Boost Your Vocabulary - The Official Cambridge Guide To IELTS (To Be Updated) - 09072021

ĐÂY LÀ BẢN CHƯA HOÀN THIỆN
CỦA CUỐN SÁCH. CÁC BẠN VUI

LÒNG CẬP NHẬT BẢN MỚI NHẤT
TRÊN FACEBOOK GROUP “HỘI
CHIA SẺ SÁCH BOOST YOUR
VOCABULARY” HOẶC FANPAGE
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Cuốn sách này là của

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Điểm mục tiêu cho phần thi IELTS Reading là: …………
Để làm được điều này, mình sẽ đọc cuốn sách này ít nhất …. lần/tuần.
ĐÂY LÀ BẢN CHƯA HOÀN THIỆN CỦA CUỐN SÁCH. CÁC BẠN VUI LÒNG CẬP NHẬT BẢN MỚI NHẤT TRÊN FACEBOOK GROUP “HỘI CHIA SẺ SÁCH
BOOST YOUR VOCABULARY” HOẶC FANPAGE FACEBOOK.COM/IELTSDINHTHANG
Tài liệu gốc The Official Cambridge Guide to IELTS của NXB Đại học Cambridge-Mua sách gốc tại link
Biên tập cuốn sách Boost your vocabulary này được thực hiện bởi IELTS Family-Các nhóm tự học IELTS
LỜI GIỚI THIỆU
Chào các bạn,
Các bạn đang cầm trên tay cuốn “Boost your vocabulary” được biên soạn bởi mình và các bạn trong
nhóm A&M|IELTS. Cuốn sách được viết nhằm mục đích giúp các bạn đang muốn cải thiện vốn từ
vựng cho phần thi Reading trong IELTS. Sách được viết dựa trên nền tảng bộ The Official Cambridge
Guide to IELTS của Nhà xuất bản Đại học Cambridge – Anh Quốc.
Trong quá trình thực hiện, mình và các bạn trong nhóm đã dành nhiều thời gian để nghiên cứu cách
thức đưa nội dung sao cho khoa học và dễ dùng nhất với các bạn. Tuy vậy, cuốn sách không khỏi có
những hạn chế nhất định. Mọi góp ý để cải thiện nội dung cuốn sách mọi người xin gửi về email
Trân trọng cảm ơn,
Thầy Đinh Thắng
TÁC GIẢ & NHÓM THỰC HIỆN
Đinh Thắng
Hiện tại là giáo viên dạy IELTS tại Hà Nội từ cuối năm 2012, sáng lập
trung tâm tiếng Anh A&M | IELTS. Chứng chỉ ngành ngôn ngữ Anh, đại
học Brighton, Anh Quốc, 2016.Từng làm việc tại tổ chức giáo dục quốc
tế Language Link Việt Nam (2011-2012)
Facebook.com/dinhthangielts
… cùng các bạn Tuyết Trinh, Hạnh Ngô, Hà Thu, Nhật Hà.
BOOST YOUR VOCABULARY – THE OFFICIAL CAMBRIDGE GUIDE TO IELTS (to be updated)
03 LÝ DO TẠI SAO NÊN HỌC TỪ VỰNG

THEO CUỐN SÁCH NÀY
1. Không còn mất nhiều thời gian cho việc tra từ
Các từ học thuật (academic words) trong sách đều có kèm giải thích hoặc từ đồng nghĩa. Bạn tiết
kiệm được đáng kể thời gian gõ từng từ vào từ điển và tra. Chắc chắn những bạn thuộc dạng
“không được chăm chỉ lắm trong việc tra từ vựng” sẽ thích điều này.
2. Tập trung bộ nhớ vào các từ quan trọng
Mặc dù cuốn sách không tra hết các từ giúp bạn nhưng sách đã chọn ra các từ quan trọng và phổ
biến nhất giúp bạn. Như vậy, bạn có thể tập trung bộ nhớ vào các từ này, thay vì phải mất công
nhớ các từ không quan trọng. Bạn nào đạt Reading từ 7.0 trở lên đều sẽ thấy rất nhiều trong số
các từ này thuộc loại hết sức quen thuộc
3. Học một từ nhớ nhiều từ
Rất nhiều từ được trình bày theo synonym (từ đồng nghĩa), giúp các bạn có thể xem lại và học
thêm các từ có nghĩa tương đương hoặc giống như từ gốc. Có thể nói, đây là phương pháp học
hết sức hiệu quả vì khi học một từ như impact, bạn có thể nhớ lại hoặc học thêm một loạt các từ
nghĩa tương đương như significant, vital, imperative, chief, key. Nói theo cách khác thì nếu khả
năng ghi nhớ của bạn tốt thì cuốn sách này giúp bạn đấy số lượng từ vựng lên một cách đáng kể.
ĐÂY LÀ BẢN CHƯA HOÀN THIỆN CỦA CUỐN SÁCH. CÁC BẠN VUI LÒNG CẬP NHẬT BẢN MỚI NHẤT TRÊN FACEBOOK
GROUP “HỘI CHIA SẺ SÁCH BOOST YOUR VOCABULARY” HOẶC FANPAGE FACEBOOK.COM/IELTSDINHTHANG
Tài liệu gốc Cambridge IELTS của NXB Đại học Cambridge-Mua sách gốc tại link
Biên tập cuốn sách Boost your vocabulary này được thực hiện bởi Đinh Thắng & IELTS Family-Các nhóm tự học IELTS 1
HƯỚNG DẪN SỬ DỤNG SÁCH

ĐỐI TƯỢNG SỬ DỤNG SÁCH
Nhìn chung các bạn cần có mức độ từ vựng tương đương 4.5 trở lên (theo thang điểm 9 của
IELTS), nếu không có thể sẽ gặp nhiều khó khăn trong việc sử dụng sách này.
CÁC BƯỚC SỬ DỤNG
CÁCH 1: LÀM TEST TRƯỚC, HỌC TỪ VỰNG SAU
Bước 1: Bạn in cuốn sách này ra. Nên in bìa màu để có thêm động lực học. Cuốn sách được
thiết kế cho việc đọc trực tiếp, không phải cho việc đọc online nên bạn nào đọc online sẽ có thể
thấy khá bất tiện khi tra cứu, đối chiếu từ vựng
Bước 2: Tìm mua cuốn The Official Cambridge Guide to IELTS của Nhà xuất bản
Cambridge để làm. Hãy cẩn thận đừng mua nhầm sách lậu. Sách của nhà xuất bản Cambridge
được tái bản tại Việt Nam thường có bìa và giấy dày, chữ rất rõ nét.
Bước 3: Làm một bài test hoặc passage bất kỳ trong bộ sách trên. Ví dụ passage 1,
test 1.
Bước 4: Đối chiếu với cuốn sách này, bạn sẽ lọc ra các từ vựng quan trọng cần học.
Bạn sẽ thấy
4.1 Cột bên trái là bản text gốc, trong đó bôi đậm các từ học thuật - academic word
4.2 Cột bên phải chứa các từ vựng này theo kèm định nghĩa (definition) hoặc từ đồng nghĩa
(synonym)
CÁCH 2: HỌC TỪ VỰNG TRƯỚC, ĐỌC TEST SAU
Bước 1: Bạn in cuốn sách này ra. Nên in bìa màu để có thêm động lực học. Cuốn sách
được thiết kế cho việc đọc trực tiếp, không phải cho việc đọc online nên bạn nào đọc online sẽ có
thể thấy khá bất tiện khi tra cứu, đối chiếu từ vựng
Bước 2: Đọc cột bên trái như đọc báo. Duy trì hàng ngày. Khi nào không hiểu từ nào
thì xem nghĩa hoặc synonym của từ đó ở cột bên phải. Giai đoạn này giúp bạn phát triển
việc đọc tự nhiên, thay vì đọc theo kiểu làm test. Bạn càng hiểu nhiều càng tốt. Cố gắng
nhớ từ theo ngữ cảnh.
Bước 3: Làm một bài test hoặc passage bất kỳ trong cuốn The Official Cambridge
Guide to IELTS. Làm test xong thì cố gắng phát hiện các từ đã học trong các test
khác. Bạn nào có khả năng ghi nhớ tốt chắc chắn sẽ gặp lại rất nhiều từ đã học. Bạn nào
có khả năng ghi nhớ vừa phải cũng sẽ gặp lại không ít từ.
Bước 4: Đọc cuốn Boost your vocabulary phần test tương ứng với test bạn vừa làm.
Tóm lại, mình ví dụ 1 chu trình đầy đủ theo cách này
B1. Đọc hiểu và học từ cuốn Boost your vocabulary The Official Cambridge Guide to IELTS
B2. Làm test 1 trong cuốn The Official Cambridge Guide to IELTS
B3. Đọc hiểu và học từ của test 1 & tìm các từ lặp lại mà bạn đã đọc trong các test khác
TEST 1
READING PASSAGE 1
bronze-age= the time, between about 6000 and
A
4000 years ago, when bronze was used for making
tools, weapons etc
preserved= conserved, well-maintained,
beautifully preserved boat, made around 3,000 years #dilapidated
by chance= by accident, unintentionally,
ago and discovered by chance in a muddy hole, has had a unexpectedly #on purpose
profound impact on archaeological research. muddy= mud-covered, dirty, filthy #clean
It was 1992. In England, workmen were building a new road profound= great, extreme
through the heart of Dover, to connect the ancient port and archaeological= the study of ancient societies by
the Channel Tunnel, which, when it opened just two years examining what remains of their buildings, graves,
tools etc
later, was to be the first land link between Britain and Europe workman= someone who does physical work such
for over 10,000 years. A small team from the Canterbury as building, repairing things etc
Archaeological Trust (CAT) worked alongside the workmen, heart= center, middle
recording new discoveries brought to light by the machines. ancient= antique, early, prehistoric #modern
port= harbor, seaport
At the base of a deep shaft six metres below the modern channel tunnel= a railway tunnel which runs under
streets a wooden structure was revealed. Cleaning away the the english channel, connecting england and france
waterlogged site overlying the timbers, archaeologists alongside= together with, along with #alone
realised its true nature. They had found a prehistoric boat, bring to light= reveal, expose, publicize #hide
preserved by the type of sediment in which it was buried. It base of= the lowest part or surface of something
shaft= a passage which goes down through a
was then named the Dover Bronze-Age Boat. building or down into the ground, so that someone or
something can get in or out
About nine metres of the boat’s length was recovered; one end reveal= expose, uncover, bring to light #cover up
lay beyond the excavation and had to be left. What survived clean smth away= to make a place tidy by
consisted essentially of four intricately carved oak planks: removing things from it or putting them where they
should be
two on the bottom, joined along a central seam by a waterlogged= a waterlogged area of land is flooded
complicated system of wedges and timbers, and two at the with water and cannot be used #dry
side, curved and stitched to the others. The seams had been site= place, spot, position
overlie= cover, lie on top
made watertight by pads of moss, fixed by wedges and yew timber= wood, lumber, planks
stitches. archaeologist= someone who studies the buildings,
The timbers that closed the recovered end of the boat had graves, tools, and other objects of people who lived
been removed in antiquity when it was abandoned, but much in the past
exact/precise/true nature= the qualities or features
about its original shape could be deduced. There was also that something has
evidence for missing upper side planks. The boat was not a prehistoric= ancient, early, primeval, primitive
wreck, but had been deliberately discarded, dismantled and sediment= solid substances that settle at the
broken. Perhaps it had been ‘ritually killed’ at the end of its life, bottom of a liquid
like other Bronze-Age objects. bury= put in the ground, inter, hidden #exhume
end= the part of a place or long object that is
furthest from its beginning or centre
With hindsight, it was significant that the boat was found and lie beyond smt= to be located on the other side of
studied by mainstream archaeologists who naturally focused smt
on its cultural context. At the time, ancient boats were often excavation= the act of removing earth that is
covering very old objects buried in the ground in
considered only from a narrower technological perspective, order to discover things about the past
but news about the Dover boat reached a broad audience. In leave= abandon, drop, leave behind
2002, on the tenth anniversary of the discovery, the Dover consist= contain, comprise
Bronze-Age Boat Trust hosted a conference, where this intricately= complicatedly, complexly
meeting of different traditions became apparent. Alongside carve= slice, cut, shape
oak= a large tree that is common in northern
technical papers about the boat, other speakers explored its countries, or the hard wood of this tree
social and economic contexts, and the religious perceptions plank= timber, piece of wood, board
of boats in Bronze-Age societies. Many speakers came from seam= a line where two pieces of metal, wood etc
overseas, and debate about cultural connections was have been joined together
complicated= complex, intricate #simple
renewed. wedge= a piece of wood, metal etc that has one
thick edge and one pointed edge and is used
Within seven years of excavation, the Dover boat had been especially for keeping a door open or for splitting
conserved and displayed, but it was apparent that there were wood
issues that could not be resolved simply by studying the old curve= bent, arch
stitch= to put different things or parts of something
wood. Experimental archaeology seemed to be the solution: a together to make one larger thing
boat reconstruction, half-scale or full-sized, would permit watertight= waterproof, sealed
assessment of the different hypotheses regarding its build pad of= a thick flat object made of cloth or rubber,
and the missing end. The possibility of returning to Dover to used to protect or clean something, or to make
something more comfortable
search for the boat’s unexcavated northern end was explored, moss= a very small green plant that grows in a thick
but practical and financial difficulties were insurmountable - soft furry mass on wet soil, trees, or rocks
and there was no guarantee that the timbers had survived the yew= a tree with dark green leaves and red berries,
previous decade in the changed environment. or the wood of this tree
stitch= a short piece of thread that has been sewn
into a piece of cloth, or the action of the thread going
Detailed proposals to reconstruct the boat were drawn up in into and out of the cloth
2004. Archaeological evidence was beginning to suggest a recovered= healthier, well again, improved #worse
Bronze-Age community straddling the Channel, brought remove= eliminate, eradicate, get rid of #add
together by the sea, rather than separated by it. In a region in antiquity= ancient times
abandon= discard, leave, throw away
today divided by languages and borders, archaeologists had a deduce= conclude, judge, determine, reckon
duty to inform the general public about their common cultural wreck= shipwreck, wreckage, remains
heritage. deliberately= purposely, intentionally #accidentally
discard= abandon, remove, get rid of #keep
The boat project began in England but it was conceived from dismantle= pull to pieces, pull apart, rip to pieces
ritually= in a way that is done as a religious or
the start as a European collaboration. Reconstruction was solemn rite
only part of a scheme that would include a major exhibition hindsight= the ability to understand a situation only
and an extensive educational and outreach programme. after it has happened
Discussions began early in 2005 with archaeological bodies, mainstream= typical, conventional, ordinary
context= background, circumstance, situation
universities and heritage organisations either side of the
Channel. There was much enthusiasm and support, and an narrow= limited, restricted #wide
official launch of the project was held at an international perspective= viewpoint, outlook, perception
anniversary= a date on which something special or
seminar in France in 2007. Financial support was confirmed in important happened in a previous year
2008 and the project then named BOAT 1550BC got under host= hold, present, introduce
way in June 2011. conference= meeting, discussion
apparent= obvious, clear #unclear
religious= relating to religion in general or to a
A small team began to make the boat at the start of 2012 on particular religion
the Roman Lawm outside Dover museum. A full-scale perception of= insight, awareness
reconstruction of a mid-section had been made in 1996, overseas= abroad
primarily to see how Bronze- Age replica tools performed. In debate= discussion, argument, dispute
2012, however, the hull shape was at the centre of the work, conserve= preserve, protect, maintain #destroy
