Biological Bases of Behavior

Chapter 2 (Part 1)
Diagrams of Neuron

Neurons
Their Basic Structure and Function
• Neurons: Nerve Cells specialized for communicating information, the basic
building blocks of the nervous system.
• They vary in appearance but always have 3 Basic Parts: Cell Body, an
Axon, and
one or more Dendrite.
• Dendrites: The parts of a Neuron that conduct action potentials
(information/
signals) toward the cell body.
• Soma: The cell body of a neuron contains the nucleus and other structures
common to living cells. These structures support the chemical processing of
the
neuron: the most important off which is the production of neurotransmitters.
Neuron: Their Basic Structure and Function
Continued…
• Axon: The part of the Neuron that conducts the action potential
(information/
signals) away from the cell body
• FUN FACT: There are more than 85 billion neurons in the human brain!
• Myelin Sheath: a sleeve that wrapped around each neuron. Its a protective
layer of
fat (lipids) and protein that coats the main body section of a neuron called the
Axon.
• Function of a Myelin Sheath: Insulates Axons allowing for rapid action
potential
conduction. Separates axons from surrounding extracellular components.
• Damage to the myelin sheath surrounding axons can seriously affect
synaptic
transmission. An Example: MS ( Multiple Sclerosis) Jack Osborne, Selma
Blair.
Neurons: Their Basic Structure and Function
Continued…
• Glial Cells: Cells in the nervous system that surround, support, and protect
neurons
• They outnumber neurons 10 to 1.
• Functions or Glial Cells: They form the myelin sheath around axons and
perform
chores such as cleaning up cellular debris, form a barrier that prevents certain
substances in the blood stream from reaching the brain.
• Axon Terminals: Structures at the end of axons that contain transmitter
substance.
• Function of Axon Terminals: The terminals release transmitter substances
into gaps
called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next
neuron.
Neurons: Their Basic Structure And Function
Continued…
• Axon Hillock: a specialized part of the soma of a neuron that connects to
the axon.
• Synapse: A region where the axon of one neuron closely approaches
other neurons or the cell membrane of other types of cells such as muscle
cells.
• Synaptic Transmission: The biological process by which a neuron
communicates with a target neuron across a synapse.
Video: communication within a Neuron
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6qS83wD29PY
Neurons: Their Basic Structure And Function
Continued…
• Nodes of Ranvier: Periodic Gap in the myelin sheath on the axon of certain
neurons that serves to help the rapid conduction of nerve impulses
• Graded Potential: signals which happen along dendrites and basically
travel a small distance
• Synaptic Vesicles: Structures in the axon terminals that contain various
neurotransmitters.
• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released by neurons that carry information
across synapses.
Neurons: Their Basic Structure And Function
Continued…
• Excitatory Neurons: they release neurotransmitters to make the post
synaptic neuron generate an action potential.
• Inhibitory Neurons: they release neurotransmitters to make post synaptic
neuron less likely to generate an action potential.
• Reuptake: the reabsorption by a neuron of a neurotransmitter following
the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse.
• Diffusion: The neurotransmitter drifts away, out of the synaptic cleft where
it can no longer act on a receptor.
Video: Communication between Neurons:
Synaptic Transmission
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhowH0kb7n0
Neurotransmitters
Chemical Keys to the Nervous System
• There are many different types of Neurotransmitters other than Excitatory
and Inhibitory
• There are chemical substances such as certain drugs that can mimic the
effects of neurotransmitters
• There are special receptor sites for drugs such as morphine and other
opiates because they closely resemble the function of endorphins.
• Agonist: A chemical substance that mimics the action of neurotransmitter
at a receptor site.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical Keys to the Nervous System (Continued…)
• Antagonist: A chemical substance that inhibits the effect normally
produced by a neurotransmitter at a receptor site.
• Many Painkillers (also called analgesic) occupy receptor sites normally
stimulated by endorphins hence blocking pain and producing a
temporary high.
• Opium, heroin, and crack cocaine also occupy these sites and produce
more intensely pleasurable sensations than endorphins… the reason why
we get addicted to them.
Neurotransmitters
Amino Acids
• Glutamate: This is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter of your
nervous
system. It’s the most abundant neurotransmitter in your brain. It plays a key
role in
cognitive functions like thinking, learning, and memory. Imbalances in this
are
associated with Alzheimers, dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and seizures.
• GABA (gamma-amino-butyric acid): the most common inhibitory
neurotransmitter
of your nervous system, particularly the brain. It regulates brain activity to
prevent
problems in the areas of anxiety, irritability, concentration, sleep, seizures,
and
depression.
• Glycine: The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in your spinal cord.
Glycine
is involved in controlling hearing processing, pain transmission, and
metabolism
Neurotransmitters
Monoamines
• Serotonin: an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps regulate ,mood, sleep
