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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS

Exploring Food Insecurity and Homelessness Among Postsecondary Students

and the Impact on Student Success and Development

Cristina M. Valencia

Kremen School of Education, California State University, Fresno

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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
Students enroll in postsecondary institutions with the goal of attaining

independence, knowledge, and most importantly, the promise of financial stability that

comes with earning a college degree. Yet, this goal can be challenging for students who

are facing food and housing insecurity. This student population often begin their

academic journey from an economically disadvantaged standpoint (Gupton & Trost,

2018). Students who are low-income or very-low-income often have difficulty meeting

their basic needs; a 2015 study indicated that about 13% of two year-students, and 11%

of four-year students came from food insecure families (Chen & Nunnery, 2019). Chen

and Nunnery also found that a correlation exists between students experiencing food

and housing insecurity and the negative impacts this has on their class attendance,

performance, and persistence. There has been a recent increase in scholarly literature

surrounding the topic of food insecurity and homelessness among postsecondary

students. However, literature and discourse around this critical topic remains limited;

proliferation of scholarly work, discourse, and normalization within our institutions, is

needed to shine a light into this increasing student need, so that real policy and program

change can be implemented. This paper will explore the various challenges food and

housing insecure students face while in college, as well as how this affects their overall

student development. To guide and frame this document, a literature review including

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Holistic Student Development theories will be utilized.

Purpose

This document will explore food insecurity among postsecondary students to

further understand and gain insight into the implications these basic unmet needs have

on their academic success and their overall student development. Patton et al. (2016),
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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
defines student development as “a positive change that occurs in the student (e.g.,

cognitive complexity, self-awareness, racial identity, or engagement)” (p. 153). One can

argue, however, that this positive change can be difficult to achieve if a student is facing

food and housing insecurity, as they will have to place priority on meeting their basic

needs first. Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs and Holistic Student Development theories will

be utilized as theoretical frameworks. A literature review and accompanying findings will

also inform this paper. Research questions that will guide this exploratory work are as

follows:

1. Can students who are experiencing food and housing insecurity reach

academic success?

2. Has food and housing insecurity increased among college students?

3. Does financial aid cover students’ basic needs plus their living expenses?

Theoretical Framework

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

In his best-known psychological contribution, Abraham Maslow, formed a

hierarchical theory of motivation, or better known as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (King

et al., 2016). This theory classifies five basic human needs into distinct categories:

physiological (food, water, sleep), safety, psychological (love, affection, belonging),

esteem (feelings of worth, competence, recognition, adequacy), and self-actualization

(self-fulfillment that comes from achieving individual potential) (King et al., 2016; &

Lester, 2013). This theory postulates that individuals move through the “pyramid” in

sequential order, as the individual develops from birth to adulthood (Lester, 2013).
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However, to reach positive psychological health, the lower needs, the most basic and

powerful needs, must be satisfied first and more often than the higher needs. One

cannot ascend the pyramid of needs without satisfying the most basic needs (food and

shelter) first.

If we look at postsecondary students who are food and housing insecure through

the lens of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, we can easily deduce that this population of

students will face challenges in reaching academic success, as their very basic needs

of food, water, and shelter have not been or are having difficulty in being met. Without

food, water, and shelter the first category of the pyramid has been left unmet. In the

following safety category, we can associate the need for housing within it as an

individual requires adequate housing to satisfy his or her safety needs. With the first two

basic needs in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs being left unmet, it can be difficult or near

impossible for the student who is facing food and housing insecurity, to have their

psychological, esteem, and self-actualization needs met.

Within Maslow’s psychological category, utilizing a social class identity

perspective, we can relate the need of belonging to that of a student having a sense of

belonging on campus (Patton, 2016), in which the student does or does not make

meaningful connections. When there is a lack of sense of belonging, the student can

begin to feel alienated. A postsecondary student who is basic needs insecure, may not

be able to satisfy his or her sense of belonging on campus due to feelings of alienation;

if the first two basic needs of food and housing remain unmet; the same would be true

for esteem and self-actualization needs.