display= show, exhibit, present #conceal
so modern power tools were used to carve the oak planks,
resolve= solve, answer, settle
before turning to prehistoric tools for finishing. It was decided
experimental= trial, investigational
to make the replica half-scale for reasons of cost and time, and reconstruction= rebuilding, renewal,
synthetic materials were used for the stitching, owing to scale= size
doubts about the scaling and tight timetable. full-sized (full-size)= not made smaller; of the usual
size
Meanwhile, the exhibition was being prepared ready for permit= allow, let, enable #forbid
opening in July 2012 at the Castle Museum in Boulogne-sur- assessment of= evaluation, judgement,
Mer. Entitled ‘Beyond the Horizon: Societies of the Channel & measurement
North Sea 3,500 years ago’, it brought together for the first time hypothesis= theory, supposition, assumption
a remarkable collection of Bronze-Age objects, including many #practice
new discoveries for commercial archaeology and some of the regarding= concerning, as regards, about
great treasure of the past. The reconstructed boat, as a possibility= likelihood, probability
symbol of the maritime connections that bound together the unexcavated= not excavated; not hollowed or dug
communities either side of the Channel, was the centerpiece. up
practical= realistic #unrealistic, impractical
insurmountable= an insurmountable difficulty or
problem is too large or difficult to deal with
guarantee= assurance, promise, pledge
survive= to continue to exist
previous= preceding, prior, former #subsequent
proposal= offer, suggestion, request
reconstruct= rebuild, recreate, restructure
draw smth up= prepare, draft
straddle= to lie on both sides of smth
separate= split, divide, disconnect #join, unite
border= the official line that separates two
countries, states, or areas, or the area close to this
line
duty= responsibility, obligation
inform= notify, tell, apprise
general public= the ordinary people in a country,
rather than people belonging to a particular group
heritage= tradition, custom
conceive= consider, perceive, regard
collaboration= teamwork, association, cooperation
scheme= plan, idea, proposal
exhibition= display, show, presentation
extensive= wide, wide-ranging, broad #narrow
outreach= bringing services to people at home or to
where they spend time
body= group, association
enthusiasm= eagerness, passion, excitement

#apathy
official= formal, authorized
launch of= presentation, introduction
seminar= meeting, session, conference
get under way= to begin to happen
mid-section= the middle of something
primarily= mainly, mostly, predominantly
replica= copy, imitation, duplication #original
hull= body
carve= to make an object or pattern by cutting a
piece of wood or stone
turn to= to start to do or use something new,
especially as a way of solving a problem
synthetic= artificial, manmade
stitching= sewing
owing to= because of something
doubt= uncertainty, distrust, disbelief #certainty
timetable= schedule, agenda, plan
meanwhile= in the meantime
be entitled smt= if a book, play etc is entitled smt,
that is its name
horizon= the limit of your ideas, knowledge, and
experience
remarkable= extraordinary, amazing, outstanding
commercial= business, trade, for-profit
treasure= a very valuable and important object such
as a painting or ancient document
maritime= relating to the sea or ships
bind= connect, join, combine, unite
centerpiece= the most important, noticeable, or
attractive part of something
READING PASSAGE 2
diversify= vary, expand #specialize
A
generate= produce, create, make
income= revenue, profits, returns
meeting= conference, seminar, gathering
irports continue to diversify their role in an effort to facility= means, provision, service
revenue= income, profits, returns
generate income. challenging= difficult in an enjoyable way
due to= because of, thanks to, owing to
Are business meeting facilities the next step? Nigel Halpern, combination= mixture, grouping, blend
Anne Graham and Rob Davidson investigate. competition= rivalry, race #cooperation
A restriction= limit, limitation, constraint, restraint
dwell time= a calculation of the amount of time
In recent times developing commercial revenues has become people spend waiting for something, such as a train,
more challenging for airports due to a combination of airline etc,
downturn= decline, recession, slump #upturn
factors, such as increased competition from Internet shopping, reduction= decrease, drop, decline #increase
restrictions on certain sales, such as tobacco, and new non-aeronautical= not relating to the science of
security procedures that have had an impact on the dwell time designing, building, and operating aircraft
peak= top, climax, hit the highest point #dip
of passengers. Moreover, the global economic downturn has the turn of the century= the time when a particular
caused a reduction in passenger numbers while those that are century ends and another begins
travelling generally have less money to spend. This has meant subsequently= then, after, later
decline= drop, fall off, deteriorate #improve, grow
that the share of revenue from non-aeronautical revenues slightly= marginally, vaguely #considerably
actually peaked at 54% at the turn of the century and has pressure= burden, difficulty, tension
subsequently declined slightly. Meanwhile, the pressures to rapid= fast, quick, speedy #slow
low-cost carrier= an airline that is operated with an
control the level of aeronautical revenues are as strong as ever especially high emphasis on minimizing operating
due to the poor financial health of many airlines and the rapid costs
sector= area, segment, subdivision
rise of the low-cost carrier sector. obvious= clear, apparent, understandable #obscure
extend= expand, widen, broaden #curtail
B merchandising= the way in which shops and
businesses try to sell their products
Some of the more obvious solutions to growing commercial
expand= enlarge, increase, magnify
revenues, such as extending the merchandising space or radical= fundamental, essential, profound #minor
expanding the variety of shopping opportunities, have already terminal= station
been tried to their limit at many airports. A more radical or so= approximately
solution is to find new sources of commercial revenue within array of= group, collection, range
wellness= the state of being healthy
the terminal, and this has been explored by many airports over provision= providing, setting up
the last decade or so. As a result, many terminals are now take on= undertake, accept, deal with #refuse
much more than just shopping malls and offer an array of destination= purpose, target, aim, objective
entertainment, leisure, and beauty and wellness facilities. At merely= just, simply, only
facilitator= organizer, helper, implementer
this stage of facilities provision, the airport also has the access= approach, entry, entrance
possibility of taking on the role of the final destination rather range of= variety, series, array of
than merely a facilitator of access. specifically= specially, purposely, particularly
C conference= seminar, meeting
At the same time, airports have been developing and context= situation, background, circumstance
dedicated= made for or used for only one particular
expanding the range of services that they provide specifically purpose
for the business traveller in the terminal. This includes offering locate= place, situate, position
business centres that supply support services, meeting or operator= a person or company that operates a
conference rooms and other space for special events. Within particular business
regarded as= considered
this context, Jarach (2001) discusses how dedicated
expansion of= growth, development, enlargement
meetings facilities located within the terminal and managed concept of= idea, perception, notion
directly by the airport operator may be regarded as an lounge= a waiting room at an airport
expansion of the concept of airline lounges or as a way to reconvert= to change (something) back to a
reconvert abandoned or underused areas of terminal previous state or form
abandoned= discarded, dumped, aborted
buildings. Previously it was primarily airport hotels and other underused= something that is underused is not
facilities offered in the surrounding area of the airport that had used as much as it could be #overused
the potential to take on this role and become active as a primarily= mainly, mostly, predominantly
business space (McNeill, 2009). surrounding= nearby, close, near #distant
potential= possible, likely, conceivable #unlikely
D promote= endorse, upgrade, stimulate
When an airport location can be promoted as a business venue= site, place, location
venue, this may increase the overall appeal of the airport and appeal= attractiveness, attraction, interest
#repulsion
help it become more competitive in both attracting and retain= recall, remember
retaining airlines and their passengers. In particular, the presence of= occurrence, existence, attendance
#absence
presence of meeting facilities could become one of the determining= decisive, influential, formative
determining factors taken into consideration when business take smth into consideration= to remember to
think about something important when you are
people are choosing airlines and where they change their making a decision or judgment
planes. This enhanced attractiveness itself may help to enhanced= improved, greater, superior #worse
prospect= hope, possibility, likelihood, potential
improve the airport operator’s financial position and future dependent on= needing someone or something in
prospects, but clearly this will be dependent on the order to exist, be successful, be healthy etc (=rely
on)
competitive advantage that the airport is able to achieve in
comparison with other venues. competitive advantage= a condition or

circumstance that puts a company in a favorable or
E superior business position.
In 2011, an online airport survey was conducted and some of in comparison (with/to smth)= the process of
the areas investigated included the provision and use of comparing two or more people or things
meeting facilities at airports and the perceived role and survey= study, investigation, inspection
conduct= perform, accomplish, carry out
importance of these facilities in generating income and raising perceive= understand, realize, comprehend
passenger numbers. In total, there were responses from staff response= answer, reply
at 154 airports and 68% of these answered ‘yes’ to the staff= workforce, employees, workers, personnel
question: Does your airport own and have meetings facilities for hire= rental, rent, lease
available for hire? The existence of meeting facilities existence of= presence
respondent= someone who answers questions,
therefore seems high at airports. In addition, 28% of especially in a survey
respondents that did not have meeting facilities stated that state= express, declare, assert
they were likely to invest in them during the next five years. The to ... extent= used to say how true something is or
survey also asked to what extent respondents agreed or how great an effect or change is
put smth into smth= to make money available to
disagreed with a number of statements about the meeting be used for a particular purpose
facilities at their airport. 49% of respondents agreed that they investment= asset, speculation
have put more investment into them during recent years; immediate= near, close, direct #distant
41% agreed that they would invest more in the immediate fairly= quite, reasonably, moderately
proportion= percentage, quantity, fraction
future. These are fairly high proportions considering the
economic climate= the general condition of the
recent economic climate. economy in a particular country or in the world
F estimate= guess, approximate, reckon
The survey also asked airports with meeting facilities to finding= outcome, discovery, result
estimate what proportion of users are from the local area, i.e. tend to= have a tendency to, be inclined to, be likely
to
within a 90-minute drive from the airport, or from abroad. Their serve= supply, provide, distribute
findings show that meeting facilities provided by the majority of versus= against, as opposed to, contrasted with
respondents tend to serve local versus non-local or foreign (be of) limited use/value= not very great in amount,
needs. 63% of respondents estimated that over 60% of users number, ability etc
when it comes to sth= when you are dealing with
are from the local area. Only 3% estimated that over 80% of
something or talking about something
users are from abroad. It is therefore not surprising that the financial year= the 12-month period over which a
facilities are of limited importance when it comes to company's accounts are calculated
increasing use of flights at the airport: 16% of respondents source of= resource, supply
estimated that none of the users of their meeting facilities use given= taking something into account
focus on= attention, concentration, emphasis
flights when travelling to or from them, while 56% estimated region= area, locality, territory
that 20% or fewer of the users of their facilities use flights. serious= important, significant, crucial
G business/commercial venture= a new business
The survey asked respondents with meeting facilities to activity that involves taking risks
property= land, house, estate
estimate how much revenue their airport earned from its
stakeholder= someone who has invested money
meeting facilities during the last financial year. Average into something, or who has some important
revenue per airport was just $12,959. Meeting facilities are connection with it, and therefore is affected by its
effectively a non-aeronautical source of airport revenue. Only success or failure
1% of respondents generated more than 20% non-aeronautical orientation= the type of aims or interests that a
person or an organization has; the act of directing
revenue from their meetings facilities; none generated more your aims towards a particular thing
than 40%. Given the focus on local demand, it is not provider= supplier, source, contributor
surprising that less than a third of respondents agreed that their
meeting facilities support business and tourism development in
their home region or country.
