Dynamic Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor

responds to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or
the measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep
up with the input signals.

Sensor Output signal

Input signal
x(t) or y(t)
system

In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a

qualitative understanding of the operation that the sensor or
measurement system performs is imperative to understanding the
input signal correctly.
 General Model For A Measurement System
nth Order ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficient
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x (t ) d m −1 x (t ) dx (t )
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+ L + a1 + a 0 y ( t ) = b m m
+ b m −1 m −1
+ L + b1 + b0 x (t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt

F(t) = forcing function

Where m≤n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant
y(0)
The solution y (t ) = y ocf + y opi

x(t) y(t)
Measurement Where yocf = complementary-function part of solution
system yopi = particular-integral part of solution
Complementary-Function Solution

The solution yocf is obtained by calculating the n roots of the algebraic characteristic
equation

Characteristic equation an D n + an −1 D n −1 + ... + a1 D + a0 = 0

Roots of the characteristic equation: D = s1 , s2 ,..., sn

Complementary-function solution:

1. Real roots, unrepeated: Ce st

2. Real roots, repeated:

each root s which appear p times (C 0 + C1t + C 2 t 2
+ ... + C p −1t p −1
) e st

3. Complex roots, unrepeated: Ce at sin(bt + φ )

the complex form: a ± ib
[C0 sin(bt + φ0 ) + C1t sin(bt + φ1 ) + C2t 2 sin(bt + φ2 )
4. Complex roots, repeated:
each pair of complex root which appear p times + ... + C p −1t p −1 sin(bt + φ p −1 )]e at
Particular Solution

Method of undetermined coefficients:

y opi = Af (t ) + B f ′(t ) + C f ′′(t ) + ...

Where f(t) = the function that describes input quantity

A, B, C = constant which can be found by substituting yopi into ODEs

Important Notes

9 •After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives are zero.

9 •After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives have the same
functional form as some lower-order derivatives.
2 •Upon repeated differentiation, new functional forms continue to arise.
Zero-order Systems

All the a’s and b’s other than a0 and b0 are zero.

a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t ) y (t ) = Kx (t ) where K = static sensitivity = b0/a0

The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains

constant regardless of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).

xm
x
V = Vr ⋅ here, K = Vr / xm
Vr + xm
Where 0 ≤ x ≤ xm and Vr is a reference voltage
y=V
x=0 -

A linear potentiometer used as position

sensor is a zero-order sensor.
First-Order Systems
All the a’s and b’s other than a1, a0 and b0 are zero.
dy (t )
a1 + a 0 y (t ) = b0 x (t )
dt
dy (t ) y K
τ + y (t ) = Kx (t ) (D) =
dt x τD + 1

Where K = b0/a0 is the static sensitivity

τ = a1/a0 is the system’s time constant (dimension of time)
 First-Order Systems

Consider a thermometer based on a mass m =ρV

with specified heat C (J/kg.K), heat transmission
area A, and (convection heat transfer coefficient U
Surface (W/m2.K).
Ti
area A
(Heat in) – (Heat out) = Energy stored
q
Assume no heat loss from the thermometer
Sensor
UA(Ti − Ttf )dt − 0 = ρVCdTtf
m, Ttf, C
dTtf
ρVC + UATtf = UATi
Thermometer based on a mass,m with dt
specified heat, C
Therefore, we can immediately define K =1 and τ = ρ VC/UA

dTif
τ + Tif = Ti
dt
 First-Order Systems: Step Response
Assume for t < 0, y = y0 , at time = 0 the input quantity, x increases instantly
by an amount A. Therefore t > 0
0 t ≤ 0
x(t ) = AU (t ) = 
A t > 0
dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = KAU (t )
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce − t /τ + KA

2

yocf yopi
Transient Steady state
response response
U(t)

Applying the initial condition, we get C = y0-KA, thus

gives
0 y (t ) = KA + ( y0 − KA)e − t /τ
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, t
 First-Order Systems: Step Response

