workplace
messaging tools, such as Slack and Microsoft Teams, have also become popular in
many companies as a way to share information without picking up the phone or even
drafting an email.
5. Internet Message - Boards Many of today's internet users are familiar with the
concept of online discussion forums, including Facebook groups, subreddits on the
forum site Reddit or independent forums on special interest sites. Many have
moderators in place to keep the peace and repel trolls, fraudsters and other undesirable
users.

6. Early Days of Usenet - Before today's forum sites, there was Usenet. Usenet, which
still exists in diminished form, is a set of distributed discussion groups focusing on
anything from UFOs to football. Usenet also allowed for the direct distribution of large
files, which has at times been used for piracy. Most modern forum sites limit uploads to
small images.
7. The World Wide Web - may have started as an experimental research project at
CERN, but it's since become one of the dominant media of the world. The web is
perhaps the dominant form of internet communication, used for everything from
shopping to checking the weather to accessing other ways to communicate online, such
as email and digital message boards. For many people, the web is where they get their
news, do their shopping, listen to music, watch TV and communicate with friends,
displacing many media that existed in the past. The web is still relatively young, and it's
likely to continue to evolve in coming decades even as it remains one of the dominant
communication tools in the world.
8. Social Networking Tools - Some of the most popular internet communication tools
are social networking services, including Facebook, Twitter, Facebook-owned
Instagram, Snapchat and work-oriented LinkedIn. People frequently use social
networking tools to stay in touch with remote friends and family and simply for
entertainment. Some people follow updates from celebrities on social media, and the
networks have changed how politicians and entertainers communicate with the public.
Social networking tools have run into some controversy over the spread of rumors, fake
news stories, hate speech and other undesirable content, and some network operators
have taken steps to reduce such behavior.
9. Internet Phone Calling - Many people have switched to internet-based calling
systems, using what's called Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), from traditional
telephones, especially in office settings. VoIP systems can be cheaper and faster to set
up than traditional phones, and they often allow international and long-distance calling
for a fraction of the cost of landline telephones.
10. Video Calls and Conferences - Video calling has also become popular for staying
in touch with friends or family and for work conference calls that, in the past, would have
been audio-only. One downside, of course, is that people need a professional
environment and attire for a call that, if audio-only, could be placed from anywhere and
in any kind of dress. ZOOM Popular video chat systems include Microsoft's Skype,
Google Hangouts and Apple FaceTime. It's generally possible to video chat with any
modern computer or smart phone equipped with a working camera. Many video chat
programs enable people to have audio-only chats if they prefer.

TCP/IP Protocol

Network Protocols ▪ Networking protocols define a common format and set of rules for
exchanging messages between devices. ▪ Some common networking protocols are
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and Internet
Protocol (IP).
• HTTP - an application protocol that governs the way a web server and a web client
interact.
• TCP - transport protocol that manages the individual conversations.
• IP – encapsulates the TCP segments into packets, assigns addresses, and delivers to
the destination host.
• Ethernet - allows communication over a data link and the physical transmission of data
on the network media.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard, meaning these protocols are freely
available to the public, and any vendor is able to implement these protocols on their
hardware or in their software.

TCP/IP Protocol Process

▪ When sending data from a web server to a client the encapsulation procedure would
be as follows:
▪ The webserver prepares the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) page. The HTTP
application layer protocol sends the data to the transport layer.
▪ The transport layer breaks the data into segments and identifies each
▪ Next the IP source and destination addresses are added, creating an IP Packet.
▪ The Ethernet information is then added creating the Ethernet Frame, or data link
frame.
▪ This frame is delivered to the nearest router along the path towards the web client.
Each router adds new data link information before forwarding the packet.
▪ When receiving the data link frames from the web server, the client processes and
removes each protocol header in the opposite order it was added:
▪ First the Ethernet header is removed Then the IP header ▪ Then the Transport layer
header
▪ Finally the HTTP information is processed and sent to the client’s web browser.

Types of Network
Two most common types of network infrastructures:
Local-area network (LAN): A network infrastructure that provides access to users and
end devices in a small geographical area.
Wide-area network (WAN): A network infrastructure that provides access to other
networks over a wide geographical area.
Metropolitan-area network (MAN): A network infrastructure that spans a physical area
larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN (for example, a city). MANs are typically
operated by a single entity such as a large organization.
Wireless LAN (WLAN): Similar to a LAN but wirelessly interconnects users and
endpoints in a small geographical area.
Storage-area network (SAN): A network infrastructure designed to support file servers
and provide data storage, retrieval, and replication. It involves high-end servers,multiple
disk arrays, and Fibre Channel interconnection technology.

Protocols used in network communications

▪ Message encoding
▪ Message delivery options
▪ Message Formatting and Encapsulation
▪ Message Timing
▪ Message Size

Open Standard and Communication Org

Open standards encourage interoperability, competition, and innovation. The following
are the I.T standards organization.
▪ Internet Society (ISOC) –promotes open development and evolution of Internet use
globally.
▪ Internet Architecture Board (IAB) - management and development of Internet
standards.
▪ Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) - develops, updates, and maintains Internet
and TCP/IP technologies.
▪ Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) - focused on long-term research related to
Internet and TCP/IP protocols.
▪ Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) -coordinates IP
address allocation and management of domain names.
▪ Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - manages IP address allocation,
domain name management, and protocol identifiers for ICANN.
1. Electronics and Standard Communication Org
▪ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) - dedicated to advancing
technological innovation and creating standards in a wide area of industries including
networking.
▪ Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - standards related to electrical wiring,
connectors, and network racks.
▪ Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) - standards for radio equipment,
cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, and satellite communications.
▪ International Telecommunications Union - Telecommunication
▪ Standardization Sector (ITU-T) - standards for video compression, Internet
▪ Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband communications.

2. OSI Reference Model

▪ Application - contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
▪ Presentation - provides for common representation of the data.
▪ Session - provides services to the presentation layer to organize its dialogue and to
manage data exchange.
▪ Transport - defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data.
▪ Network - provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the
network between identified end devices.
▪ Data Link - provides methods for exchanging data frames between devices over a
common media.
▪ Physical - describes the mechanical, electrical, functional, and procedural means to
transmit bits across physical connections.

3. TCP/IP Model
Types of Physical Media

The physical layer produces the representation and groupings of bits as voltages, radio
frequencies, or light pulses. Various standards organizations have contributed to the
definition of the physical, electrical, and mechanical properties of the media available for
different data communications. These specifications guarantee that cables and
connectors will function as anticipated with different data link layer implementations.
➢ As an example, standards for copper media are defined for the
➢ Type of copper cabling used
➢ Bandwidth of the communication
➢ Type of connectors used
➢ Pin out and color codes of connections to the media
Maximum distance of the media

Media Access Control

o Media Access Control (MAC)
◼ Defines the media access processes performed by the hardware.
◼Provides data link layer addressing and access to various network
technologies.
◼ Communicates with Ethernet to send and receive frames over copper or
fiber-optic cable.
◼ Communicates with wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

Media Access Control

◼ As packets travel from the source host to the destination host, they travel over
different physical networks.
◼ Physical networks can consist of different types of physical media such as
copper wires, optical fibers, and wireless consisting of electromagnetic signals,
radio and microwave frequencies, and satellite links.

Media Access Control

Fiber optics