Those lecture notes are brought to you by the

Math, Physics,Engineering YouTube channel.

(Click the blue text to visit the channel)
Please consider subscribing and sharing.
Video explanation to the document is available at the following link:
Lecture in YouTube (simply click the blue text)
For question ,remarks, or support on PayPal support: math.physics3141@gmail.com

To support on Patreon follow the link: Patreon

Consider the following indefinite integral, it is easily one of the hardest
indefinite integrals that I ever solved , and one of the hardest anyone
will ever encounter in his undergraduate studies.

x2
Z
dx =?
(cos(x) + x sin(x))2

If at first sight it seems impossible you are right, I can hardly imag-
ine someone solving it without experiencing some frustration and luck.
You got to have an insight and then you need to have a leap of faith
to continue with what you had in mind. Let us start in order to see
what I meant. After you have exhausted a few failed attempts if you
are persistent you may try to compute the derivative

d
(cos(x) + x sin(x)) = − sin(x) + sin(x) + x cos(x) = x cos(x).
dx
Note how nicely the sine reduces, whenever something like this happens
it is a hint that you are on the right path. If you did it you may not yet
realize it yet but you have made a significant progress. How does it help,
well we can form a fraction where the derivative of the denominator is
in the numerator, as follows

x2
Z Z
x x cos(x)
dx = · dx
(cos(x) + x sin(x))2 cos(x) (cos(x) + x sin(x))2
Now comes the leap of faith stage where we do the integration by parts
with
x x cos(x)
f= and g 0 =
cos(x) (cos(x) + x sin(x))2
1
2

It is the part where we need the leap of faith to believe that the integral
will simplify in the next step, and it simplifies indeed since
cos(x) + x sin(x) 1
f0 = and g = −
cos2 (x) (cos(x) + x sin(x))
to verify the result for g note that
Z Z
x cos(x) 1 1 1
g= = dt = − = −
(cos(x) + x sin(x))2 t2 t (cos(x) + x sin(x))
as we made the substitution
t = (cos(x) + x sin(x)) and consequently dt = x cos(x)dx. integrating
by parts we have
Z
x x cos(x)
· dx =
cos(x) (cos(x) + x sin(x))2
−1 −1
Z
x cos(x) + x sin(x)
= · − · dx
cos(x) (cos(x) + x sin(x)) (cos(x) + x sin(x)) cos2 (x)
| {z }
here the miracle happens

−x −x
Z
1
= + 2
dx = +tan(x)+C
cos(x)(cos(x) + x sin(x)) cos (x) cos(x)(cos(x) + x sin(x))
−x sin(x)
= + +C
cos(x)(cos(x) + x sin(x)) cos(x)

−x + sin(x)(cos(x) + x sin(x)) −x + sin(x) cos(x) + x sin2 (x)

= +C = +C
cos(x)(cos(x) + x sin(x)) cos(x)(cos(x) + x sin(x))
sin(x) − x cos(x)
= +C
(cos(x) + x sin(x))
Thus
R x2 sin(x) − x cos(x)
dx = + C.
(cos(x) + x sin(x))2 cos(x) + x sin(x)

Similarly this integral has a companion an adjoint in some sense, note

that

d
(sin(x) − x cos(x)) = cos(x) − cos(x) + x sin(x) = x sin(x)
dx
So similarly we can formulate and solve the following challenge
 3

x2
Z Z
x x sin(x)
dx = dx
(sin(x) − x cos(x))2 sin(x) (sin(x) − x cos(x))2

−x sin(x) − x cos(x)
Z
1
= + · dx
sin(x)(sin(x) − x cos(x)) sin(x) − x cos(x) sin2 (x)
−x −x
Z
1
= + 2 dx = −cot(x)+C.
sin(x)(sin(x) − x cos(x)) sin (x) sin(x)(sin(x) − x cos(x))

Therefore

x2 −x
Z
2
dx = − cot(x) + C.
(sin(x) − x cos(x)) sin(x)(sin(x) − x cos(x))
.