patterns, sexuality, anxiety, appetite, and pain. Diseases associated with
serotonin imbalances include seasonal depression, anxiety, depression,
fibromyalgia, and chronic pain. Medications that regulate serotonin and
treat these disorders include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs) and serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)
• Histamine: Regulates body functions including wakefulness, feeding,
behavior, and motivation. Histamine plays a role in asthma,
bronchospasm, mucosal edema and multiple sclerosis.
Neurotransmitters
Monoamines (Continued…)
• Dopamine: plays a role in your body’s “reward system”, which includes
feeling pleasure,
achieving heightened arousal, and learning. Dopamine also helps with focus,
concentration, memory, sleep, mood, and motivation. Diseases associated
with
dysfunctions of the dopamine system include, Parkinson’s disease,
schizophrenia,
bipolar diseases, restless leg syndrome, (ADHD). Drugs such as cocaine and
methamphetamines act directly on the dopamine system.
• Norepinephrine: increases blood pressure and heart rate. It is most widely
known for its
effects on alertness, arousal, decision making, attention, and focus. Many
medications
(stimulants and depression medications) aim to increase norepinephrine
levels to
improve focus and concentration to treat ADHD or to modulate
norepinephrine to
improve depression symptoms. It is a metabolite of dopamine that primarily
acts on the
adrenorecpetors in the blood vessels.
Neurotransmitters
Monoamines (Continued..)
• Epinephrine (Adrenaline): and norepinephrine are responsible for your
body’s flight or fight response to fear and stress. They stimulate your
body’s response by increasing your heart rate (Heart), breathing (Lungs),
blood pressure (Blood Vessels), blood sugar, and blood flow to your
muscles, as well as heighten attention and focus to allow you to act or
react to different stressors. Too much of this can lead to high blood
pressure, diabetes, heart diseases, and other health problems. As a drug,
it is used to treat anaphylaxis, asthma attacks , cardiac arrest and severe
infections.
Neurotranmitters
Peptide
• Peptides are polymers or chains of amino acids.
• Endorphins: The Body’s natural pain reliever. They play a role in our
perception of pain. Release of endorphins reduces pain, as well as causes
“ feel good” feelings. Low levels of endorphins may play a role in
fibromyalgia and some types of headaches.
Neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine
• This is an excitatory neurotransmitter that does a number of functions in
our Central Nervous Systems (CNS- brain and spine) and in our Peripheral
Nervous System ( nerves branching from the CNS). They are released by
most neurons in your autonomic nervous system regulating heart rate,
blood pressure, and gut mobility. They play a role in muscle contractions,
memory, motivation, sexual desire, sleep, and learning. Imbalances in
levels of this are linked to health issues such as Alzheimer’s disease,
seizures and muscle spasms.
The Nervous System
Basic Structure and Function
• It is the structure that neurons along with other types of cells combine to
erect.
• The complex network of neurons that regulates bodily processes and is
ultimately responsible for all aspects of conscious experience
• Components of the Nervous System: Central Nervous System and
Peripheral Nervous System.
Central Nervous System
(CNS)
• Consists of the Brain and Spine
• Functions of the spinal cord: 1) Carries sensory information via afferent
(sensory) nerve fibers from receptors throughout the body to the brain
and conducts information via efferent (motor) nerve fibers from the brain
to muscles and glands. 2) Plays a key role in various reflexes.
• Afferent Nerve Fibers: Nerve fibres in the spinal cord that carry
information from receptors through out the body toward the brain.
• Efferent Nerve Fibers: Nerve fibers in the spinal cord that carry
information from the brain to muscles and glands through out the body.
Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
• Consists primarily of nerves, bundles of axons from many neurons, which
connect the central nervous system with sense organs and with muscles
and glands throughout the body.
• Most of these nerves are attached to the spinal cord which serves the
body from neck down.
• Cranial nerves extend from the brain and carry information from receptors
from sensory organs such as the eyes and the ears and also carry
information from the CNS to muscles in the head and neck.
• It has two subdivisions: Somatic and Autonomic nervous system.
Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS Continued…)
• Somatic Nervous System: The portion of the peripheral nervous system
that connects the brain and spinal chord to voluntary muscles. Example:
when you are ordering a pizza or watching Netflix your Somatic Nervous
System is involved
• Autonomic Nervous System: The part of the peripheral nervous system
that connects internal organs, glands and involuntary muscles to the
CNS. Example: the muscles in our digestive system.
• Autonomic System has two parts, Sympathetic Nervous System and
Parasympathetic Nervous System.
Peripheral Nervous System
PNS ( Continued…)
• Sympathetic Nervous System: The portion of autonomic nervous system
that readies the body from expenditure of energy. Example: working out,
Fight or flight
• Parasympathetic Nervous System: The Portion of the autonomic nervous
system that readies the body from restoration of energy: Example:
Digestion.
The Endocrine System Diagram