Holistic Student Development

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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
Many student development theories focus on the holistic development of the

student, where the students’ intellectual capacity, achievements, psychological state,

morals, social relationships, skills, and physical condition (Stebleton et al., 2020)

collectively contribute to their student development. However, if students’ basic needs

remain unmet, the path to holistic student development can be challenging. As

Stebleton et al. (2020) described, “Food insecurity influences more than the physical

health; it has the potential to negatively influence the entire student experience including

overall health and student development” (p. 732). Holistic student development is

achieved through the interactions of the student within their postsecondary environment,

where the student grows in complexity, and progressively develops a sense of self, and

their self-authorship (Patton et al., 2016; Baxter Magolda & Taylor, 2017).

Literature Review

Food Insecurity Defined

There has been a growing amount of literature that seeks to understand the

troubling increase of postsecondary students who are facing food insecurity. Food

insecurity is defined as, “limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and

safe food or limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially

acceptable ways” (Payne-Sturges et al., p.349). According to Stebleton et al. (2020),

college students often report higher rates of food insecurity compared to the general

public, with an estimated 33% of students across U.S postsecondary institutions being

food insecure. A study which surveyed over 3,000 students, across twelve states, and

included eight community colleges and twenty-six four-year institutions, estimated that
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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
48% of students were food insecure (Weaver et al., 2020). Whether the number of food

insecure students is 33% or 48%, the numbers are staggering, and the issue deserves

attention not only from scholars, but from institutional leaders, local, state, and federal

policy. There is the added complexity, in that most research indicates there is a

correlation between basic needs insecurity and poor academic success (Stebleton et

al., 2020; Payne-Sturges et al., 2018; Weaver et al., 2020; Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019)

Contributing Factors

Common themes surrounding contributing factors to college students’ food

insecurity were being on financial aid, identifying as low to very low-income (Chen and

Nunnery define very low-income as those whose income is 50% below the federal

poverty level), first-generation (Stebleton et al., 2020), being housing insecure or at risk

of housing insecurity, race and ethnicity, and coming from a food insecure household

(Chen, & Nunnery, 2019; Payne-Sturges, 2018). Keeping in mind that individual student

experiences are nuanced, and these contributing factors may or may not apply to all

students; there may be other factors contributing to students’ food insecurity not listed.

Much of the literature points to the growing concern surrounding limited financial

resources students have, and that student debt far exceeds those of previous

generations (Stebleton et al., 2020, p. 745).

Research Findings

A study of 237 undergraduate students from a public mid-Atlantic university,

found that 15% of their students identified as food insecure, from this group, 80%

reported an inability to eat balanced meals; and an additional 16% identified being at

risk of food insecurity (Payne-Sturges et al., 2018). Findings from this research also
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found that students who were food insecure tended to experience poorer health.

According to Payne-Sturges et al., students of color were at an increased risk of food

insecurity compared to white students, and the risk also increased when students were

on multiple forms of financial aid.

In the Fall of 2016, Stebleton et al., (2020) conducted a mixed methods

qualitative study whose purpose was to understand the increase in food insecurity

among postsecondary students, as well as to gain a deeper understanding of students’

experiences. The researchers conducted 23 individual student interviews at a public

Midwest research institution. The researchers utilized the USDA 6-item food insecurity

model to determine which students were low or very-low food insecure.

Three themes emerged from Stebleton et al. (2020) findings: 1) learning to work

around hunger, 2) managing anxieties around food and wellness, 3) acknowledging that

food insecurity is a shared and critical issue. In the first theme, students employed a

variety of coping mechanisms like skipping meals, borrowing peers’ meal card,

inexpensive meal supplements, rationing meals, and going to bed early to avoid hunger.

Cognitive strategies were also employed such as, ignoring hunger cues or pretending

not to be hungry. In theme two, all students reported feeling anxiety and stress over

having limited financial means to cover living expenses and food. For students who had

a university meal plan with a limited number of swipes per week, the decision-making

process as to how they would spend their limited swipes, was a cause of stress and

anxiety. All students expressed concern regarding the inability to afford healthy food

options, as well as how their food insecurity was negatively impacting their mental

health. For some, the impact of food insecurity on their mental health interfered with
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their academic performance. In theme three, although students understood that their

experiences were unique, they acknowledged that food insecurity was a shared,

campus wide issue. For example, some students witnessed close peers or roommates’

experiencing the same hardships with food insecurity. Some students stated how they

openly communicate with one another and share their “hunger stories;” in sharing these

experiences they were able to build a support system and, in some instances, share

resources, such as giving a peer a guest meal plan.