H
The findings of this study suggest that few airports provide
meetings facilities as a serious commercial venture. It may
be that, as owners of large property, space is available for
meeting facilities at airports and could play an important role in
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serving the needs of the airport, its partners, and stakeholders

such as the government and the local community. Thus, while
the local orientation means that competition with other
airports is likely to be minimal, competition with local providers
of meeting facilities is likely to be much greater.
11
READING PASSAGE 3
pointless= meaningless, useless, senseless
T
be surrounded by sb/sth= to have a lot of a
particular type of people or things near you
take somebody/something for granted= to expect
his may seem a pointless question today. Surrounded that someone or something will always be there
when you need them and never think how important
as we are by thousands of photographs, most of us take for or useful they are
granted that, in addition to supplying information and seducing seduce= to make someone want to do something
customers, camera images also serve as decoration, afford by making it seem very attractive or interesting to
spiritual enrichment, and provide significant insights into the them
passing scene. But in the decades following the discovery of serve as= to have a particular effect or result
afford= provide, allow
photography, this question reflected the search for ways to fit spiritual= relating to your spirit rather than to your
the mechanical medium into the traditional schemes of body or mind
artistic expression. enrichment= the act of improving the quality of
smth
The much-publicized pronouncement by painter Paul insight= understanding, awareness, perception
Delaroche that the daguerreotype signalled the end of painting passing days/weeks etc= the days, weeks etc that
is perplexing because this clever artist also forecast the pass
scene= sight, view, occurrence
usefulness of the medium for graphic artists in a letter written reflect= indicate, show, suggest
in 1839. Nevertheless, it is symptomatic of the swing between fit into= be included, participate
the outright rejection and qualified acceptance of the medium mechanical= affecting or involving a machine
that was fairly typical of the artistic establishment. Discussion medium= a way of communicating information and
news to people
of the role of photography in art was especially spirited in scheme= plan, idea, program
France, where the internal policies of the time had created a artistic= relating to art or culture
12
large pool of artists, but it was also taken up by important expression= demonstration, communication
voices in England. In both countries, public interest in this topic publicize= announce, publish, broadcast
pronouncement= statement, announcement,
was a reflection of the belief that national stature and declaration
achievement in the arts were related. signal= mark, indicate, announce
perplex= if something perplexes you, it makes you
From the maze of conflicting statements and heated articles on feel confused and worried because it is difficult to
the subject, three main positions about the potential of camera understand (=puzzle)
art emerged. The simplest, entertained by many painters and a usefulness= helpfulness, worth
section of the public, was that photographs should not be graphic= connected with or including drawing,
printing, or designing
considered ‘art’ because they were made with a mechanical symptomatic of= if a situation or type of behaviour
device and by physical and chemical phenomena instead of by is symptomatic of something, it shows that a serious
human hand and spirit; to some, camera images seemed to problem exists
have more in common with fabric produced by machinery in swing= a noticeable change in opinions or emotions
outright= complete, total, entire #partial
a mill than with handmade creations fired by inspiration. The rejection= refusal #acceptance
second widely held view; shared by painters, some qualified= be suitable, meet the requirements
photographers, and some critics, was that photographs would acceptance of= agreement, approval #rejection
be useful to art but should not be considered equal in fairly= quite, relatively, moderately
creativeness to drawing and painting. Lastly, by assuming that typical= characteristic, representative
spirited= energetic, determined
the process was comparable to other techniques such as internal= within a particular country (=domestic)
etching and lithography, a fair number of individuals realized pool of= a group of people who are available to
that camera images were or could be as significant as work or to do an activity when they are needed
handmade works of art and that they might have a positive take up= start, adopt, engage in
voice= opinion, expression
influence on the arts and on culture in general. reflection of= image, replication, echo
Artists reacted to photography in various ways. Many portrait stature= the degree to which someone is admired
or regarded as important
painters - miniaturists in particular - who realized that achievement= success, triumph, accomplishment
photography represented the ‘handwriting on the wall’ maze of rules/regulations etc= a large number of
became involved with daguerreotyping or paper photography rules, instructions etc which are complicated and
in an effort to save their careers; some incorporated it with difficult to understand
conflict= oppose, differ, dispute
painting, while others renounced painting altogether. Still other potential= possibility, ability, promise
painters, the most prominent among them is the French painter, emerge= appear, occur, arise
Jean- Auguste -Dominique Ingres, began almost immediately to section of= portion, piece, segment
use photography to make a record of their own output and also chemical phenomenon= any natural phenomenon
to provide themselves with source material for poses and involving chemistry (as changes to atoms or
molecules) (phenomenon= occurrence, event)
backgrounds, vigorously denying at the same time its influence have smth in common (with smth)= if objects or
on their vision or its claims as art. ideas have something in common, they share the
same features
The view that photographs might be worthwhile to artists was fabric= cloth
enunciated in considerable detail by Lacan and Francis Wey. machinery= equipment, machine
The latter, an art and literary critic, who eventually recognised mill= a factory that produces materials such as
that camera images could be inspired as well as informative, cotton, cloth, or steel
fire= inspire, excite
suggested that they would lead to greater naturalness in the hold= to have a particular opinion or belief
graphic depiction of anatomy, clothing, likeness, expression, critic= reviewer, commentator, judge
and landscape. By studying photographs, true artists, he comparable= similar, like, equivalent
claimed, would be relieved of menial tasks and become free to etch=to cut lines on a metal plate, piece of glass,
stone etc to form a picture or words
devote themselves to the more important spiritual aspects of lithography= a method of printing in which a pattern
their work. is cut into stone or metal so that ink sticks to some
parts of it and not others
We left unstated what the incompetent artist might do as an portrait= a painting, drawing, or photograph of a
alternative, but according to the influential French critic and poet. person
Charles Baudelaire, writing in response to an exhibition of miniaturist= someone who paints very small
photography in 1859, lazy and untalented painters would pictures for money
handwriting on the wall= to be aware that
become photographers. Fired by a belief in art as an something bad will probably happen soon
13
imaginative embodiment of cultivated ideas and dreams, become involved with= to take part or be
Baudelaire regarded photography as ‘a very humble servant of connected with
incorporate= combine, include, merge
art and science'; a medium largely unable to transcend renounce= quit, give up, leave
‘external reality'. For this critic, photography was linked with ‘the prominent= famous, well-known, outstanding
great industrial madness’ of the time, which in his eyes pose= the position in which someone stands or sits,
exercised disastrous consequences on the spiritual qualities of especially in a painting, photograph etc
vigorously= strongly, energetically, dynamically
life and art. vision= the knowledge and imagination that are
Eugene Delacroix was the most prominent of the French artists needed in planning for the future with a clear
purpose
who welcomed photography as help-mate but recognized its worthwhile= valuable, useful #worthless
limitations. Regretting that 'such a wonderful invention’ had enunciate= speak, say, pronounce
arrived so late in his lifetime, he still took lessons in considerable= significant, extensive, substantial
daguerreotyping, and both commissioned and collected in detail= fully, thoroughly, carefully
the latter= the second of two people, things or
photographs. Delacroix’s enthusiasm for the medium can be groups previously mentioned
sensed in a journal entry noting that if photographs were used literary= relating to literature
as they should be, an artist might ‘raise himself to heights that naturalness= the style or quality of happening in a
we do not yet know’. normal way that you would expect
depiction of = representation, illustration
The question of whether the photograph was document or art anatomy= the scientific study of the structure of
aroused interest in England also. The most important human or animal bodies
likeness= a painting or photograph of a person,
statement on this matter was an unsigned article that concluded especially one that looks very like the person
that while photography had a role to play, it should not be relieve sb of sth= to help sb by taking sth heavy or
‘constrained’ into ‘competition’ with art; a more stringent difficult from them
viewpoint led critic Philip Gilbert Hamerton to dismiss camera menial= boring, tedious #skilled
images as ‘narrow in range, emphatic in assertion, telling one devote= dedicate
unstated= not expressed in words
truth for ten falsehoods’. incompetent= lacking ability
imaginative= creative, ingenious, inventive
These writers reflected the opposition of a section of the embodiment of sth= someone or something that
cultural elite in England and France to the ‘cheapening of art’ represents or is very typical of an idea or quality
which the growing acceptance and purchase of camera cultivated= educated
pictures by the middle class represented. Technology made humble= not considering yourself or your ideas to
photographic images a common sight in the shop windows of be as important as other people’s
servant= someone, especially in the past, who was
Regent Street and Piccadilly in London and the commercial paid to clean someone’s house, cook for them,
boulevards of Paris. In London, for example, there were at the answer the door etc, and who often lived in the
time some commercial establishments where portraits, house
landscapes, and photographic reproductions of works of art transcend= surpass, exceed, excel
external= outside, exterior, outer #interior
could be bought. This appeal to the middle class convinced madness= very stupid behaviour that could be
the elite that photographs would foster a desire for realism dangerous or have a very bad effect
instead of idealism, even though some critics recognized that exercise= if something exercises someone, they
the work of individual photographers might display an uplifting think about it all the time and are very anxious or
style and substance that was consistent with the defining worried
disastrous= terrible, tragic, catastrophic
characteristics of art. help-mate= a helpful partner, usually a wife
commission= to officially ask somebody to write,
make or create something or to do a task for you
sense= feel, perceive, recognize
journal entry= diary
rise to/reach etc ... heights= reach a very high
level of achievement or success
arouse= awaken, stimulate, provoke
unsigned= nameless, unnamed, unidentified
constrained= obliged, forced, compelled
stringent= strict, severe, harsh
viewpoint= opinion, idea, notion
dismiss= reject, shelve
emphatic= absolute, obvious
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assertion= claim, declaration, proclamation

falsehood= lie, untruth
elite= a group of people who have a lot of power
and influence because they have money,
knowledge, or special skills
middle class= the social class that includes people
who are educated and work in professional jobs, for
example teachers or managers
shop window= a large window at the front of a
shop, where certain goods are arranged to be seen
from outside
boulevard= road, avenue
reproduction= copy, replica, duplicate
appeal to= attraction, attractiveness, charm
convince= persuade, prove, prove
foster= nurture, look after, raise
desire for= wish, craving, yearning
realism= the style of art and literature in which
things, especially unpleasant things, are shown or
described as they really are in life
idealism= a way of using art or literature to show
the world as a perfect place, even though it is not
uplifting= making you feel happier and more
hopeful
substance= material, matter, ingredient
be consistent with sth= if a fact, idea etc is
consistent with another one, it seems to match it
characteristic= feature, trait, quality
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TEST 2
READING PASSAGE 1 – THE FLAVOUR OF PLEASURE
flavor = Taste, essence, savor
W
when it comes to = considering some particular
person, thing, or action, regarding, relating to
get all the credit = deserve a lot of praise for
hen it comes to celebrating the flavor of food, our something that a person has done
relish = enjoy, delight in, take pleasure in #dislike
mouth gets all the credit. But in truth, it is the nose that combined = mixed, blended, merged, #seperated
knows. input = thing
#output
No matter how much we talk about tasting our favorite flavors, senses = one of the five natural powers of sight,
relishing them really depends on a combined input from our hearing, feeling, taste, and smell, that give us
information about the things around us
senses that we experience through mouth, tongue and nose. texture = appearance, quality, surface
The taste, texture, and feel of food are what we tend to focus tend = have a habit of, be likely to, incline
on, but most important are the slight puffs of air as we chew slight = small, insignificant, trivial, #considerable
our food - what scientists call 'retronasal smell'. chew = crush, grind, munch
puff = breath
Certainly, our mouths and tongues have taste buds, which are retronasal smell = the ability to identify flavor of
receptors for the five basic flavors: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, foods and drinks
and umami, or what is more commonly referred to as savory. taste bud = one of the small parts of the surface of
But our tongues are inaccurate instruments as far as flavor your tongue with which you can taste things
is concerned. They evolved to recognise only a few basic receptor = a nerve ending which receives
information about changes in light, heat etc and
tastes in order to quickly identify toxins, which in nature are causes the body to react (in particular ways)
often quite bitter or acidly sour. bitter = having a strong sharp taste, like black
coffee without sugar
All the complexity, nuance, and pleasure of flavor come from umami = having a strong pleasant taste that is not
sweet, sour, salty, or bitter, especially like the tastes
the sense of smell operating in the back of the nose. It is there found in meat, strong cheeses, tomatoes etc / meaty
that a kind of alchemy occurs when we breathe up and out the and delicious
passing whiffs of our chewed food. Unlike a hound's skull refer = talk about, mention, point out
with its extra long nose, which evolved specifically to detect savory = salty, flavorful, spicy
external smells, our noses have evolved to detect internal inaccurate = wrong, incorrect, inexact, #precise
instrument = tool, device, apparatus / gadget
scents. Primates specialise in savoring the many millions of as far as … is concerned = with regard to
flavor combinations that they can create for their mouths. something
Taste without retronasal smell is not much help in recognising evolve = grow, progress, advance, #regress
flavor. Smell has been the most poorly understood of our recognize = know, identify, distinguish / recall
toxin = poison, pollutant, contaminant
senses, and only recently has neuroscience, led by Yale in nature = the type or main characteristic (of
University's Gordon Shepherd, begun to shed light on its something) / at first, originally
workings. Shepherd has come up with the term complexity = difficulty, complication, intricacy,
'neurogastronomy' to link the disciplines of food science, #simplicity
neurology, psychology, and anthropology with the savory nuance = tone, shade, gradation
pleasure = fun, joy, satisfaction
elements of eating, one of the most enjoyed of human operate = work, function, activate
experiences. alchemy = transformation, creation, or combination
occur = happen, take place, arise
In many ways, he is discovering that smell is rather like face whiff = smell, scent, odor