Here, we define the term error fraction as

y (t ) − KA y (t ) − y (∞)
em (t ) = = = e −t / τ
y0 − KA y ( 0) − y ( ∞ )

1.0 1.0
Output Signal, (y(t)-y0)/(KA-y0)

y (t ) − KA
.8 .8 = e −t /τ
y (0) − KA

Error fraction, em
.6 0.632 .6

y (t ) − y0
.4 = 1 − e −t / τ .4
KA − y0 0.368

.2 .2

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t/τ t/τ
Non-dimensional step response of first-order instrument
Determination of Time constant

y (t ) − KA t
em = = e −t /τ ln em = 2.3 log em = −
y (0) − KA τ

1
y (t ) − KA
0.368 = e −t /τ
y (0) − KA
Error fraction, em

.1
Slope = -1/τ

.01

.001
0 1 2 3 4 5
t
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response
Assume that at initial condition, both y and x = 0, at time = 0, the input quantity
start to change at a constant rate q&is Thus, we have

0 t≤0
x(t ) = 
q&is t t > 0
Therefore dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = Kq&is tU (t )
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce − t /τ + Kq&is (t − τ )

Transient Steady state
response response

Applying the initial condition, gives y (t ) = Kq&is (τe − t /τ + t − τ )

y (t )
Measurement error em = x(t ) − = − q&isτe −t /τ + q&isτ
K

Transient Steady
error state error
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response

10

Input x(t)
8
Output signal, y/K

y(t)/K
6
Steady state
time lag = τ
4

Steady state
2 error = q&isτ

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/τ

Non-dimensional ramp response of first-order instrument

First-Order Systems: Frequency Response

From the response of first-order system to sinusoidal inputs, x(t ) = A sin ωt

we have
dy
τ + y = KA sin ωt (τD + 1) y(t ) = KA sin ωt
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce −t /τ +

KA
(
sin ωt − tan −1 ωτ )
1 + (ωτ ) 2

Transient Steady state Frequency

response response = response
If we do interest in only steady state response of the system, we can write the
equation in general form
y (t ) = Ce −t /τ + B(ω ) sin[ωt + φ (ω )]
KA
B(ω ) =
[1 + (ωτ ) ]
2 1/ 2

φ (ω ) = − tan −1 ωτ
Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
B 1
M (ω ) = =
KA 1 + (ωτ )2 1/ 2 [ ]
1
The amplitude ratio M (ω ) = The phase angle is φ (ω ) = − tan −1 (ωτ )
(ωτ ) 2 + 1
1.2 Dynamic error 0
-10
1.0 0
-20

Phase shift, φ(ω)

Amplitude ratio

.8 -30

Decibels (dB)
-2
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
ωτ ωτ
Frequency response of the first order system

Dynamic error, δ(ω) = M(ω) -1: a measure of an inability of a system to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Ex: Inadequate frequency response
Suppose we want to measure
x(t ) = sin 2t + 0.3 sin 20t
x(t) With a first-order instrument whose τ is 0.2 s and
static sensitivity K

Superposition concept:

For ω = 2 rad/s: B (2 rad/s) = K

∠ − 21.8o = 0.93K∠ − 21.8o
A 0.16 + 1

y(t)/K For ω = 20 rad/s: B (20 rad/s) = K

∠ − 76o = 0.24 K∠ − 76o
A 16 + 1

Therefore, we can write y(t) as

y (t ) = (1)(0.93K ) sin(2t − 21.8o ) + (0.3)(0.24 K ) sin(20t − 76o )

y (t ) = 0.93K sin(2t − 21.8o ) + 0.072K sin(20t − 76o )

Second-Order Systems

In general, a second-order measurement system subjected to arbitrary input, x(t)

2
d y (t ) dy (t )  D 2 2ζ 
a2 + a + a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t )  2 + D + 1 y (t ) = Kx(t )
dt 2 1
dt  ωn ωn 

1 d 2 y (t ) 2ζ dy (t )
+ + y (t ) = Kx(t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt

