Theorem 1.

We have
|z1 · z2| = |z1||z2|, Arg(z1 · z2) = Arg(z1) + Arg(z2) + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
and for z2 ̸= 0,
|z1/z2| = |z1|/|z2|, Arg(z1/z2) = Arg(z1) − Arg(z2) + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
Proof. Let
z1 = r1(cos(θ1) + i sin(θ1))
and
z2 = r2(cos(θ2) + i sin(θ2)).
Then we have
z1 · z2 = r1r2 ((cos(θ1) cos(θ2) − sin(θ1) sin(θ2))
+(cos(θ1) sin(θ2) + sin(θ1) cos(θ2))i)
= r1r2(cos(θ1 + θ2) + i sin(θ1 + θ2)),
where we have used the following two identities:
sin(A + B) = sin(A) cos(B) + sin(B) cos(A),
cos(A + B) = cos(A) cos(B) − sin(A) sin(B).
1
 Now,
z1 r1 (cos(θ1) + i sin(θ1))(cos(θ2) − i sin(θ2))
=
z2 r2 (cos(θ2) + i sin(θ2))(cos(θ2) − i sin(θ2))
r1 ((cos(θ1) cos(θ2) + sin(θ1) sin(θ2)) + (− cos(θ1) sin(θ2) + sin(θ1) cos(θ2))i)
=
r2 1
= r2 (cos(θ1 − θ2) + i sin(θ1 − θ2)),
r1

where we have used the following two identities:

sin(A − B) = sin(A) cos(B) − sin(B) cos(A),
cos(A − B) = cos(A) cos(B) + sin(A) sin(B).

Example 1. Let z1 = i and z2 = −i. We have Arg(i) = π

2 and Arg(z2) = − π2 .
Therefore we have
π π
0 = Arg(1) = Arg(z1 · z2) = Arg(z1) + Arg(z2) = − =0
2 2
and
z1 π π
π = Arg(−1) = Arg( ) = Arg(z1) − Arg(z2) = + = π.
z2 2 2
2
2.1 Some Geometry of Complex Numbers

If |z| = 1 and z is real then we know that z = 1 or z = −1. But if z is a complex

number, then the answer is much more interesting.

Let
z = x + yi.
So, if |z| = 1 then we have
√
|z| = x2 + y 2 = 1,
which is equivalent to
x2 + y 2 = 1.
In other words, if
|z| = 1,
then z can be any complex number on the unit circle centered at 0 + 0i of the
complex plane.

3
Example 2. Now, consider
Re(z 2) = 0.
Set z = x + yi, and after simple computations, we have
Re(x2 − y 2 + 2xyi) = 0,
that is,
x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y) = 0.
Then z can be any point on the lines y = x or y = −x. Or we can use the
parametric form to represent the two lines:
{t + ti : t ∈ R} ∪ {t − ti : t ∈ R}.
Example 3. What are the complex numbers z satisfying |z − 1| = 4?

We let z = x + yi where x and y are real numbers. Then we have

(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 42 = 16
which is a circle of radius 4 and centered at 1 + 0i of the complex plane.

4
2.2 De Moivre’s Theorem

Theorem 2. Let n be a non-negative integer and r ̸= 0, we have

(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) .
Proof. We can prove this by mathematical induction. When n = 0, we have
(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))0 = 1 = r0 (cos(0) + i sin(0)) .
Thus the equality is true when n = 0. Assume that
(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) . (2.1)
Then we shall prove
(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))n+1 = rn+1 (cos((n + 1)θ) + i sin((n + 1)θ)) .
Now, using the assumption (2.1), we have
(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))n+1 = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ))(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))n
= r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ))rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) (by Eq. (2.1))
= rn+1(cos(θ) cos(nθ) − sin(θ) sin(nθ))
+rn+1(cos(θ) sin(nθ) + cos(nθ) sin(θ))i
= rn+1(cos((n + 1)θ) + i sin((n + 1)θ)).

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2.2.1 Principle of Mathematical Induction

The Principle of Mathematical Induction (M.I.) can be informally stated as

follows:

We can establish the truth of a proposition if

(a) we can establish the truth of the proposition for the smallest instance (or in-
stances) explicitly;
(b) and we can show that the proposition for bigger instances follows from the same
proposition for smaller instances.

Theorem 3. Let S1, S2, S3, . . . be statements such that

(1) S1 is true;
(2) For any k ∈ N, if Statement Sk is true, then Statement Sk+1 is also true.

Then all of the statements S1, S2, . . . , are true.