hound = dog
recognition. The visual system detects patterns of light and skull = the bones of a person’s or animal’s head
dark and, building on experience, the brain creates a spatial detect = notice, discover, identify
map. It uses this to interpret the interrelationship of the external = outside, exterior, outer, #internal
patterns and draw conclusions that allow us to identify people primate = monkey, ape, chimpanzee
and places. In the same way, we use patterns and ratios to specialise in = focus on, concentrate on, major in
savor (v) = taste, enjoy, cherish, relish
detect both new and familiar flavors. As we eat, specialised combination = mix, blend, mixture,
receptors in the back of the nose detect the air molecules in neuroscience = the scientific study of the brain
16
our meals. From signals sent by the receptors, the brain shed light on = provide new information that makes
understands smells as complex spatial patterns. Using these, a difficult subject or problem easier to understand
come up with = find, suggest, discover
as well as input from the other senses, it constructs the idea neurogastronomy = the study of how the brain
of specific flavors. creates flavors that make eating food pleasurable
This ability to appreciate specific aromas turns out to be discipline = subject, field, specialty
central to the pleasure we get from food, much as our ability to neurology = the scientific study of the nervous
system and its diseases
recognise individuals is central to the pleasures of social life. anthropology = the scientific study of people, their
The process is so embedded in our brains that our sense of societies, cultures etc
smell is critical to our enjoyment of life at large. Recent element = part, factor, component
studies show that people who lose the ability to smell become recognition = detection, identification, perception
socially insecure, and their overall level of happiness visual = photographic, graphic, pictorial
build on = develop, exploit / make use of, utilize
plummets. spatial = relating to the position, size, shape etc of
things
Working out the role of smell in flavor interests food scientists, interpret = explain, understand, translate,
psychologists, and cooks alike. The relatively new discipline of interrelationship = a connection between two
things that makes them affect each other
molecular gastronomy, especially, relies on understanding draw conclusions = end, finish, conclude
the mechanics of aroma to manipulate flavor for maximum specialised = focused, specific, dedicated
impact. In this discipline, chefs use their knowledge of the molecule = tiny part, particle, fragment
chemical changes that take place during cooking to produce complex = difficult, complicated, intricate, #simple
eating pleasures that go beyond the 'ordinary'. construct = form, create, compose
appreciate = value, understand, realize
However, whereas molecular gastronomy is concerned aroma = smell, scent, fragrance
primarily with the food or 'smell' molecules, neurogastronomy much as = although
is more focused on the receptor molecules and the brain's embedded = rooted, inserted, implanted
spatial images for smell. Smell stimuli form what Shepherd critical = important, essential, indispensable,
#insignificant
terms 'odor objects', stored as memories, and these have a at large = as a whole, in general
direct link with our emotions. The brain creates images of insecure = shy, unsure, fearful / unconfident,
unfamiliar smells by relating them to other more familiar smells. uncertain, self-doubting, #confident
Go back in history and this was part of our survival repertoire; plummet = reduce, drop / fall, dive, plunge, #climb
like most animals, we drew on our sense of smell, when visual work out (v) = understand, comprehend, conceive
relatively = quite, somewhat, fairly / moderately,
information was scarce, to single out prey. comparatively
Thus the brain's flavor-recognition system is a highly complex molecular gastronomy = the study of how food
perceptual mechanism that puts all five senses to work in changes when it cooks
various combinations. Visual and sound cues contribute, such rely on = depend on, count on, hinge on
mechanics = method, procedure, mechanism
as crunching, as does touch, including the texture and feel of manipulate = control, affect, operate
food on our lips and in our mouths. Then there are the taste impact = effect, influence, impression
receptors, and finally, the smell, activated when we inhale. whereas = while, although
The engagement of our emotions can be readily illustrated primarily = mainly, principally, predominantly
when we picture some of the wide-ranging facial expressions stimuli = motivations, incentives, impetuses
odor = smell, scent, aroma
that are elicited by various foods - many of them hard-wired survival = existence, endurance, persistence,
into our brains at birth. Consider the response to the #death
sharpness of a lemon and compare that with the face that is repertoire = group, range, stock
welcoming the smooth wonder of chocolate. draw on = use, utilize, rely on
scarce = rare, limited, uncommon
single out = recognize, identify, distinguish
The flavor-sensing system, ever receptive to new prey = target, quarry / victim
combinations, helps to keep our brains active and flexible. It perceptual = relating to the ability to notice
also has the power to shape our desires and ultimately our something or come to an opinion about something
bodies. On the horizon we have the positive application of using your senses
mechanism = way, method, apparatus/procedure
neurogastronomy: manipulating flavor to curb our appetites. contribute = cause, impact, participate
crunching = chewing, munching, chomping
activated = turn on, stimulated, initiated
inhale = breathe in, huff, gasp, #exhale
engagement = involvement, commitment
17
illustrate = show, display / explain / demonstrate,

illuminate
wide-ranging = widespread, extensive,
comprehensive
elicited = caused, prompted, stimulated
hard-wired = automatically thinking or behaving in a
particular way
response = answer, reply, reaction
sharpness = sourness, harshness, acidity
compare = judge, contrast, evaluate
receptive = open, responsive, approachable
flexible = variable, adaptable, accommodating, #stiff
desire = want, wish / crave, long for
ultimately = finally, in the end, eventually, #initially
on the horizon = coming, approaching, imminent
application = use, exercise / function, purpose
curb = hold back / control, limit, restrain
appetite = taste, hunger, desire for food
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READING PASSAGE 2 – DAWN OF THE ROBOTS
vacuum= a space that is completely empty of all
T
gas, especially one from which all the air has been
taken away
carpet= heavy woven material for covering floors or
hey're already here - driving cars, vacuuming carpets stairs, or a piece of this material
patient= someone who is receiving medical
and feeding hospital patients. They may not be walking, treatment from a doctor or in a hospital
talking, human-like sentient beings, but they are clever... and sentient= able to experience things through your
a little creepy. senses
clever= wise, intelligent, knowledgeable
A At first sight it looked like a typical suburban road accident. creepy= making you feel nervous and slightly
frightened
A Land Rover approached a Chevy Tahoe estate car that had
stopped at a kerb; the Land Rover pulled out and tried to pass typical= characteristic, representative
the Tahoe just as it started off again. There was a crack of suburban= related to a suburb, or in a suburb
approach= come near or nearer to (someone or
fenders and the sound of paintwork being scraped, the kind of something)
minor mishap that occurs on roads thousands of times every kerb= the edge of the pavement (=raised path) at
day. Normally drivers get out, gesticulate, exchange the side of a road
crack= a sudden loud sound like the sound of a
insurance details and then drive off. But not on this occasion. stick being broken
No one got out of the cars for the simple reason that they had no fender= the side part of a car that covers the wheels
humans inside them; the Tahoe and Land Rover were being scrape= to make a noise by rubbing roughly against
a surface
controlled by computers competing in November's DARPA (the mishap= a small accident or mistake that does not
U.S. Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency) Urban have very serious results
Challenge. gesticulate= to make movements with your arms
and hands, usually while speaking, because you are
B The idea that machines could perform to such standards is excited, angry, or cannot think of the right words to
use
startling. Driving is a complex task that takes humans a long exchange= to give someone something and receive
time to perfect. Yet here, each car had its on-board computer the same kind of thing from them at the same time
loaded with a digital map and route plans, and was instructed insurance= an arrangement with a company in
which you pay them money, especially regularly,
to negotiate busy roads; differentiate between pedestrians and they pay the costs if something bad happens
and stationary objects; determine whether other vehicles were compete= if one company or country competes with
parked or moving off; and handle various parking manoeuvres, another, it tries to get people to buy its goods or
services rather than those available from another
which robots turn out to be unexpectedly adept at. Even more company or country
striking was the fact that the collision between the robot Land
Rover, built by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of machine= a piece of equipment with moving parts
that uses power such as electricity to do a particular
Technology, and the Tahoe, fitted out by Cornell University job
Artificial Intelligence (Al) experts, was the only scrape in the standard= the level that is considered to be
entire competition. Yet only three years earlier, at DARPA's acceptable, or the level that someone or something
has achieved
previous driverless car race, every robot competitor - directed to startling= surprising, amazing, astonishing
navigate across a stretch of open desert - either crashed or complex= complicated, intricate #simple
seized up before getting near the finishing line. digital= using a system in which information is
recorded or sent out electronically in the form of
C It is a remarkable transition that has clear implications for numbers, usually ones and zeros
route= way, road, channel, passage
the car of the future. More importantly, it demonstrates how instruct= teach, coach, tutor
robotics sciences and Artificial Intelligence have progressed in negotiate= to succeed in getting past or over a
the past few years - a point stressed by Bill Gates, the Microsoft difficult place on a path, road etc
differentiate= to recognize or express the difference
boss who is a convert to these causes. 'The robotics industry is
between things or people= distinguish
developing in much the same way the computer business did 30 pedestrian= someone who is walking, especially
years ago,' he argues. As he points out, electronics companies along a street or other place used by cars
determine= choose, decide
19
make toys that mimic pets and children with increasing manoeuvre= a skilful or careful movement that you
make, for example in order to avoid something or go
sophistication. 'I can envision a future in which robotic devices through a narrow space
will become a nearly ubiquitous part of our day-to-day lives,' unexpectedly= by chance, by accident,
says Gates. 'We may be on the verge of a new era, when the unintentionally, #on purpose
adept= skilful
PC will get up off the desktop and allow us to see, hear, touch striking= amazing, worthy of attention, remarkable
and manipulate objects in places where we are not physically collision= an accident in which two or more people
present.' or vehicles hit each other while moving in different
directions
D What is the potential for robots and computers in the near scrape= a mark or slight injury caused by rubbing
against a rough surface
future? The fact is we still have a way to go before real robots navigate= direct, guide, handle
catch up with their science fiction counterparts/ Gates says. stretch= an area of land or water, especially one
So what are the stumbling blocks? One key difficulty is getting that is long and narrow
transition= change, transformation, adjustment,
robots to know their place. This has nothing to do with class or
alteration
etiquette, but concerns the simple issue of positioning. implication= the conclusion that can be drawn from
Humans orient themselves with other objects in a room very something although it is not explicitly stated
easily. Robots find the task almost impossible. 'Even something progress= evolve, grow, advance #regress
convert= someone who has been persuaded to
as simple as telling the difference between an open door and a change their beliefs and accept a particular religion
window can be tricky for a robot,' says Gates. This has, until or opinion
recently, reduced robots to fairly static and cumbersome roles. mimic= imitate, copy, impersonate,
envision= visualize, imagine, envisage, picture,
ubiquitous= seeming to be everywhere –
E For a long time, researchers tried to get round the problem by
sometimes used humorously
attempting to re-create the visual processing that goes on in the on the verge of= to be at the point where
human cortex. However, that challenge has proved to be something is about to happen
singularly exacting and complex. So scientists have turned to manipulate= to make someone think and behave
exactly as you want them to, by skillfully deceiving or
simpler alternatives: 'We have become far more pragmatic in influencing them
our work,' says Nello Cristianini, Professor of Artificial
Intelligence at the University of Bristol in England and associate potential= possibility, ability, promise
catch up with= to move fast enough to join
editor of the Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research. 'We are (someone or something that is in front) —often used
no longer trying to re-create human functions. Instead, we are figuratively
looking for simpler solutions with basic electronic sensors, for counterpart= a person or thing holding a position or
performing a function that corresponds to that of
example.' This approach is exemplified by vacuuming robots another person or thing in another place
such as the Electrolux Trilobite. The Trilobite scuttles around stumble= to hit your foot against something or put
homes emitting ultrasound signals to create maps of rooms, your foot down awkwardly while you are walking or
running, so that you almost fall
which are remembered for future cleaning. Technology like this etiquette= polite behavior, good manners,
is now changing the face of robotics, says philosopher Ron acceptable behavior
Chrisley, director of the Centre for Research in Cognitive position= a place where someone or something is
located or has been put
Science at the University of Sussex in England. tricky= difficult, awkward, problematic
cumbersome= unmanageable, awkward, clumsy,
F Last year, a new Hong Kong restaurant. Robot Kitchen, inconvenient
opened with a couple of sensor-laden humanoid machines
directing customers to their seats. Each possesses a touch- visual= relating to seeing or sight
cortex= the outer or superficial part of an organ or
screen on which orders can be keyed in. The robot then returns bodily structure
with the correct dishes. In Japan, University of Tokyo singularly= in a remarkable or noticeable way
researchers recently unveiled a kitchen 'android' that could pragmatic= dealing with things sensibly and
realistically in a way that is based on practical rather
wash dishes, pour tea and make a few limited meals. The than theoretical considerations
ultimate aim is to provide robot home helpers for the sick and the exemplify= to be a very typical example of
elderly, a key concern in a country like Japan where 22 per cent something
emit= produce and discharge (something, especially
of the population is 65 or older. Over US$1 billion a year is spent gas or radiation)
on research into robots that will be able to care for the elderly. ultrasound= sound that is too high for humans to
20
'Robots first learn basic competence - how to move around a hear

philosopher= someone who studies and develops
house without bumping into things. Then we can think about ideas about the nature and meaning of existence,
teaching them how to interact with humans,' Chrisley said. truth, good and evil etc
Machines such as these take researchers into the field of
humanoid= having a human shape and human
socialised robotics: how to make robots act in a way that does
qualities
not scare or offend individuals. 'We need to study how robots possess= have, own, hold, keep
should approach people, how they should appear. That is going unveil= to show or tell people about a new product
to be a key area for future research,' adds Chrisley. or plan for the first time
limited= restricted in size, amount, or extent; few,
small, or short
competence= the ability to do something
successfully or efficiently
bump into= to meet someone who you know, when
you were not expecting to
key= crucial, central, essential, indispensable
21
READING PASSAGE 3 – IT’S YOUR CHOICE? OR IS IT REALLY?