The essential parameters

b0
K= = the static sensitivity
a0
a1
ζ = = the damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a0 a2

a0 = the natural angular frequency

ωn =
a2
Second-Order Systems

Consider the characteristic equation

1 2 2ζ
D + D +1 = 0
ωn
2
ωn
This quadratic equation has two roots:
S1, 2 = −ζω n ± ωn ζ 2 − 1

Depending on the value of ζ, three forms of complementary solutions are possible

 −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t
Overdamped (ζ > 1): yoc (t ) = C1e   n
+ C2 e   n

Critically damped (ζ = 1): yoc (t ) = C1e −ωnt + C2te −ωnt

Underdamped (ζ< 1): : (

yoc (t ) = Ce −ζω nt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t + Φ )
Second-Order Systems

Case I Underdamped (ζ< 1): Case 2 Overdamped (ζ > 1):

S1, 2 = −ζω n ± ωn ζ 2 − 1 ( )
S1, 2 = − ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ωn
= σ ± jωd

yHtL Case 3 Critically damped (ζ = 1):

−σt S1, 2 = −ωn

Ae
yHtL
t
ζ =1
sin(ωd t + φ )

ζ >1

t
 Second-order Systems

Example: The force-measuring spring

consider a spring with spring constant Ks under applied force fi

and the total mass M. At start, the scale is adjusted so that xo = 0
when fi = 0;
Σforces=(mass)(acceleration)
dxo d 2 xo
fi − B − K s xo = M
dt dt 2
( MD 2 + BD + K s ) xo = f i
the second-order model:
1
K= m/N
Ks
Ks
ωn = rad/s
M
B
ζ =
2 Ks M
Second-order Systems: Step Response

1 d 2 y 2ζ dy  D 2 2ζ 
For a step input x(t) + + y = KAU (t )  2 + D + 1 y (t ) = KAU (t )
ωn dt ωn dt  ωn ωn
2 2


With the initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0+, dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+

The complete solution:

y (t ) ζ + ζ 2 − 1  −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω n t ζ − ζ 2 −1  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t

Overdamped (ζ > 1): =− e 
+ e   n
+1
KA 2 ζ −1
2
2 ζ −1
2

y (t )
Critically damped (ζ = 1): = −(1 + ωnt )e −ωnt + 1
KA

Underdamped (ζ< 1): :

y (t )
KA
=−
e −ζω nt
1− ζ 2
(
sin 1 − ζ 2 ωnt + φ + 1 ) (
φ = sin −1 1 − ζ 2 )
Second-order Systems: Step Response
2π
Ringing period Td =
ωd
2.0 ζ=0 Ringing frequency: ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

0.25 Rise time decreases ζ with but

1.5
increases ringing
0.5

1.0 Optimum settling time can be obtained

from ζ ~ 0.7

.5
1.0
2.0 Practical systems use 0.6< ζ <0.8

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ωnt
Non-dimensional step response of second-order instrument
Second-order Systems: Step Response

1.4
overshoot
1.2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

1.0 100% ± 5%

.8

.6

.4
settling
time
.2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time, t (s)
Typical response of the 2nd order system
Second-order Systems: Ramp Response

1 d 2 y 2ζ dy
For a ramp input x(t ) = q&is tU (t ) + + y = Kq&is tU (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt

With the initial conditions: y = dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+

The possible solutions:

y (t ) 2ζq&is  2ζ 2 − 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω n t
= q&is t − 1 + e 
Overdamped: K ωn 
 4ζ ζ 2 − 1

− 2ζ 2 + 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1  −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t 
+ e   n 
4ζ ζ − 1
2 

y (t ) 2q&  ωnt −ωnt 
Critically damped: = q&is t − is 1 − (1 + )e 
K ωn  1 

Underdamped:
y (t )
K
= q&is t −
2ζq&is
ωn

1 −
e −ζω nt
 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
(
sin 1 − ζ 2 ωnt + φ )



