2.

1 Some Complex Functions

Let D be a subset of C and let f be a complex function from D to C. In this

section, we will study the image of D under the complex function f .

2.1.1 Linear Function

Consider the following linear function f : D → C,

f (z) = cz + d where c, d ∈ R, c ̸= 0.
The image of D under the function f is the set of complex numbers
f (D) = {z ′ : z ′ = f (z) for z ∈ D}.
(i) Let a, b, e ∈ R. Then the following set
D = {x + yi : ax + by = e}
is a straight line. Letting z = x + yi and f (z) = x′ + y ′i, then we have
x′ + y ′i = c(x + yi) + d = cx + d + cyi.

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To obtain the relationship of x′ and y ′, we then proceed as follows.

Solving x and y, we have

1 1
x = (x′ − d) and y = y ′,
c c
which, after substitution, yields
a b
ax + by = (x′ − d) + y ′ = e.
c c
Finally the relation between x′ and y ′ is given by
ax′ + by ′ = ad + ce,
which is another straight line.

That is to say, the image f (D) = {x′ + y ′i : ax′ + by ′ = ad + ce} is again a straight
line.

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(ii) If
D = {x + yi : x2 + y 2 = 1}
is the unit circle with center at zero then we have
f (z) = x′ + y ′i = c(x + yi) + d.
Solving x and y, we have
1 ′ 1 ′
x = (x − d) and y = y ,
c c
which, after substitution, yields
1 ′ 1 ′2
x + y = 2 (x − d) + 2 y = 1.
2 2 2
c c
Note that
(x′ − d)2 + y ′2 = c2
is another circle with center d and radius of |c|.1 So, we conclude that the above
linear function maps a straight line to a straight line and a circle to a circle.

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You may also use the parametric form of an unit circle: x = cos θ, y = sin θ for θ ∈ [−π, π]. Then we have f (z) = x′ + y ′ i = c(cos θ + i sin θ) + d =
c cos θ + d + ci sin θ. Hence we have x′ = c cos θ + d and y ′ = c sin θ. Finally we have (x′ − d)2 + y ′2 = c2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) = c2 which is circle.

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2.1.2 The Inverse Function

Consider the following inverse function f : D → C,

f (z) = 1/z.
(i) Let c, d, e ∈ R and assume e ̸= 0. Apparently, the set D = {x+yi : cx+dy = e}
is a straight line that does not pass through the origin. Then, we have
1 x − yi
f (z) = x′ + y ′i = = 2 2
.
x + yi x + y
To obtain the relationship of x′ and y ′ one can proceed as follows.

It follows from
′ x ′ −y
x = 2 and y = 2 ,
x + y2 x + y2
that
1 1
x′2 + y ′2 = 2 2
and then x 2
+ y 2
= ′2 ′2
,
x +y x +y
which further implies that
x′ −y ′
x = ′2 ′2
and y = ′2 ′2
.
x +y x +y
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Now, from
cx + dy = e,
we have
cx′ − dy ′ = e(x′2 + y ′2)
or equivalently,
e(x′2 + y ′2) − cx′ + dy ′ = 0.
Finally, we deduce that
( ) ( )2
′ c 2
′ d c2 + d2
x − + y + = ,
2e 2e 4e2
√
2 2
which is a circle with center 2ec − 2e d
i and radius c 4e+d2 .

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(ii) If
D = {x + yi : x2 + y 2 = r2}
is the circle with center at zero and radius r, then we have
1 x − yi x − yi
f (z) = x′ + y ′i = = 2 2
= 2
.
x + yi x + y r
It then follows from
x = r2x′ and y = −r2y ′,
that
1 ′2 ′2
x + y = 2,
r
which is a circle with radius 1/r and center 0 2. Thus if
D = {x + yi : x2 + y 2 = r2}
then
f (D) = {x′ + y ′i : x′2 + y ′2 = 1/r2}.