societal= relating to a particular society
A
capability= ability, capacity, power, potential
constantly= continually, continuously, regularly,
frequently
s we move from the industrial age to the information process= to deal with information using a computer
trivial= unimportant, insignificant, inconsequential,
age, societal demands on our mental capabilities are no less minor
taxing ... marmalade= a jam made from fruit such as
oranges, lemons, or grapefruit, usually eaten at
We are constantly required to process a wide range of breakfast
information to make decisions. Sometimes, these decisions are be accustomed to (doing) something= to be
trivial, such as what marmalade to buy. At other times, the familiar with something and accept it as normal
sensory= relating to or using your senses of sight,
stakes are higher, such as deciding which symptoms to report to hearing, smell, taste, or touch
the doctor. However, the fact that we are accustomed to cognitive= related to the process of knowing,
processing large amounts of information does not mean that we understanding, and learning something
systematic= organized carefully and done
are better at it (Chabris & Simons, 2009). Our sensory and thoroughly
cognitive systems have systematic ways of failing of which we blissful= extremely happy or enjoyable
are often, perhaps blissfully, unaware. unaware= not noticing or realizing what is
happening
Imagine that you are taking a walk in your local city park when
Imagine= to form a picture or idea in your mind
a tourist approaches you asking for directions. During the about what something could be like
conversation, two men carrying a door pass between the two of direction= the way something or someone moves,
you. If the person asking for directions had changed places with faces, or is aimed
psychologist= someone who is trained in
one of the people carrying the door, would you notice? Research psychology
suggests that you might not. Harvard psychologists Simons set-up= the way that something is organized or
and Levi (1998) conducted a field study using this exact set-up arranged
identity= someone’s identity is their name or who
and found that the change in identity went unnoticed by 7
they are
(46.6%) of the 15 participants. unnoticed= not noticed
This phenomenon has been termed 'change blindness' and phenomenon= occurrence, event
refers to the difficulty that observers have in noticing changes observer= someone who regularly watches or pays
to visual scenes (e.g. the person swap), when the changes are attention to particular things, events, situations etc
scene= a view of a place as you see it, or as it
accompanied by some other visual disturbance (e.g. the appears in a picture
passing of the door). be accompanied by something= to happen or
exist at the same time as something else
Over the past decade, the change blindness phenomenon has disturbance= something that interrupts what you
been replicated many times. Especially noteworthy is an are doing, or the act of making this happen
replicate= if you replicate someone’s work, a
experiment by Davies and Hine (2007) who studied whether scientific study etc, you do it again, or try to get the
change blindness affects eyewitness identification. same result again
Specifically, participants were presented with a video
noteworthy= notable, interesting, significant
enactment of a burglary. In the video, a man entered a house, blind= unable to see
walking through the different rooms and putting valuables into a eyewitness= a person who has personally seen
knapsack. However, the identity of the burglar changed after the something happen and so can give a first-hand
description of it
first half of the film while the initial burglar was out of sight. Out enact= formal to act in a play, story etc
of the 80 participants, 49 (61%) did not notice the change of the burglary= entry into a building illegally with intent to
commit a crime, especially theft
initial= happening at the beginning
knapsack= a bag that you carry on your shoulders
22
burglar's identity, suggesting that change blindness may have criminal= a person who has committed a crime
proceedings= actions taken in a law court or legal
serious implications for criminal proceedings. case
To most of us, it seems bizarre that people could miss such bizarre= strange, unusual, weird
obvious changes while they are paying active attention. obvious= clear, plain, crystal clear, evident,
However, to catch those changes, attention must be targeted to apparent
target= to aim something at a target
the changing feature. In the study described above, participants feature= characteristic, attribute, quality
were likely not to have been expecting the change to happen, valuable= things that you own that are worth a lot of
and so their attention may have been focused on the valuables money, such as jewellery, cameras etc
the burglar was stealing, rather than the burglar.
perceive= see, understand, identify, recognize
Drawing from change blindness research, scientists have come visual= relating to seeing or sight
to the conclusion that we perceive the world in much less detail irrelevant= not directly relating to the subject or
than previously thought (Johansson, Hall, & Sikstrom, 2008). problem being discussed or considered
representation= depiction, illustration
Rather than monitoring all of the visual details that surround us, crude= not exact or without any detail, but generally
we seem to focus our attention only on those features that are correct and useful = approximate
currently meaningful or important, ignoring those that are manipulate= to make someone think and behave
exactly as you want them to, by skillfully deceiving or
irrelevant to our current needs and goals. Thus at any given influencing them
time, our representation of the world surrounding us is crude undetected= not detected or discovered
and incomplete, making it possible for changes or
stimuli = motivations, incentives, impetuses
manipulations to go undetected (Chabris & Simons, 2010). wonder= to think about something that you are not
sure about and try to guess what is true, what will
Given the difficulty people have in noticing changes to visual happen et
stimuli, one may wonder what would happen if these changes sample= a small amount of a product that people
concerned the decisions people make. To examine choice can try in order to find out what it is like
purport= to claim to be or do something, even if this
blindness, Hall and colleagues (2010) invited supermarket is not true
customers to sample two different kinds of jams and teas. After detect= to notice or discover something, especially
participants had tasted or smelled both samples, they indicated something that is not easy to see, hear etc
colleague= coworker, associate, partner,
which one they preferred. Subsequently, they were purportedly
collaborator
given another sample of their preferred choice. On half of the gustatory= concerned with tasting or the sense of
trials, however, these were samples of the non-chosen jam or taste
olfactory= relating to the sense of smell
tea. As expected, only about one-third of the participants
detected this manipulation. Based on these findings, Hall and auditory= relating to the ability to hear
colleagues proposed that choice blindness is a phenomenon sympathetic= caring and feeling sorry about
that occurs not only for choices involving visual material, but also someone’s problems
outcome= result, consequence, effect, conclusion
for choices involving gustatory and olfactory information.
intensity= the quality of being felt very strongly or
Recently, the phenomenon has also been replicated for choices having a strong effect
involving auditory stimuli (5auerland, Sagana, & Otgaar, 2012). symptom= a physical or mental feature which is
Specifically, participants had to listen to three pairs of voices and regarded as indicating a condition of disease,
particularly such a feature that is apparent to the
decide for each pair which voice they found more sympathetic patient
or more criminal. The voice was then presented again; however, concentration= the action or power of focusing
the outcome was manipulated for the second voice pair and one's attention or mental effort
inflate= to make something seem more important or
participants were presented with the non-chosen voice. impressive than it really is
Replicating the findings by Hall and colleagues, only 29% of the rate= to think that someone or something has a
participants detected this change. particular quality, value, or standard
shyness= the quality or state of being shy
escalate= to become higher or increase, or to make
Merckelbach, Jelicic, and Pieters (2011) investigated choice
something do this
blindness for intensity ratings of one's own psychological
symptoms. Their participants had to rate the frequency with
23
which they experienced 90 common symptoms (e.g. anxiety, preference= if you have a preference for something,
you like it more than another thing and will choose it
lack of concentration, stress, headaches etc.) on a 5-point if you can
scale. Prior to a follow-up interview, the researchers inflated
ratings for two symptoms by two points. For example, when
limited= restricted in size, amount, or extent; few,
participants had rated their feelings of shyness, as 2 (i.e.
small, or short
occasionally), it was changed to 4 (i.e. all the time). This time, frequency= the rate at which something occurs or is
more than half (57%) of the 28 participants were blind to the repeated over a particular period of time or in a
symptom rating escalation and accepted it as their own given sample
symptom intensity rating. This demonstrates that blindness is not implication= the conclusion that can be drawn from
limited to recent preference selections, but can also occur for something although it is not explicitly stated
intensity and frequency. judicial= relating to the law, judges, or their
decisions
a variety of something= a lot of things of the same
Together, these studies suggest that choice blindness can occur
type that are different from each other in some way
in a wide variety of situations and can have serious avoid= to prevent something bad from happening
implications for medical and judicial outcomes. Future
research is needed to determine how, in those situations, choice
blindness can be avoided.