In their qualitative research, Stebleton et al., (2020) truly captured the lived

experiences of students who were struggling with the nuances of food insecurity. While

other research has focused on quantitative survey methods, this qualitative study

utilized one on one student interviews, in which the gravity and scope of the issue can

begin to be understood from the students’ perspective. In terms of students’ various

coping mechanisms, Stebleton et al., point to the negative consequences food

insecurity has on students’ “overall mental and physical health, as well as to their

academic success, consistent with the holistic student development framework” (p.

746).

Findings on Challenges to Academic Success

A common theme found in all the scholarly work explored for this paper, was that

students who are food or housing insecure often find it difficult to achieve academic

success; this can pertain to persistence, low GPA, or failure to graduate. As Payne-

Sturges et al. (2018) noted, “Students experiencing housing and food insecurity have

been found to be at greater risk of not completing their studies” (p.352). In their study,

Payne-Sturges et al., found that food insecure students reported lower academic
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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
achievement. Students who are food insecure can struggle with lower concentration,

energy, test scores, and retention (Weaver et al., 2020). A California State University

campus wide Basic Needs Initiative (BNI) study found that students who experienced

both food and home insecurity had the lowest average GPA of 3.11, those who were

only food insecure had an average GPA of 3.17, and those who were only housing

insecure had an average GPA of 3.28 (notably higher than food insecure or food and

housing insecure) (Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019).

A New Jersey university research study surveyed (n=2055) food insecure

students, utilizing a recent USDA 10-item index, to try and determine if food insecurity

was correlated with academic performance using GPA as the measurement. Results

indicated lower GPA for food insecure students, males, Native Americans, second-year,

commuters, and financial aid recipients (Weaver et al., 2020). Results from a study

conducted by Camelo and Elliott (2019), in which food insecure students were surveyed

(n=3,245) at a public Western U.S. university, echoed many of the findings in other

literature, in where food insecurity among postsecondary students negatively impacted

their GPA.

Most of the literature has focused on the prevalence of food insecurity and the

impacts on academic success among undergraduate students; however, in a student

self-reported survey, conducted by Soldavini and Berner (2020), food insecurity data

among graduate students was collected. Students self-identified as either high food

secure, marginal food secure, or food insecure. Students also self-identified

demographic information and perceived academic performance. Items included in the

academic performance were GPA, overall progress towards degree attainment, class
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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
attendance, attention span, and understanding of concepts taught in class. Findings

were as follows: 62% of graduate students reported high food security, 17% reported

marginal food security, and 21% reported food insecurity. GPA was found to be

negatively associated with marginal food security, and with food insecurity. All items on

the perceived academic performance scale were negatively associated with both

marginal food security and food insecurity. Although this research was subjective in

nature, the findings are on par with that of other literature in that food insecurity among

postsecondary students negatively impacts academic success.

Mental Health Implications

College students are consistently under pressure; most have multiple

responsibilities such as familial, employment, financial, social, extracurricular, and

academic obligations. There is an additional burden that is added to those students who

are food insecure, at risk of being food insecure, or have other basic needs that are

unmet. Data findings across the literature are consistent in that students who are food

insecure often suffer from stress, anxiety, depression, or other mental health related

issues (Payne-Sturges et al., 2018; Stebleton et al.,2020; Weaver et al., 2020;

Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019). Additionally, not having enough to eat and or not eating

nutritious foods can have a negative impact on students’ health; “causing fatigue,

difficulties concentrating, reduced psychological wellbeing, and impaired cognitive

function” (Weaver et al., 2020, p. 730). As echoed by Stebleton et al., (2020), “their

inability to eat consistently healthy meals often negatively affected their mental health

and their ability to focus on their studies due to hunger.” (p.745). Clearly, as the

literature has indicated, there is a direct association between food insecurity among
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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
postsecondary students and the adverse consequences to their physical and mental

well-being; this can then affect their academic performance, turning into a possible

vicious cycle.