The Endocrine System

Chemical Regulators of Bodily Processes

• The system which communicates within our bodies. It consists of several

glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood stream. These hormones
exert profound effects on a wide range of processes related to basic bodily

functions.

• Endocrine system consists of Hypothalamus, Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland,

Thyroid and Parathyroid, Thymus, Adrenal, Pancreas, Ovaries, and Testes.

• Neurohormones: interact with and affect the nervous system while

influencing neural activity. They are released into the circulatory system
rather

than the synapses hence they exert their effects more slowly, at a greater

distance, and often for a longer period of time than neurotransmitters.

The Endocrine System

(Continued…)

• Pituitary Gland (The master gland): An endocrine gland that releases

hormones to regulate other glands and several basic biological processes.

It is also connected to important regions in the brain that play a role in

emotion. It is divided into posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary.

• Posterior Pituitary: releases hormones that regulate reabsorption of water

by the kidneys and in females the production and release of milk.

• Anterior Pituitary: releases the hormones that regulate the activity of

other endocrine glands

The Endocrine System

(Continued…)

• The Pituitary Gland also secretes hormones that influence sexual

development, govern the functioning of the sexual glands (regulating the

amount of hormones they release), and help control basic bodily

functions relating to metabolism and excretion.

• Adrenal Glands: Glands that release hormones to help the body handle

emergencies. For example: increasing the heart rate, blood pressure, and

blood sugar levels for a flight or fight situation.

Biological Bases of Behavior

The Brain (Part 2)

The Brain

A Marvelous Organ

• The Brain can be divided into 3 components to make it easier for us to

learn: 1) portions

concerned with basic bodily functions and survival, 2) portions concerned

with

motivation and emotion, and 3) portions concerned with our higher mental
processes

including languages, planning, problem solving, and reasoning.

The Brain
The Brain Stem: Survival Basics
The Brain
The Brain Stem and Cerebellum
• The Brain Stem holds structures responsible for regulating bodily processes
we share
with many life forms on earth ( Survival Basics).
• Medulla: The bottom part of the brainstem concerned with the regulation of
vital
bodily functions such as breathing, heart rhythms, blood pressure and
swallowing
• Pons: The middle portion of the brainstem which coordinates facial
movements,
hearing, and balance.
• Midbrain: the top part of the brainstem which is crucial for regulating eye
movements.
• Reticular Activating System (RAS): a network of neurons which controls
sleep and
wake cycles and helps you stay alert and attentive to your surroundings.
• Cerebellum: It is primarily concerned with the regulation of motor
activities, serving to
orchestrate muscular activities so they occur in a synchronized fashion. It can
also play
a role in certain cognitive processes, such as learning.
Motivation and Emotion
Limbic System
• Hypothalamus: Acts as your body’s smart control coordinating center. The
main function of the hypothalamus is to keep your body in a stable state or
internal balance (homeostasis). It also manages your body temperature,
blood pressure, hunger and thirst, sense of fullness when eating, mood,
sex drive, and sleep. It serves as the main link between the endocrine
system and the nervous system.
• Thalamus: It is your body’s information relay station. All information from
your body’s senses (Except Smell) and movements must go through a
preliminary analysis by the thalamus before being sent to other parts of
the brain for further interpretation.
Motivation and Emotion