24
TEST 3
READING PASSAGE 1 Secrets of the swarm
creature= an animal, a living thing
I
engage= involve, occupy, attract,
flock= mass in a flock or large group
coverage= treatment, description,
nsects, birds and fish tend to be the creatures that humans feel reporting
march= walk, tread, step
furthest from. Unlike many mammals they do not engage in human-like simile= an expression that describes
behaviour. The way they swarm or flock together does not usually get something by comparing it with
good press coverage either: marching like worker ants might be a something else
common simile for city commuters, but it’s a damning, not positive, commuter= traveler, passenger
image.Yet a new school of scientific theory suggests that these swarms damning= extremely critical, showing
that someone has done something very
might have a lot to teach us. bad or wrong
individual = person, human being,
American author Peter Miller explains, ‘I used to think that individual human
ants knew where they were going, and what they were supposed to do suppose= think, assume, expect
when they got there. But Deborah Gordon, a biologist at Stanford except= not including, other than
University, showed me that nothing an ant does makes any sense whole= total, complete
except in terms of the whole colony. Which makes you wonder if, as make sense= be justifiable or
individuals, we don’t serve a similar function for the companies where practicable
we work or the communities where we live. Ants are not intelligent by in terms of= with regard to, as regards,
regarding
themselves. Yet as a colony, they make wise decisions. And as Gordon colony= possession, territory,
discovered during her research, there’s no one ant making decisions or dominion
giving orders. function= role, use, purpose
wise= intelligent, clever, knowledgeable
give orders= give command or
Take food collecting, for example. No ant decides, ‘There’s lots of food
directions
around today; lots of ants should go out to collect it. Instead, some decide= choose, determine
forager ants go out, and as soon as they find food, they pick it up and Instead= rather, by alternatively
come back to the nest. At the entrance, they brush past reserve forager= a person or animal that
foragers, sending a ‘go out’ signal. The faster the foragers come back, searches widely for food
entrance= entry, doorway, gateway
the more food there is and the faster other foragers go out, until brush = clean, sweep, scrub
gradually the amount of food being brought back diminishes. An reserve = an area of land
organic calculation has been made to answer the question, ‘How many where wild animals and plants
foragers does the colony need today?’ And if something goes wrong - a are protected gradually = slowly, step
hungry lizard prowling around for an ant snack, for instance - then a by step
diminish = decrease, reduce
rush of ants returning without food sends waiting reserves a ‘Don’t go out’ organic = natural
signal. prowl= sneak, hunt, stalk
decentralised = move parts of an
But could such decentralised control work in a human organisation? organization from a central place
Miller visited a Texas gas company that has successfully applied to smaller ones
behaviour = action, operation
formulas based on ant colony behaviour to ‘optimise its factories and optimise = make the best use of
route its trucks’. He explains, ‘If ant colonies had worked out a reliable route = direct, forward, dispatch
way to identify the best routes between their nest and food sources, the work out = solve, think out
company managers figured, why not take advantage of that identify = spot, recognize, name
take advantage of= use, make use of,
knowledge?’ So they came up with a computer model, based on the exploit
self-organising principles of an ant colony. Data is fed into the model figure= assess, determine
about deliveries needing to be made the next day, as well as things like come up with= produce, present
feed into= insert or input something
25
weather conditions, and it produces a simulation determining the best produce= make, manufacture
route for the delivery lorries to take. simulation = imitation of a situation or
process
determine= establish, ascertain
Miller explains that he first really understood the impact that swarm impact = effect, influence
behaviour could have on humans when he read a study of honeybees by study= research, report, paper
Tom Seeley, a biologist at Cornell University. The honeybees choose as nest= birdhouse, hideout
scout = guard, spy
a group which new nest to move to. First, scouts fly off to investigate fly off = go away quickly, hurry off
multiple sites. When they return they do a ‘waggle dance’ for their spot, investigate = analyze, study, audit
and other scouts will then fly off and investigate it. Many bees go out, but spot= place, location, position
none tries to compare all sites. Each reports back on just one. The more compare = contrast, differentiate
they liked their nest, the more vigorous and lengthy their waggle dance site= area, place, position
back = support, defend, aid
and the more bees will choose to visit it. Gradually the volume of bees vigorous = powerful, forceful
builds up towards one site; it’s a system that ensures that support for lengthy= long, prolonged, extended
the best site snowballs and the decision is made in the most democratic build up = enlarge, expanse
way. ensure = guarantee, confirm, verify
democratic = representative
diversity= mix, variety, range
Humans, too, can make clever decisions through diversity of knowledge competition= contest, battle, war
and a little friendly competition. The best example of shared decision- witness = watch, view, observe
making that I witnessed during my research was a town meeting I attended = visit, go to, participate
attended in Vermont, where citizens met face-to-face to debate their debate = talk, discuss, argue
budget= fund, grant, forecast
annual budget,’ explains Miller. ‘For group decision-making to work well, sort through= look at things and put
you need a way to sort through the various options they propose; and them in a particular order
you need a mechanism to narrow down these options.’ Citizens in propose= offer, recommend
Vermont control their municipal affairs by putting forward proposals, or mechanism = tool, method
backing up others’ suggestions, until a consensus is reached through a narrow down= reduce, decline
municipal = city, town, civil
vote. As with the bees, the broad sampling of options before a decision affairs = event, case, thing
is made will usually result in a compromise acceptable to all. The consensus = agreement, unity
‘wisdom of the crowd’ makes clever decisions for the good of the group - sample= try out, evaluate
and leaves citizens feeling represented and respected. compromise = deal, agreement
wisdom = knowledge, insight
represent = symbolize, present
The Internet is also an area where we are increasingly exhibiting swarm exhibiting = show, display, present
behaviour, without any physical contact. Miller compares a wiki website, contact= connection
for example, to a termite mound. Indirect collaboration is the key Termite= a small insect living in large
principle behind information-sharing web sites, just as it underlies the colonies
mound = pile, hill, pyramid
complex constructions that termites build. Termites do not have an collaboration = teamwork
architect’s blueprint or a grand construction scheme. They simply underlie = be a significant cause or
sense changes in their environment, as for example when the mound’s basis of (something)
wall has been damaged, altering the circulation of air. They go to the complex = difficult, complicated
construction= building
site of the change and drop a grain of soil. When the next termite finds blueprint = plan, draft, design
that grain, they drop theirs too. Slowly, without any kind of direct grand = large, fancy, impressive
decision-making, a new wall is built. A termite mound, in this way, is scheme= plan, project, plot
rather like a wiki website. Rather than meeting up and talking about what alter= change, adjust, adapt
we want to post online, we just add to what someone - maybe a stranger circulation= flow, motion, movement
grain= a flake, a bit, a piece
on the other side of the world - already wrote. This indirect knowledge corridor = hallway, aisle,
and skill-sharing is now finding its way into the corridors of power.
26
READING PASSAGE 2 - High speed, high rise
founder = a creator, maker
Z
chairman = president, leader
release = announce, issue
hang Yue is founder and chairman of Broad Sustainable Building achievement= winning, fullfillment
buzz= whisper, hum, sound
gnat= a small two-winged fly
(otherwise known as 'Broad') who, on 1 January, 2012, released a time- mark= show, indicate, point
lapse video of its 30-story achievement. It shows construction workers overlook = view, face
buzzing around like gnats while a clock in the corner of the screen spiral= a spiral curve, shape
marks the time. In just 360 hours, a 100-metre-tall tower called the T30 imitation = copying
rises from an empty site to overlook Hunan's Xiang River. At the end of franchise= permit, license
partner = coworker, teammate
the video, the camera spirals around the building overhead as the Broad skyscraper = a very tall building
logo appears on the screen: a lowercase b that wraps around itself in an aim= focus, pont, direct
imitation of the @ symbol. The company is in the process of franchising sustainable = lasting, durable,
its technology to partners in India, Brazil, and Russia. What it is selling is sustained
structural = organizational
the world's first standardized skyscraper and with it, Zhang aims to turn
revolution = protest, strike
Broad into the McDonald's of the sustainable building industry. When structures = building, construction
asked why he decided to start a construction company, Zhang replies, fabricate = make, produce, create
'It's not a construction company. It's a structural revolution.' roughly = about, around
sprawling = spreading, lying
headquarter= main office, base
So far, Broad has built 16 structures in China, plus another in Cancun. section= part, division, piece
They are fabricated at two factories in Hunan, roughly an hour's drive measure= estimate, calculate
from Broad Town, the sprawling headquarters. The floors and ceilings duct = tube, cahnnel, canal
of the skyscrapers are built in sections, each measuring 15.6 by 3.9 thread= pass, move push
module= factor, sector, component
meters with a depth of 45 centimeters. Pipes and ducts for electricity,
column= pillar, pole, pier
water and waste are threaded through each floor module while it is still in bolt= parcel, roll, reel
the factory. The client's choice of flooring is also pre-installed on top. stack= pile up, put together
Standardized truckloads carry two modules each to the site with the crane= a large, tall machine used for
necessary columns, bolts and tools to connect them stacked on top of moving heavy objects
assemble= build, construct
each other. Once they arrive at the location, each section is lifted by diagonal = joining two opposite
crane directly to the top of the building, which is assembled like toy Lego corners of a square
bricks. Workers use the materials on the module to quickly connect the brace= hold up, support
pipes and wires. The unique column design has diagonal bracing at tabs = mark, identify
insulate= wrap, cover, protect
each end and tabs that bolt into the floors above and below. In the final exterior = outside, external
step, heavily insulated exterior walls and windows are slotted in by slot= put, insert, fit
crane. The result is far from pretty but the method is surprisingly safe - phenomenally = especially well
and phenomenally fast. attribute= regard, credit, assign
outsider = non-member, foreigner
perspective = viewpoint, outlook
Zhang attributes his success to his creativity and to his outsider pressurized= produce or maintain
perspective on technology. He started out as an art student in the raised pressure
1980s, but in 1988, Zhang left the art world to found Broad. The company fortune = wealth, resources, assets
started out as a maker of non- pressurized boilers. His senior vice- toward = nearing, approaching
expand= enlarge, scale up
president, Juliet Jiang, says, 'He made his fortune on boilers. He could capacity = size, volume
have kept doing this business, but ... he saw the need for nonelectric air- grid= web, network, matrix
conditioning.' Towards the end of the decade, China's economy was shortage= lack, deficit, rarity
obstacle = difficulty, problem
27
expanding past the capacity of the nation's electricity grid, she ease = help, relieve, soothe
explains. Power shortages were becoming a serious obstacle to growth. reliable = truthful, dependable
bargain= deal, agreement, contract
Large air-conditioning (AC) units fueled by natural gas could help unit= part, department
companies ease their electricity load, reduce overheads, and enjoy more operate = work, perform, manage
reliable climate control into the bargain. Today, Broad has units
operating in more than 70 countries, in some of the largest buildings and boom= grow (rapid economic growth)
conspire= combine, join, plan
airports on the planet. course= way, direction, progress
collapse = failure, breakdown
For two decades, Zhang's AC business boomed. But a couple of events Initially= at first, to start with
conspired to change his course. The first was that Zhang became an convince = talk, persuade
refit= replace or repair machinery
environmentalist. The second was the earthquake that hit China's
existing = current, remaining
Sichuan Province in 2008, causing the collapse of poorly constructed stable = strong, firm, solid
buildings. Initially, he says, he tried to convince developers to refit sustainable= lasting, long-term
existing buildings to make them both more stable and more environmentally friendly= green,
sustainable, but he had little success. So Zhang drafted his own nature-friendly
withstand = resist, oppose, confront
engineers and started researching how to build cheap, environmentally methods= way, technique, means
friendly structures that could also withstand an earthquake. Within six frustrate = prevent, discourage
months of starting his research, Zhang had given up on traditional hire= employ, recruit
methods. He was frustrated by the cost of hiring designers and structure= building, construction
specialists for each new structure. The best way to cut costs, he skyscraper= very tall building
abandon = quit, leave, give up
decided, was to take building to the factory. But to create a factory-built load-bearing = carrying of a load
skyscraper, Broad had to abandon the principles by which skyscrapers overall = general, altogether
are typically designed. The whole load-bearing structure had to be concrete = rough building material
different. To reduce the overall weight of the building, it used less in turn = as a result
enable= allow, permit
concrete in the floors; that in turn enabled it to cut down on structural cut down = reduce
steel. prefabricated = built from parts
gain in popularity= become
Around the world, prefabricated and modular buildings are gaining in more popular
popularity. But modular and prefabricated buildings elsewhere are, for elsewhere = other places
low- rise= having few stories
the most part, low- rise. Broad is alone in applying these methods to methods = way, technique, means
skyscrapers. For Zhang, the environmental savings alone justify the saving= reduction, decrease
effort. According to Broad's numbers, a traditional high-rise will produce justify = confirm, validate
about 3,000 tons of construction waste, while a Broad building will high-rise = having many stories
construction= manufacture
produce only 25 tons. Traditional buildings also require 5,000 tons of waste= trash, junk, scrap
water onsite to build, while Broad buildings use none. The building require = need, demand, involve
process is also less dangerous. Elevator systems - the base, rails, and onsite = situated at a place
machine room - can be installed at the factory, eliminating the risk of elevator = a lifting device
injury. And instead of shipping an elevator car to the site in pieces, base= bottom, foundation
rails= long metal tracks
Broad orders a finished car and drops it into the shaft by crane. In the install= set up, place, insert
future, elevator manufacturers are hoping to preinstall the doors, eliminate= remove, get rid of
completely eliminating any chance that a worker might fall. 'Traditional injury= wound, bruise, cut
construction is chaotic,' he says. 'We took construction and moved it into piece= part, section, component
shaft = a long, narrow, vertical hole
the factory.' According to Zhang, his buildings will help solve the many crane= machine used for moving heavy
problems of the construction industry and what's more, they will be objects
quicker and cheaper to build. eliminate= remove, get rid of
chaotic= messy, disordered
according to= depending on
28
READING PASSAGE 3: When conversations flow
consequently= therefore, hence
W
accustomed= routine, usual
converse= talk, chat, speak
e spend a large part of our daily life talking with other people flow= a steady, continuous stream
nervous = worried, anxious
distressed = suffering from anxiety
interrupt= stop the continuous progress
unexpected = sudden, unplanned