6
Corollary 1. Let n be a positive integer and r ̸= 0, we have
(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))−n = r−n (cos(−nθ)+i sin(−nθ)) = r−n (cos(nθ)−i sin(nθ)) .
Proof. It suffices to show that
r−n (cos(nθ) − i sin(nθ)) · (r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))n = 1.
By De Moivre’s theorem, we have
(r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)))n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) .
So, we only need to show that
r−n (cos(nθ) − i sin(nθ)) · rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) = 1,
which immediately follows from
r−n (cos(nθ) − i sin(nθ)) · rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) = cos2(nθ) + sin2(nθ) = 1,
where we have used the identity
cos2(A) + sin2(A) = 1.
The proof is then completed.
7
2.3 Trigonometric Identities

The following is the famous Euler’s identity:

eθi = cos(θ) + i sin(θ).
To “prove” Euler’s identity, note that, by Taylor’s series expansion, we have, for
any x ∈ R
2 3 4
x x x x
ex = 1 + + + + + · · · +
1! 2! 3! 4!
x2 x4 x6
cos(x) = 1 − + − + · · · +
2! 4! 6!
x x3 x5
sin(x) = − + + · · · + .
1! 3! 5!
Thus by “letting x = θi”, we have
θ2 (θ)3 i 4
e θi
= 1 + 1! − 2! − 3! + θ4! +
θi
···+
2 4 6
= 1 − θ2! + θ4! − θ6! + · · · +
3 5
+i( 1!θ − θ3! + θ5! + · · · +)
= cos(θ) + i sin(θ).

8
Corollary 2.
exi + e−xi exi − e−xi
cos(x) = and sin(x) = .
2 2i
Theorem 4.
cos(2x) = cos2(x) − sin2(x) and sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x).
Proof. Straightforward computations yield
(cos(x) + i sin(x))2 = cos2(x) − sin2(x) + 2 cos(x) sin(x)i.
Then, by De Moivre’s theorem, we have
(cos(x) + i sin(x))2 = cos(2x) + i sin(2x).
By comparing coefficients, we have
cos(2x) = cos2(x) − sin2(x) and sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x).

Corollary 3. Let x = π/12. Then,

√
3
= cos(π/6) = cos2(π/12) − sin2(π/12) = 2 cos2(π/12) − 1.
2 √ √
1 3
Thus we have cos(π/12) = 2 (1 + 2 ).

9
Theorem 5.
cos(3x) = 4 cos3(x) − 3 cos(x) and sin(3x) = 3 sin(x) − 4 sin3(x).
Proof. Straightforward computations give us
(cos(x) + i sin(x))3 = cos3(x) − 3 sin2(x) cos(x) + (3 cos2(x) sin(x) − sin3(x))i.
Then, by De Moivre’s theorem, we have
(cos(x) + i sin(x))3 = cos(3x) + i sin(3x).
By comparing coefficients, we have
cos(3x) = cos3(x) − 3 sin2(x) cos(x)
and
sin(3x) = 3 sin(x) cos2(x) − sin3(x).
The result then follows from the identity
sin2(x) + cos2(x) = 1.

10
2.4 The nth Root of Unity

For a positive integer n, the equation z n = 1 has n distinct roots, which are called
the nth roots of unity. To solve the equation, representing z using the polar
form z = r(cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) and applying De Moivre’s theorem, we rewrite
the equation as
rn(cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) = 1,
which implies that
2kπ
r = 1 and θ = , where k ∈ Z.
n
In other words, all the roots are given by
( ) ( )
2kπ 2kπ 2kπi
z = cos + i sin = e n , where k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ,
n n
which, however, collectively only give the following n distinct values (due to the
periodicity of sin and cos functions):
1, w, w2, . . . , wn−1
2πi
where w = e . An nth root of unity v is said to be primitive if {z ∈ C : z n =
n

1} = {v n : n ∈ N}, namely, all the roots can be generated by the powers of the
root v.
11
Example 4. Consider the equation:
z 4 = 1.
As shown before, there are four distinct 4th roots of unity 1, w, w2, w3, where
2πi
w=e4.

Note that {z ∈ C : z 4 = 1} = {wn : n ∈ N}, namely, all the roots can be

generated by the powers of the root w, which means that w is primitive.

However, if we take w1 = w2 then we have

w12 = w4 = 1, w13 = w6 = w4 · w2 = w2, w14 = 1, w15 = w10 = w2, w16 = w12 = 1, · · · , .
Thus, {z ∈ C : z 4 = 1} ̸= {w1n : n ∈ N}, namely, the powers of w1 cannot
generate all the four distinct roots and it is not primitive.

But if we take w2 = w3 then we have

w22 = w6 = w2, w23 = w9 = w, w24 = w12 = 1, w25 = w15 = w3.
In this case, we can generate all the four distinct roots using the powers of w2,
and so w2 is primitive.
12