Limbic System
• Amygdala: Plays a key role in how we assess and
respond to environmental threats and challenges by
evaluating the emotional importance of sensory
information and prompting an appropriate
response. Main function is to regulate emotions
such as fear and aggression. It closely works with
the hippocampus by tying emotion and memory
together.
• Hippocampus: It processes and retrieves
memories. It is also where short term memory is
turned into longterm memory and then stored
elsewhere in the brain. This is also one of the few
places in the brain where new nerve cells are
generated.
The Core Complex of Thought
Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral Cortex: the part of the brain that is responsible for our ability to
reason, plan,
remember, and imagine.
• The Cortex contains many cell bodies that gives it this brownish-gray color
and it is
referred to as Gray Matter.
• Beneath the cortex are myelin sheathed axons that connect neurons of the
axon to the
other parts of the brain. The large concentration of myelin sheaths gives this
tissue an
opaque appearance which we refer to as White Matter.
• Cortex is divided into two halves called the Cerebral Hemispheres where
each
hemisphere is specialized in the functions they perform.
• Each hemisphere is divided into 4 regions or lobes: Frontal, Parietal,
Occipital, and
Temporal lobes.

Four Lobes
Location and Function
• Frontal Lobe: The portion of the brain
that is concerned with thinking, speaking,
memory, and movement.
• Parietal Lobe: The portion of the brain
that is concerned with language and
touch,
• Occipital Lobe: The portion of the brain
concerned with vision and color
perception.
• Temporal Lobe: The portion of the brain
that is concerned with hearing, learning,
and feelings.
Food for Thought
• Suppose that research clearly identified certain parts of the brain that,
when they malfunction, cause people to engage in violence. Would it be
ethical to perform operations on these persons to repair these
malfunctioning areas?

Divided Brains
Two minds in One body
• The right and left hemispheres of the brain show a considerable degree of
Lateralization of Function meaning each hemisphere specializes in
performing different tasks. The left is the Verbal hemisphere and the right
specializes in Motor movements and in comprehension and
communicating in movements.
• Corpus Callosum: A band of nerve fibers connecting the two
hemispsheres of the brain.