φ = tan
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
−1

2ζ 2 − 1
Second-order Systems: Ramp Response
2q&isζ
Steady state error =
10 ωn

8 Steady state
Ramp input time lag = 2ζ
Output signal, y(t)/K

ωn
6

4 ζ = 0.3
0.6
2 1.0
2.0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, t (s)

Typical ramp response of second-order instrument

Second-order Systems: Frequency Response

The response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input of the form x(t) = Asinωt

KA
y (t ) = yocf (t ) + sin[ωt + φ (ω )]
{[ ]
1 − (ω / ωn ) + (2ζω / ωn )
2 2 2
1/ 2
}
2ζ
where φ (ω ) = − tan −1
ω / ωn − ωn / ω
The steady state response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input

ysteady (t ) = B (ω ) sin[ωt + φ (ω )]

KA 2ζ
B(ω ) = φ (ω ) = − tan −1
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + (2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
ω / ωn − ωn / ω

Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
B 1
M (ω ) = =
{[ ]
KA 1 − (ω / ω )2 2 + (2ζω / ω )2 1/ 2
n n }
 Second-order Systems: Frequency Response

The amplitude ratio The phase angle

1 2ζ
M (ω ) = φ (ω ) = − tan −1
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + (2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
ω / ωn − ωn / ω

0 ζ0 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20
ζ = 0.1 0.3
-40 0.5

Phase shift, φ(ω)

0.3
Amplitude ratio

1.5 -60

Decibel (dB)
3
1.0
0.5
-80
1.0 0 -100 2.0

-3 -120
1.0
.5 -6 -140
-10
2.0 -15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
ω/ωn ω/ωn
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument
 Second-order Systems
For overdamped (ζ >1) or critical damped (ζ = 1), there is neither overshoot nor steady-
state dynamic error in the response.
In an underdameped system (ζ < 1) the steady-state dynamic error is zero, but the speed
and overshoot in the transient are related.
1.4
arctan(−ω d / δ ) overshoot Td
Rise time: tr =
ωd 1.2

Output signal, y(t)/KA

Maximum
overshoot: (
M p = exp −πζ / 1 − ζ 2 ) 1.0

π .8
Peak time: tp =
ωd peak
.6 time
Resonance
frequency: ω r = ω n 1 − 2ζ 2 .4
settling

Resonance 1 time
Mr = .2
amplitude: 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
where δ =ζω n , ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2 , and φ = arcsin( 1 − ζ 2 ) Time, t (s)
 Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of response: indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system) reacts
to changes in the input variable. (Step input)

Rise time: the length of time it takes the output to reach 90% of full response when
a step is applied to the input

Time constant: (1st order system) the time for the output to change by 63.2% of its
maximum possible change.

Settling time: the time it takes from the application of the input step until the output
has settled within a specific band of the final value.

Transfer Function: a simple, concise and complete way of describing the sensor
or system performance
H(s) = Y(s)/X(s)
where Y(s) and X(s) are the Laplace Transforms of the input and output respectively.
Sometimes, the transfer function is displayed graphically as magnitude and phase
plots VS frequency (Bode plot).
Dynamic Characteristics

Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)

Dynamic error, δ(ω) = M(ω) - 1 a measure of the inability of a system or sensor

to adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency

Bandwidth the frequency band over which M(ω) ≥ 0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)

Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.

0.35
tr ≈
fc
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz with
an inaccuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the phase shift
at 50 and 100 Hz?
1
Solution: Define M (ω ) =
ω 2τ 2 + 1
 1 
Dynamic error = (M (ω ) − 1)× 100% =   − 1 ×100%
 ω τ +1 
2 2

1
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0 . 95 ≤ ≤ 1.05
ω τ +1
2 2

But for the first order system, the term 1 / ω 2τ 2 + 1 can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95 ≤ ≤1
ω τ +1
2 2

Solve this inequality give the range 0 ≤ ωτ ≤ 0.33

0.33
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is τ = = 0.52 ms
2π 100 Hz
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from φ = − arctan ωτ