You may also use the parametric form of a circle: x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ for θ ∈ [−π, π]. Then we have f (z) = x′ + y ′ i =
2 1
r cos θ+ir sin θ = 1r (cos θ − i sin θ).
Hence we have x′ = 1r cos θ and y ′ = −1 ′2 ′2 1
r sin θ. Finally we have x + y = r 2 .

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2.2 Hyperbolic Functions

We define a class of functions called hyperbolic functions, which are similar to

the trigonometric functions.

(i) Hyperbolic sine of x:

ex − e−x
sinh(x) =
2
(ii) Hyperbolic cosine of x:
ex + e−x
cosh(x) =
2
Using the above two definitions, one can define the rest of the hyperbolic functions.
(iii) Hyperbolic tangent of x (here, recall that tan(x) = sin(x)/ cos(x)):
sinh(x) ex − e−x
tanh(x) = = x
cosh(x) e + e−x

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The remaining hyperbolic functions are just the inverse of the above (i)-(iii).
(iv) Hyperbolic cotangent of x (here, recall that cot(x) = 1/ tan(x)):
1 ex + e−x
coth(x) = = x
tanh(x) e − e−x
(v) Hyperbolic secant of x:
1 2
sech(x) = = x
cosh(x) e + e−x
(vi) Hyperbolic cosecant of x:
1 2
csch(x) = = .
sinh(x) ex − e−x

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Theorem 1.
sinh(−x) = − sinh(x) and cosh(−x) = cosh(x).
Proof.
e−x − ex
sinh(−x) = = − sinh(x)
2
and
e−x + ex
cosh(−x) = = cosh(x).
2

Corollary 1.
tanh(−x) = − tanh(x)
coth(−x) = − coth(x)
sech(−x) = sech(x)
csch(−x) = −csch(x)

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Theorem 2.
cosh2(x) − sinh2(x) = 1.

Theorem 3. (a)
dsinh(x)
= cosh(x).
dx
(b)
dcosh(x)
= sinh(x).
dx
(c) ( )
d tanh(x) d sinh(x) cosh2(x) − sinh2(x) 1
= = 2 = 2 .
dx dx cosh(x) cosh (x) cosh (x)
Proof. We only prove (c) as follows:
( )
d tanh(x) d sinh(x) cosh2(x) − sinh2(x) 1
= = 2 = 2 ,
dx dx cosh(x) cosh (x) cosh (x)
where we have used the fact that
cosh2(x) − sinh2(x) = 1.

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Theorem 4. (a)
∫ ∫ x
e − e−x ex + e−x
sinh(x)dx = dx = + C = cosh(x) + C.
2 2
(b) ∫ ∫
ex + e−x ex − e−x
cosh(x)dx = dx = + C = sinh(x) + C.
2 2
(c)
∫ ∫ ∫
sinh(x) d cosh(x)
tanh(x)dx = dx = = loge(cosh(x)) + C.
cosh(x) cosh(x)

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2.3 Relation Between Hyperbolic Functions and Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 5.
i sinh(x) = sin(ix) and cosh(x) = cos(ix).
Proof. Recall
x x2 x3 x4
e = 1 + + + + + ···
x
1! 2! 3! 4!
and
−x x x2 x3 x4
e = 1 − + − + + ···
1! 2! 3! 4!
and
x x3 x5
sin(x) = − + + · · · + .
1! 3! 5!
Thus
ex − e−x x x3 x5
sinh(x) = = + + +
2 1! 3! 5!
and ( 3 5
)
x x x
sin(ix) = i + + + ···+ .
1! 3! 5!
Then we have i sinh(x) = sin(ix). Similarly one can prove the second equality.
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2.4 A Summary

1. Imaginary numbers.
2. Argand diagram.
3. Arg and modulus of a complex number.
4. Polar form.
5. De Moivre’s theorem and its applications.
6. eθi = cos(θ) + i sin(θ) and trigonometric identities.
7. The nth roots of unity.
8. The image of a complex function.
9. Hyperbolic functions and trigonometric functions.

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