and, consequently, we are a very accustomed to the art of conversing. serve = provide, supply, present
But why do we feel comfortable in conversations that have flow, but get need= requirement, demand
consequence= result, outcome
nervous and distressed when a conversation is interrupted by similarity = closeness, sameness
fluency= being smooth, natural
unexpected silences? To answer this question we will first look at some ease= lack of difficulty or effort
of the effects of conversational flow. influence= affect, impact, control
judgment= decision, opinion
Then we will explain how flow can serve different social needs. The broad = building, construction
range = area, field, scale
positive consequences of conversational flow show some similarities dimensions= aspect, feature
instance= example, case, sample
with the effects of 'processing fluency'. Research has shown that
accurate= correct, exact, precise
processing fluency - the ease with which people process information - confidence = faith, trust belief
regarding = with respect to, concerning
influences people's judgments across A broad range of social indicate = show, illustrate
judge= think, consider, decide
dimensions. For instance, people feel that when something is easily instantly= quickly, right away
processed, it is more true or accurate. Moreover, they have more respond = answer, reply
speech= speaking, talking, lecture
confidence in their judgments regarding information that came to them destroy= end, ruin, harm
address= think, deal, tackle
fluently, and they like things that are easy to process more than things synchrony= simultaneous action
that are difficult to process. Research indicates that a speaker is judged in harmony with= go well together
attempt = try, aim, manage
to be more knowledgeable when they answer questions instantly; coordinate= work together
synchronize = operate at the same
responding with disfluent speech markers such as 'uh' or 'urn or simply timeinterpersonal = involving many
remaining silent for a moment too long can destroy that positive image. people
underlie = be a significant cause
One of the social needs addressed by conversational flow is the human array = display, arrangement
need for 'synchrony' - to be 'in sync' or in harmony with one another. range from= vary, extend, differ
complicated = tricky, complex
Many studies have shown how people attempt to synchronize with their ballroom = room used for dancing
duration= time, period, extent
29
partners, by coordinating their behavior. This interpersonal utterance= a spoken statement

turn-taking= exchange discussions
coordination underlies a wide array of human activities, ranging from awkward = uncomfortable
more complicated ones like ballroom dancing to simply walking or well-trained = thoroughly, expertly
meshed = engage, connect
talking with friends. In conversations, interpersonal coordination is found characterize= describe, identify
simultaneous= done at the same time
when people adjust the duration of their utterances and their speech mutual= held in common
feature= point, detail, factor
rate to one another so that they can enable turn-taking to occur, without
maintain= keep, continue, sustain
talking over each other or experiencing awkward silences. Since people basic = fundamental, necessary
play a role= be a part of
are very well-trained in having conversations, they are often able to take illustrate= show, display, explain
disrupt= delay, spoil, interfere
turns within milliseconds, resulting in a conversational flow of smoothly
meshed behaviors. A lack of flow is characterized by interruptions, brief = short, quick, temporary
pretty = kind of, quite, fairly
simultaneous speech or mutual silences. Avoiding these features is sharp = strong, rapid, sudden
rise = increase, expand, enlarge
important for defining and maintaining interpersonal relationships. distress = extreme anxiety or pain
The need to belong has been identified as one of the most basic of signal = show, express, declare
non-compliance= disagreement
human motivations and plays a role in many human behaviors. That confrontation= fight, conflict
exclusion= banning, removal
conversational flow is related to belonging may be most easily illustrated elementary= basic, fundamental
by the consequences of flow disruptions. What happens when the well-being= state of being healthy
sensitive = quick to respond
positive experience of flow is disrupted by, for instance, a brief silence? rejection= refusal, decline
lack = shortfall, scarcity
We all know that silences can be pretty awkward, and research shows solid = stable, well-built, firm
that even short disruptions in conversational flow can lead to a sharp aspect = side, feature, detail
validate= accept, prove, confirm
rise in distress levels. In movies, silences are often used to signal non- worldview= viewpoint, outlook
inform= tell, notify, advise
compliance or confrontation (Piazza, 2006). Some researchers even
justify = confirm, validate
argue that 'silencing someone' is one of the most serious forms of assume= accept, take for granted
as long as= provided that
exclusion. Group membership is of elementary importance to our well- partner= companion, co-worker
observation= watching, inspection
being and because humans are very sensitive to signals of exclusion, a
imagine= visualize, assume
silence is generally taken as a sign of rejection. In this way, a lack of except = but, besides, excluding
identical= alike, similar, same
flow in a conversation may signal that our relationship is not as solid as to what extent = how much, how far
participant= member, candidate
we thought it was. agreement= understanding, promise
Another aspect of synchrony is that people often try to validate their disrupt= delay, distort, interrupt
consciously= deliberately, intentionally
opinions to those of others. That is, people like to see others as having subjective= personal, individual
out of sync= working badly together
similar ideas or worldviews as they have themselves, because this regardless of= without regard
informs people that they are correct and their worldviews are justified. well-trained= thoroughly, expertly
conversation= talking, chatting
One way in which people can justify their worldviews is by assuming as a whole= in general
agreeable = willing to agree
that, as long as their conversations run smoothly, their interaction keep up= continue, carry on
societal = related to society
partners probably agree with them. This idea was tested by researchers
hamper = restrict, block, delay
integration = combination
30
using video observations. Participants imagined being one out of three immigrant= newcomer, expat
master= learn, overcome
people in a video clip who had either a fluent conversation or a ever-increasing= growing
misinterpretation= misunderstand
conversation in which flow was disrupted by a brief silence. Except for insuperable= impossible to deal with
the silence, the videos were identical. After watching the video, keeping in mind= remember
validation= confirmation
participants were asked to what extent the people in the video agreed avoid = keep away from
misunderstanding= a failure to
with each other. Participants who watched the fluent conversation rated understand correctly
agreement to be higher than participants watching the conversation that
was disrupted by a silence, even though participants were not
consciously aware of the disruption. It appears that the subjective
feeling of being out of sync informs people of possible disagreements,
regardless of the content of the conversation. Because people are
generally so well- trained in having smooth conversations, any
disruption of this flow indicates that something is wrong, either
interpersonally or within the group as a whole. Consequently, people
who do not talk very easily may be incorrectly understood as being less
agreeable than those who have no difficulty keeping up a conversation.
On a societal level, one could even imagine that a lack of conversational
flow may hamper the integration of immigrants who have not
completely mastered the language of their new country yet.
In a similar sense, the ever-increasing number of online conversations
may be disrupted by misinterpretations and anxiety that are produced
by insuperable delays in the Internet connection. Keeping in mind the
effects of conversational flow for feelings of belonging and validation
may help one to be prepared to avoid such misunderstandings in future
conversations.
31
TEST 4
READING PASSAGE 1: SOUTH POLE ADVENTURER
explorer= traveler, scout, adventurer
F
reach= come to, get to, arrive
speed= run, rush, hurry
OR a few weeks in January 1912, Antarctica was full of explorers. expedition = trip, journey, trek
arrive= come, show up, appear
adventure = event, venture, quest
fellow = friend, buddy, pal
near= get close, come toward,
Norwegian Roald Amundsen had reached the South Pole on 14 approach
December and was speeding back to the coast. On 17 January, Robert rest= other, extra, remaining
unaware= unknowing, uninformed,
Scott and the men of the British Antarctic expedition had arrived at the unmindful
triumph = win, victory, success
pole to find they had been beaten to it. Just then, a third man arrived; sail = travel in a boat
Japanese explorer Nobu Shirase. However, his part in one of the greatest boyhood= time of being a boy
polar = arctic, antarctic
adventure stories of the 20th century is hardly known outside his own initially = at first, to begin with, to start
with
country, even by fellow explorers. Yet as Scott was nearing the pole and sight= eyes, vision, view
claim= say, state, declare
with the rest of the world still unaware of Amundsen's triumph, Shirase
hastily = quickly, in a hurry, rapidly
and his team sailed into Antarctica's Bay of Whales in the smallest ship alter = change, adjust, modify
aim = focus, plan, pursue
ever to try its luck in these dangerous waters. Since boyhood Shirase official= a person having official duties
congress = meeting, conference,
had dreamed of becoming a polar explorer. Like Amundsen, he initially seminar
set his sights on the North Pole. But after the American Robert Peary continent = mainland, any of the
world's main continuous expanses of
claimed to have reached it in 1909, both men hastily altered their plans. land
present = show, display, introduce
Instead they would aim for the last big prize: the South Pole. In January search = hunt, quest, seeking
1910, Shirase put his plans before Japanese government officials, fossil = form as a mold or cast in rock.
meteorological = forecasting the
promising to raise the flag at the South Pole within three years. For many weather
measurement = value, calculate,
of them, the question wasn't could he do it but why would it be worth estimate
response = answer, reply, reaction
doing? 15 years earlier the International Geographical Congress had
struggle = make every effort
said that as the last unknown continent the Antarctic offered the chance fund = money, resource, saving
fortunately = thankfully, luckily, happily
to add to knowledge in almost every branch of science. So, like the former = latter, previous, past
rescue = freeing, help. saving
32
British, Shirase presented his expedition as a search for knowledge: he backing = help, support, assistance
equip = supply, provide, furnish
would bring back fossils, make meteorological measurements and eventually = in the end
acquire = get, buy, obtain
explore unknown parts of the continent. confidently = in a way that expresses
The response from the government was cool, however, and Shirase little or no doubt
outline = draw, trace, define
struggled to raise funds. Fortunately, a few months later, Japan's sail = travel in a boat
proceed = begin, continue, move
former prime minister Shigenobu Okuma came to Shirase's rescue. With forward
Okuma's backing, Shirase got together just enough money to buy and delay = make (someone or something)
late or slow
equip a small ship. He eventually acquired a scientist, too, called expedition = tour, trip, journey
reach = come to, get to, arrive at
Terutaro Takeda. At the end of November 1910, his ship the Kainan Maru astonished = greatly surprised or
impressed
finally left Tokyo with 27 men and 28 Siberian dogs on board. Before
reinforce = strengthen or support an
leaving, Shirase confidently outlined his plans to the media. He would object
feeble = weak, poorly, unwell
sail to New Zealand, then reach Antarctica in February, during the engine = a machine with moving parts
that converts power into motion
southern summer, and then proceed to the pole the following spring. force = push, press, make a way
This was not to be, however. Bad weather delayed the expedition and through
doubt = question, mistrust, suspect
they didn't reach New Zealand until 8 February; Amundsen and Scott reckon = think, consider, judge
ill- prepared = not ready or prepared
had already been in Antarctica for a month, preparing for winter. In New for something
Zealand local reporters were astonished: the ship was half the size of lightweight = of thin material or build
and weighing less than average
Amundsen's ship. True, it was reinforced with iron plate and extra wood, sledges = a vehicle for carrying goods
accessible = (of a place) able to be
but the ship had only the feeblest engine to help force its way through reached or entered
aim = plan, seek, intent
ice. Few doubted Shirase's courage, but most reckoned the expedition
determination = the quality of trying to
to be ill- prepared as the Japanese had only lightweight sledges for do something even when it is difficult
daring = (of a person or action)
transport across the ice, made of bamboo and wood. But Shirase's adventurous
nevertheless = but, however, yet
biggest challenge was time. Antarctica is only accessible by sea for a approached = come near or nearer to
few weeks in summer and expeditions usually aimed to arrive in January (someone or something)
coastline = the outline of a coast
or February. 'Even with their determination and daring, our Japanese land (v) = put (someone or something)
on land from a boat
friends are running it rather fine,' wrote local reporters. Nevertheless, on threatening = causing someone to feel
11 February the Kainan Maru left New Zealand and sailed straight into vulnerable or at risk
trap = prevent (someone) from
the worst weather the captain had ever seen. Then, on 6 March, they escaping from a place
remarkable = amazing, worthy of
approached the coastline of Antarctica's Ross Sea, looking for a place attention, striking
Catching up = succeed in reaching a
to land. The ice began to close in, threatening to trap them for the
person who is ahead of one
winter, an experience no one was likely to survive. With a remarkable out of the question = not possible or
not allowed
piece of seamanship, the captain steered the ship out of the ice and stick = become convinced to something
head = lead, lead the way, command
turned north. They would have to wait out the winter in a warmer climate. thrill = a sudden feeling of excitement
A year later than planned, Shirase and six men finally reached Antarctica. and pleasure
33
Catching up with Scott or Amundsen was out of the question and he hardship = something that makes your
life difficult or unpleasant
had said he would stick to science this time. Yet Shirase still felt the pull provision = the action of providing or
supplying something for use
of the pole and eventually decided he would head southward to set off = begin a journey
experience the thrills and hardships of polar exploration he had always meteorological = the scientific study
of weather conditions
dreamed of. With provisions for 20 days, he and four men would see measurement = calculation, valuation,
quantifying
how far they could get. Shirase set off on 20 January 1912 with Takeda struggle= try hard
and two dog handlers, leaving two men at the edge of the ice shelf to to achieve something even though it is
very difficult
make meteorological measurements. For a week they struggled blizzard = a severe snowstorm with
high winds and low visibility
through one blizzard after another, holing up in their tents during the tent = a portable shelter made of cloth
frostbite = a condition caused
worst of the weather. The temperature fell to -25°C, and frostbite
by extreme cold, that
claimed some of the dogs. On 26 January, Shirase estimated there were makes fingers and toes swell,
become darker, and sometimes fall off
enough provisions to continue for two more days. Two days later, he announce = report, introduce, indicate
hoist = raise, lift, pull up
announced it was time to turn back. Takeda calculated they had reached head = go, lead, lead the way
80° 5 south and had travelled 250 kilometres. The men hoisted the greet = give a polite word or sign of
welcome or recognition to (someone) on
Japanese flag. On 3 February, all the men were heading home. The ship meeting
despite = though, even though, inspite
reached Tokyo in June 1912 - and Shirase was greeted like a hero heroic = brave, courageous, daring
despite the fact that he never reached the pole. Nor did he contribute furthermore = in addition, also,
moreover
much to science - but then nor did Amundsen, whose only interest was in
being first to the pole. Yet Shirase's expedition was heroic. They
travelled beyond 80° south, one of only four teams to have gone so far
south at the time. Furthermore, they did it all without the advantages of
the other teams and with no previous experience.