This give φ = -9.33o and = -18.19o at 50 and 100 Hz respectively

Dynamic Characteristics

1.05
0.95
Amplitude ratio M(ω)

M(ω) ≥ 0.95 region or

δ(ω) ≤ 0.05 region

ωτ
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A temperature measuring system, with a time constant 2 s, is used to
measured temperature of a heating medium, which changes sinusoidal between 350
and 300oC with a periodic of 20 s. find the maximum and minimum values of
temperature, as indicated by the measuring system and the time lag between the output
and input signals
2π
Solution: y (t ) = 325 + 21.2 sin( t − 0.56) o C
60
x(t) x(t), y(t)

350oC 350oC

325oC 325oC

300oC 300oC

T T
TL

t t
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: The approximate time constant of a thermometer is determined by immersing
it in a bath and noting the time it takes to reach 63% of the final reading. If the result is
28 s, determine the delay when measuring the temperature of a bath that is periodically
changing 2 times per minute.
t d = 6.7s
 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A pressure transducer has a natural frequency of 30 rad/s, damping ratio of
0.1 and static sensitivity of 1.0 µV/Pa. A step pressure input of 8x105 N/m2 is applied.
Determine the output of a transducer.

Solution: y (t ) = 0.8[1 − e −3t sin( 29.85t + 1.47)] V

Example: A second order instrument is subjected to a sinusoidal input. Undamped

natural frequency is 3 Hz and damping ratio is 0.5. Calculate the amplitude ratio and
phase angle for an input frequency of 2 Hz.

Solution: Amplitude ratio y(t)/x(t) = 1.152 and phase shifts –50.2o.

 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: An Accelerometer is to selected to measure a time-dependent motion. In particular,
input signal frequencies below 100 Hz are of prime interest. Select a set of acceptable parameter
specifications for the instrument, assuming a dynamic error of ±5% and damping ratio ζ =0.7

Solution: ωn ≥ 1047 rad/s

Amplitude ratio M(ω)

Amplitude ratio M(ω)

1.05 1.05

0.95 0.95

ω/ ωn ω/ ωn
Response of a General Form of System to a Periodic Input

The steady state response of any linear system to the complex periodic
signal can be determined using the frequency response technique and
principle of superposition.
∞
Let x(t) x(t ) = A0 + ∑ ( An cos nω0t + Bn sin nω0t )
n =1

The frequency response of the measurement system

∞
y (t ) = KA0 + ∑
n =1
( )
An2 + Bn2 KM (nω0 ) sin (nω0t + φM (nω0 ) + φn (nω0 ) )

Where KM(ω) = Magnitude of the frequency response of the measurement

system and
φM(ω) = Phase shift = tan-1(An/Bn)
Response of a General Form of System of a Periodic Input
xHt L yHt L

x(t) Linear y(t)

t t
system

|x(ω)| |KM(ω)| |Y(ω)|

X =

ω ω
ω0 2ω0 3ω0 4ω0 5ω0 ω ω0 2ω0 3ω0 4ω0 5ω0
φn φM φY(ω)

+ =

ω ω ω
Response of a General Form of System to a Periodic Input

Example: If qi(t) as shown in Figure below is the input to a first-order system with a
sensitivity of 1 and a time constant of 0.001 s, find Qo(iω) and qo(t) for the periodic
steady state.
qi(t)  
∞
4 1 1
Qo (iω ) = ∑  ∠φn  Where n = odd number
π n =1  n ( nω oτ ) + 1 
2
+1 
 
sin(nω ot + φn )  and φ n = − arctan(nω oτ )
∞
4 1 1
-0.02 -0.01 0.01 0.02 t, sec qo (t ) = ∑ 
π n =1  n ( nω oτ ) + 1
2 
 
-1

qoH tL qoH tL

1 n=7 1
n=5 n = 25
0.5
n=3 0.5

t t
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

-0.5 -0.5

-1
-1