Data Across California State University System

CSU Basic Needs Initiative (BNI)

To further understand the basic needs of their student population, how these

unmet needs negatively impact academic success, as well as what services and

programs can best support this student population, the California State University

System implemented a three phase Basic Needs Initiative study. This study was

administered across all 23 campuses; in the Fall of 2016, 24,324 students were

sampled, utilizing the USDA 10-item scale to measure food insecurity. Phase 1 focused

on housing and food insecurity from the perspectives and experiences of CSU staff,

faculty, and administrators; Phase 2 focused on the experiences of students who were

food and housing insecure; and Phase 3 focused on support programs and barriers to

these programs across the university system (Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019).

Findings from Phase 2 indicated that 41.6% of CSU students reported food

insecurity, 20% experienced low food security, and 21.6% very low food security

(Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019). 10.9% of the student population sampled, reported

experiencing homelessness one or more times within a 12-month period. First-

generation students, and Black or African American students experienced the highest

rates of homelessness at 18%, and with food insecurity at 65.9%. Findings associated

students with the greatest level of basic needs with a low GPA, indicative that students

who are struggling with unmet basic needs are also struggling academically. These
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numbers shine a light into the nuanced financial and academic issues that are all too

common among first-generation and students of color; also highlighting the equity gaps

that exist in both student populations.

Findings from Phase 3 indicated the level of awareness students had regarding

campus services and support programs, and the amount/frequency in which students

sampled utilized these services. Campus services and programs included: student

health centers, counseling and psychological services (CAPS), emergency housing,

EBT, CalFresh application assistance, and food pantry. Percentage of students reported

utilizing student health centers: 14.4% “currently use,” 32% “used in the past,” 47.6%

“heard of, but never used it,” and 6% “never heard of/never used it” (Crutchfield &

Maguire, 2019). Percentage of students reported utilizing CAPS: 4.9% “currently use,”

10.8% “used in the past,” 67.7% “heard of, but never used it,” and 16.6% “never heard

of/never used it.” Percentage of students reported utilizing emergency housing: 0.2%

“currently use,” 0.8% used in the past,” 26.4% “heard of, but never used it,” and 72.7%

“never heard of/never used it.” Percentage of students reported utilizing EBT: 0.7%

“currently use,” 1.4% “used in the past,” 33.9% “heard of, but never used it,” and 63.9%

“never heard of/never used it.” Percentage of students reported utilizing CalFresh

application assistance: 4.7% “currently use,” 5.9% “used in the past,” 47.3% “heard of,

but never used it,” and 42.2% “never heard of/never used it.” Lastly, percentage of

students reported utilizing campus food pantry: 5.6% “currently use,” 6.5% “used in the

past,” 34.3% “heard of, but never used it,” and 53.6% “never heard of/never used it.”

From this data, there is a clear underutilization of critical services that can aid

and support students who are food and housing insecure (Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019).
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For example, only 5.6% of students are “currently using” campus food pantries, and

only 0.2% are utilizing emergency housing. There was a significantly higher number of

food and housing insecure students utilizing student health centers and slightly lower

number when compared to food pantry utilization, in CAPS services (14.4% and 4.9%,

respectively). Various obstacles and barriers in the utilization of these services can be a

contributing factor into the underutilization of these programs.

There are many barriers that can prevent postsecondary students who are food

and or housing insecure from seeking campus support. According to Crutchfield and

Maguire (2019), “Many students commented that navigating the demands of

homelessness, food insecurity, or both was, in and of itself, time consuming and

stressful” (p.21). Students reported being overwhelmed by perceived complicated

applications, long wait times, or an overall difficulty in finding the appropriate support

services, which often became reasons not to apply for services. Some students

reported feeling that they were “not needy enough” (p.21), to apply for services,

although they had been identified as being food insecure; they often felt as though

another student might be more deserving of the service. Data findings from the BNI

report (2019) showed that common barriers to accessing services among food and

housing insecure students included: students “feeling embarrassed to use” 16%, “lack

of transportation” 7%, “not knowing how to access” 23%, “not having enough time to

access” 7%, “did not feel needy enough” 4%, “never heard of services/programs” 10%,

and “did not qualify” 4%.