The Brain and Human Speech

• Wenicke’s Area: The region of the brain that is
responsible for speech comprehension-
understanding what people are saying to you.
• Wernicke’s Aphasia: When there is a damage to
the Wernicke’s Area it results in the inability to
recognize spoken words, inability to understand
the meaning of the words, and inability to convert
thoughts into words.
• Broca’s Area: The region of the brain that is
responsible for speech production.
• Broca’s Aphasia: When there is a damage to this
area, it literally disrupts the ability to speak
because it makes a person produce slow,
laborious speech that does not follow the normal
rules of grammar.
By Baron’s definition it is, “ The science of behavior and cognitive processes” ➤ First part
Psychology is scientific in nature. ➤ Second part Psychology as a field is broad in scope. ➤
Behavior Any observable action or reaction of a living organism. ➤ Cognitive Process Every
Aspect of our mental life.
WHERE DID PSYCHOLOGY COME FROM? ➤ Emerged from certain ideas in philosophy
combined with findings and methods from physiology. ➤ 19th century: philosophers start asking
questions about the human mind. ➤ Dualism (Rene Descartes,1596-1650)- mind and body are
distinct entities and that they interact through the pineal gland. ➤ Interactionism: Mind can
influence body and body can influence mind.
During 1860-1880, Physiologists such as Johannes Muller, Herman von Helmholtz, and Gustav
Fechner demonstrated how scientific method could be used to answer questions about the
nervous system and our senses. ➤ Muller: “Electrical signals were conducted by nerves within
the body.” ➤ Helmholtz: “How receptors in the eyes and ears receive and interpret sensations
from outside world.” ➤ Fechner: “Our perceptions of physical stimuli are related in lawful,
predictable ways to the physical energies of these stimuli.”
Wilhelm Wundt(founder of experimental psychology,1879)founded the first formal laboratory
for research in psychology at the University of Leipzig. ➤ G Stanley Hall (1844-1924): founded
the first laboratory of psychology at Johns Hopkins (1883), helped start the American
Psychological Association (1892), and the become its first president. ➤ By 1893, 24 U.S.
universities had established psychology laboratories.
Structuralism( Wilhelm Wundt): A view on psychology that it should focus on identifying the
basic structures of human mind through introspection. ➤ Introspection: “ a process that involves
looking inward to ones own thoughts and emotions.” ➤ Functionalism (William James): A view
on psychology that it should focus on the functions of consciousness. ➤ Behaviorism (John B
Watson, 1913): The view that only observable, overt activities that can be measured
scientifically should be studied by psychology.
Burhus Fredrick Skinner ( B.F. Skinner) further enforced that psychology should focus only on
overt responses to various stimuli and not internal mental states. ➤ By the 1930’s and decades to
come, Behaviorism is what dominated psychology. ➤ However, during this time Sigmund Freud
(the unconscious mind: id, ego, and superego) was making noise with his theories. ➤ 1950’s,
Humanistic psychologists came in and said people have free will, and are motivated by future
plans and goals, and by personal growth. Thus dismissing Behaviorism and Freud’s views.
Cognitive Revolution (renewal interest in all aspects of cognition) challenges behaviorism and
the narrow definition of psychology it proposed. ➤ 1960’s- Computers made it possible to
examine and measure reactions when exposed to certain stimuli. Furthermore, researchers were
able to observe activities within brains of fully awake people as they performed various cognitive
tasks. ➤ Since Cognitive Process can be measured, behaviorists stopped their objection and thus
modern psychology is compromised of behavior and cognition. THREE “GRAND ISSUES” OF
PSYCHOLOGY ➤ Grand Issue: Large scale questions or themes that cross cut the field of
psychology ➤ Stability Vs Change: “To what extent do we remain stable over time, and to what
extent do we change?” ➤ Nature Vs Nurture: “ To what extent are various aspects of our
behavior shaped by inherited tendencies, and to what extent are they learned?” ➤ Rationality Vs
Irrationality: “To what extent are our actions rational and to what extent do we act on our
emotions and gut feeling?” KEY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY ➤ Behavioral: Focuses
on overt Behavior ➤ Cognitive: Focuses on Cognitive processes such as memory, thought, and
reasoning ➤ Biological: Focuses on the biological events and processes that underlie behavior
➤ Evolutionary: Focuses on the possible role of evolved psychological mechanisms (inherited
tendencies shaped by evolution) in human behavior ➤ Developmental: Focuses on changes in
behavior and cognitive processes over the life span. ➤ Multicultural: An approach that pays
careful attention to the effects of ethnic and cultural forces on behavior ➤ Psychodynamic:
Focuses on the role of hidden, often unconscious, internal processes ( eg. Unconscious motives)
COMPONENTS OF EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY ➤ According to Darwin, there are
three basic components of Evolution: Variation, Inheritance, and Selection. ➤ Variation: Refers
to the fact that organisms belonging to a given species vary in many different ways. ➤
Inheritance: Refers to the fact that some of these variations can be passed from generation to the
next. ➤ Selection: refers to the fact that some variations give the individuals who possess them
an edge in terms of reproduction. FOOD FOR THOUGHT… ➤ Suppose some aspect of