What Can Institutions Do

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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
First, institutions, scholars, and policy makers must accept that postsecondary

students’ unmet basic needs are a nationwide problem, not just a local or institutional

issue. Food, housing, and general basic needs insecurity among students is a local,

state, and federal issue. The majority of students who experienced food and housing

insecurity reported that their financial aid package did not cover all their living expenses

(Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019). The cost of tuition, books, and living expenses has

continued to rise, and has far surpassed what financial aid can cover. Financial aid

programs and policies, at the state and federal level, need to be reevaluated, as food

and housing insecurity among students will continue to rise due to rise in costs of living

expenses and inflation.

At the institutional level, raising awareness about student services and programs

that are geared towards meeting students’ basic needs should be a priority. It should

not be left to individual departments to inform students on a first come first serve basis,

rather awareness needs to be raised campus wide. This can be achieved during

freshen orientation, through cultural centers and other student affairs programs, and

through student clubs and organizations (Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019). In raising

awareness through various avenues early identification of students’ basic needs can be

determined, thus supporting students early on and helping to prevent physical, mental,

and academic issues.

Addressing barriers that prevent students from seeking services should also be

of great concern and priority at institutions. In the Crutchfield and Maguire (2019) study,

students shared their experiences in navigating barriers to services and programs for

food and housing insecure students. Students often found services inaccessible, either
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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
due to hours of operation or because the location was difficult to find. Services like food

campus food pantries, should be visible, and should remain opened past normal hours

of operation to accommodate students’ work and class schedules. Larger institutions

should also have a minimum of two student food pantries to aid with the increased

student need.

Normalization of services, programs, and financial aid programs should become

standard practice within our institutions to help reduce the stigma that can be related to

students seeking support. Many students reported feeling embarrassed to utilize

services for food and or housing insecure students (Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019).

Stigma, lack of awareness, among other factors, have led to the underutilization of

services that are in dire need. Normalization can begin by having faculty include

information on services geared towards food and housing insecurity on their syllabi

(Stebleton et al., 2020).

Conclusion

This exploratory paper sought to answer three research questions: 1) can

students who are experiencing food and housing insecurity reach academic success? 2)

Has food and housing insecurity increased among college students? and 3) does

financial aid cover students basic needs plus their living expenses? The literature was

consistent in that students who are food and or housing insecure have lower GPAs and

tend to struggle with concentration and other academic challenges, usually related to

mental health issues brought on by anxiety, stress, and depression due to their basic

needs being unmet. Although data was not found that indicated level of student
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FOOD INSECURITY AND HOMELESSNESS AMONG POSTSECONDARY STUDENTS
stop/drop out; it seems that students are suffering academic challenges, but they are

also persisting, especially those who seek support.

Since there has been an increase in the recent volume of emerging scholarship

surrounding food and housing insecurity among postsecondary college students, we

can infer that food and housing insecurity among students is on the rise. Contributing

factors can be associated with rise in tuition, living expenses, while wages as well as

financial aid remaining low. It will be interesting to see how the COVID-19 pandemic has

affected this vulnerable student populations in future research. We can also infer (as

documented by the research) that financial aid is simply not enough to cover tuition and

cost of living expenses; as many students have had to make difficult decisions between

choosing to pay housing and living expenses or choosing to purchase food (Gupton, &

Trost, 2018; Crutchfield, & Maguire, 2019).

Intersections between one or multiple of contributing factors of student food

insecurity were often at play; factors such as being a first-generation student, a student

of color, and being a recipient of financial aid. This requires attention and policy change

to address systemic equity gaps. Due to time constraints, homelessness among

postsecondary students was not discussed in depth as food insecurity, further research

into this critical issue is necessary as homelessness and food insecurity were often

intersecting issues. Finally, further discourse is needed to make institutional, policy, and

program change. When basic needs are left unmet, this furthers the equity, retention,

persistence, and graduation gaps (Crutchfield & Maguire, 2019).

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