behavior made individuals highly attractive to the sex of their choice but also shortened their
lives that they died before they were 50. According to Evolutionary Psychology, would this
behavior become increasingly common or would it die out? MAJOR SUBFIELDS OF
PSYCHOLOGY ➤ Clinical Psychology: Studies diagnoses, causes, and treatment of mental
disorders ➤ Counseling Psychology: Uses a broad range of culturally-informed and
culturallysensitive practices to help people improve their well being, prevent and alleviate
distress and maladjustment, resolve crises, and increase their ability to function better in their
lives ➤ Developmental Psychology: Studies how people change physically, cognitively, and
socially over the entire life span ➤ Educational Psychology: studies all aspects of the
educational process CONTINUED… ➤ Experimental Psychology: Studies all basic
psychological processes, including perception, learning, and motivation ➤ Cognitive
Psychology: Investigates all aspects of cognition- memory, thinking, reasoning, language,
decision making. And so on. ➤ Industrial/ Organizational psychology: Studies all aspects of
behavior in work settings ➤ Psychobiology and evolutionary psychology: Investigates biological
bases of behavior and the role of evolution in human behavior ➤ Social Psychology: Studies all
aspects of social behavior and social thought- how we think about and interact with others.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND ITS COMPONENTS ➤ Scientific Method: “The process of
objectively establishing facts through testing and experimentation.” ➤ 4 most important
components of scientific method are accuracy, objectivity, skepticism, and open-mindedness. ➤
Theory: In science, frameworks for explaining various events or process. ➤ Hypotheses:
Testable predictions derived from theories. PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD ➤ On the
basis of existing evidence, a theory is formulated ➤ From the theory, we form a hypothesis ➤
Then we conduct and experiment or research based on our hypothesis ➤ After that we analyze
the data from the research or experiment. ➤ Lastly, based on our results we either accept or
reject the theory. However even if the theory is accurate, it is open to further investigation for
additional refinement. ERRORS IN OUR OBJECTIVITY ➤ Confirmation Bias: The tendency
to verify our own views ➤ The availability heuristic: Emphasizing what comes to mind first or
most readily ➤ Rational vs intuitive thought: The danger of gut level thinking. CRITICAL
THINKING ➤ Critical Thinking: Thinking that avoids blind acceptance of conclusions or
arguments but instead closely examines all assumptions, evidence, and conclusions. ➤
Guidelines of critical thinking: Never jump to conclusions, keep an open mind, always ask
“how?”, be skeptical, do not accept a view because other’s accept it, and control your emotions
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY ➤ Systematic Observation: A basic method of
science in which the natural world, or various events or processes in it, are observed and
measured in a very careful manner. ➤ Naturalistic Observation: A research method in which
behavior is studied in the settings where it usually occurs. ➤ Case Method: A research method
in which detailed information about individuals is used to develop general principles about
behavior. RESEARCH METHOD CONTINUED… ➤ Survey Method: A research method in
which large numbers of people answer questions about aspects of their views or their behavior.
*Sampling: the method used to select people who respond to the survey. ➤ Correlational
Method: A research method in which researchers attempt to determine whether, and to what
extent, different variables are related to each other. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD ➤
Experimentation: A research method in which researchers systematically alter one or more
variables in order to to determine whether such changes influence some aspect of behavior. ➤
Independent Variable: The variable that is systematically changed in an experiment ➤
Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured in an experiment. ➤ Random Assignments:
To ensure that all research participants have an equal chance being exposed to each level of the
independent variable THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD CONTINUED… ➤ Confounding of
variables: Confusion that occurs when factors other than the independent variable are permitted
to vary across experimental conditions which invalidates the apparent results of an experiment.
➤ Experimenter Effects: Unintended effects, caused by researchers, on participants’ behavior.
➤ Double- Blind Procedure: Procedure in which the researchers who have contact with
participants do not know the hypothesis under investigation. ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
➤ Deception: The temporary withholding of information about a study from participants ➤
Research with animals: Some research exposes animal subjects to conditions or treatment that
could not be used with human beings. ➤ Psychologist argue that harsh procedures that are used
in medical research are never used in their research. Secondly, research with animals has
contributed to human welfare may important ways. FOOD FOR THOUGHT… ➤ Suppose that
one day you read a news story reporting that results of a survey indicate that 40 percent of
women and 30 percent of men have little or no interest in sex. How could you use your critical
thinking to interpret this report? What kinds of questions would you ask about the source of the
data, the way the study was conducted, and the background ( e.g. the age) of the participants?