34
READING PASSAGE 2: The rise of agribots
checkout = a point at which goods are
T
paid for in a supermarket or other store
spare a thought = to think about
he next time you stand at the supermarket checkout, spare a something
in turn = after an action or process
inevitably = certain to happen
thought for the farmers who helped fill your shopping basket as life is bill = an amount of money owed for
hard for them right now. This, in turn, inevitably means bigger grocery goods
bills for consumers, and greater hardship for the millions in countries hardship = something that makes your
where food shortages are a matter of life and death. Worse, studies life difficult or unpleasant
suggest that the world will need twice as much food by 2050. Yet while shortage = a situation in which there is
not enough of something that people
farmers must squeeze more out of the land, they must also address the need
necessity of reducing their impact on the soil, waterways and squeeze = press, crush, mash
atmosphere. All this means rethinking how agriculture is practiced, and address = think about and begin to
taking automation to a whole new level. On the new model farms of the deal with (an issue or problem)
necessity = something that you need
future, precision will be key. Why dose a whole field with chemicals if
to have in order to live
you can spray only where they are needed? Each plant could get exactly impact = effect, influence, result
the right amount of everything, no more or less, an approach that could soil = earth, ground, land
slash chemical use and improve yields in one move. But this is easier atmosphere = air, airspace, sky
said than done; the largest farms in Europe and the U.S. can cover precision = exactness, accuracy,
correctness
thousands of acres. That's why automation is key to precision farming. dose = amount, quantity, portion
Specifically, say agricultural engineers, precision farming needs robot approach = way, method, action
farmers. slash = reduce, cut, drop
One day, we might see fields with 'agribots' (agricultural robots) that can cover = extend over (an area)
acre = a unit of land area
identify individual seedlings and encourage them along with drops of specifically = exactly, clearly, precisely
fertilizer. Other machines would distinguish problem weeds from crops identify = know, discover, indicate
and eliminate them with shots from high-power lasers or a microdot of individual = single, separate,
pesticide. These machines will also be able to identity and harvest all independent
kinds of vegetables. More than a century of mechanization has already seedling = a young plant, especially
one raised from seed and not from a
turned farming into an industrial-scale activity in much of the world, with cutting
farms that grow cereals being the most heavily automated. encourage = support, help, cheer
But a variety of other crops, including oranges and tomatoes destined to fertilizer = a chemical added to soil or
become processed foods, are also picked mechanically, albeit to a land to increase its fertility
distinguish = recognize or treat
slightly lesser extent. Yet the next wave of autonomous farm machinery
(someone or something) as different
is already at work. You probably haven't even noticed, for these robots eliminate = remove,get rid of, end
are disguised as tractors. Many are self-steering, use GPS to cross a pesticide = used for destroying
field, and can even 'talk' to their implements - a plough or sprayer, for harmful insects
harvest = picking, collecting, gathering
example. And the implements can talk back, telling the tractor that it's
mechanization = the introduction of
going too fast or needs to move to the left. This kind of communication is machines or automatic devices into a
also being developed in other farm vehicles. A new system allows a process
combine harvester, say, to send a call over to a tractor- trailer so the variety = mixture, range, mix
driver can unload the grain as and when necessary. destined = seeming certain to happen
at some time in the future
However, when fully autonomous systems take to the field, they'll look processed food = food that has been
nothing like tractors. With their enormous size and weight, today's farm altered in some way during preparation
machines have significant downsides: they compact the soil, reducing like freezing or canning
porosity and killing beneficial life, meaning crops don't grow so well. albeit = although, even though
35
Simon Blackmore, extent= level, scale, degree

disguise = hide, conceal, cover up
who researches agricultural technology at Harper Adams University
tractor = a powerful motor vehicle used
College in England believes that fleets of lightweight autonomous on farms
robots have the potential to solve this problem and that replacing brute self-steering = without human action
force with precision is key. 'A seed only needs one cubic centimeter of implement = tool, device, gadget
soil to grow. If we cultivate just that we only put tiny amounts of energy plough = a large farming tool with one
or more blades
in and the plants still grow nicely.' There is another reason why unload = remove goods from a vehicle,
automation may be the way forward according to Eldert van Henten, a ship, container
robotics researcher at Wageningen University in the Netherlands. While grain = wheat, cereal crop used as food
the population is growing and needs to be fed, a rapidly shrinking enormous = huge, very large in size or
number of people are willing to work in agriculture,' he points out. Other quantity
significant = important, notable,
researchers such as Linda Calvin, an economist at the U.S. Department remarkable
of Agriculture, and Philip Martin at the University of California, Davis, downside = disadvantage, drawback,
have studied trends in mechanization to predict how US farms might limitation
fare. Calvin and Martin have observed how rising employment costs compact = to press something together
so that it becomes smaller or more solid
have led to the adoption of labour-saving farm technology in the past, porosity = allowing liquid, air
citing the raisin industry as an example. In 2000, a bumper harvest to pass slowly through many very
crashed prices and, with profits squeezed, farmers looked for a solution. small holes
With labour one of their biggest costs - 42 percent of production fleet = a group of ships sailing together
expenses on U.S. farms, on average - they started using a mechanical lightweight = something of less
than average weight
harvester adapted from a machine used by wine makers. By 2007, potential = possible, likely, probable
almost half of California's raisins were mechanically harvested and a solve = answer, explain, work out
labour force once numbering 50,000 had shrunk to 30,000. brute = only physical
As well as having an impact on the job market, the widespread cubic = having the shape of a cube
cultivate = farm, fertilize, dig
adoption of agribots might bring changes at the supermarket. Lewis tiny = very small, mini, small-scale
Holloway, who studies agriculture at the University of Hull, UK, says that forward = toward the future; ahead in
robotic milking is likely to influence the genetics of dairy herds as time
farmers opt for 'robot-friendly' cows, with udder shape, and even feed = eat something, take food, give
attitudes, suited to automated milking. Similarly, he says, it's food to
rapidly = very quickly, very fast
conceivable that agribots could influence what fruit or vegetable varieties shrinking = becoming smaller in size or
get to the shops, since farmers may prefer to grow those with, say, leaf amount
shapes that are easier for their robots to discriminate from weeds. willing = ready, eager, or prepared to
Almost inevitably, these machines will eventually alter the landscape, do something
predict = see, forecast, foresee
too. The real tipping point for robot agriculture will come when farms are fare = proceed, progress, perform
being designed with agribots in mind, says Salah Sukkarieh, a robotics observe = see, notice, discover
researcher at the Australian Center for Field Robotics, Sydney. This rising = increasing, going up, sloping
could mean a return to smaller fields, with crops planted in grids rather upward
than rows and fruit trees pruned into two-dimensional shapes to make adoption = application, acquisition,
selection
harvesting easier. This alien terrain tended by robots is still a while labour-saving = (of an appliance)
away, he says 'but it will happen.' designed to reduce the amount of work
needed to complete a task
cite = quote, mention, specify
bumper = rich, healthy, successful
crash = (of a business, a market, or a
price) fall suddenly
squeeze = have a damaging
adapt = modify, change, adjust
shrink = lessen, reduce, decrease
impact = effect, influence, result
36
job market= the market in which

employers search for employees and
employees search for jobs
widespread = worldwide, global,
extensive
dairy = containing or made from milk
herd = a large group of animals that live
and feed together
opt = choose, select, pick out
udder = female cattle, sheep, goats
attitude = opinion, viewpoint, thought
conceivable = possible, imaginable,
understandable
discriminate = tell apart, separate,
distinguish
Inevitably = certain to happen;
unavoidably
alter = change, adjust, modify
landscape= land, scenery, countryside
prune = trim (a tree, shrub, or bush) by
cutting away dead or overgrown
branches
two-dimensional= two directions
alien = unknown, unfamiliar, strange
terrain = land, ground, landscape
tend = go or move in a particular
direction
37
READING PASSAGE 3: HOMER'S LITERARY LEGACY
ancient = old, early, past
W
Cliché= an idea or phrase that has
been used so much that it is
hy was the work of Homer, famous author of ancient Greece, not effective or does not have any
meaning
tick = a sound made by a clock
so full of clichés? transmission = the process of sending
or passing something from one person
A Until the last tick of history's clock, cultural transmission meant oral to another
transmission and poetry, passed from mouth to ear, was the principal oral = spoken, said, by word of mouth
medium of moving information across space and from one generation to principal = main, primary, major
medium = means, way, method
the next. Oral poetry was not simply a way of telling lovely or important across = over, beyond, from one side to
stories, or of flexing the imagination. It was, argues the classicist Eric another
Havelock, a "massive repository of useful knowledge, a sort of Flexing= put a skill, talent, or ability to
encyclopedia of ethics, politics, history and technology which the use
Imagination= the ability of the mind to
effective citizen was required to learn as the core of his educational
be creative
equipment". The great oral works transmitted a shared cultural Argue = disagree, explain, claim
heritage, held in common not on bookshelves, but in brains. In India, an Classicist= a person who studies
entire class of priests was charged with memorizing the Vedas with Classics (ancient Greek and Latin)
perfect fidelity. In pre-Islamic Arabia, people known as Rawis were often Massive= huge, enormous, great
Repository= archive, storehouse, store
attached to poets as official memorizers. The Buddha's teachings were Encyclopedia=a book or CD, or a set
passed down in an unbroken chain of oral tradition for four centuries of these, containing facts about many
until they were committed to writing in Sri Lanka in the first century B.C. different subjects, or
containing detailed facts about one
subject
B The most famous of the Western tradition's oral works, and the first to Ethics= moral rules
have been systematically studied, were Homer's Odyssey and Iliad. or principles of behaviour for deciding
These two poems - possibly the first to have been written down in the what is right and wrong
Greek alphabet - had long been held up as literary archetypes. Citizen= resident, local, native
However, even as they were celebrated as the models to which all Require= need, demand, instruct
Core= main, primary, crucial
literature should aspire, Homer's masterworks had also long been the Equipment= tool, appliance, gadget
source of scholarly unease. The earliest modem critics sensed that Transmit= transfer, pass on, spread
they were somehow qualitatively different from everything that came Heritage=the traditional beliefs, values,
after - even a little strange. For one thing, both poems were oddly customs etc of a family, country,
or society
repetitive in the way they referred to characters. Odysseus was always Priest = a man with religious duties
"clever Odysseus". Dawn was always "rosy-fingered". Why would and responsibilities
someone write that? Sometimes the epithets seemed completely off- Charge = having control or
key. Why call the murderer of Agamemnon "blameless Aegisthos"? Why responsibility
refer to "swift-footed Achilles" even when he was sitting down? Or to Memorize= remember, learn by heart
Fidelity= loyalty, honesty, reliability
"laughing Aphrodite" even when she was in tears? In terms of both Attached to = connected to, join
structure and theme, the Odyssey and Iliad were also oddly formulaic, passed down=give something to
to the point of predictability. The same narrative units - gathering someone at a lower level
armies, heroic shields, challenges between rivals - pop up again and Chain= series, line, course
Tradition=a belief, custom, or way of
again, only with different characters and different circumstances. In the
doing something that has existed for a
context of such finely spun, deliberate masterpieces, these quirks* long time
seemed hard to explain. Commit= carry out, perform, devote
systematically = organized and done
C At the heart of the unease about these earliest works of literature were carefully
38
two fundamental questions: first, how could Greek literature have been literary = relating to the writing, study,
born ex nihilo* with two masterpieces? Surely a few less perfect stories or content of literature
Archetype =a very typical example of a
must have come before, and yet these two were among the first on certain person or thing
record. And second, who exactly was their author? Or was it authors? Aspire= desire and work
There were no historical records of Homer, and no trustworthy biography towards achieving something important
of the man exists beyond a few self-referential hints embedded in the Masterwork= a painting, sculpture,
piece of music that is the best that
texts themselves.
someone has done
Source= a book or document used to
D Jean-Jacques Rousseau was one of the first modern critics to suggest provide evidence in research
that Homer might not have been an author in the contemporary sense of Scholarly= relating to serious academic
a single person who sat down and wrote a story and then published it for study
Unease= a feeling of worry
others to read. In his 1781 Essay on the Origin of Languages, the Swiss modem = a piece
philosopher suggested that the Odyssey and Iliad might have been of electronic equipment that allows infor
"written only in men's memories. Somewhat later they were laboriously mation from one computer to
collected in writing"- though that was about as far as his enquiry into the be sent along telephone wires to
another computer
matter went. Critic = someone whose job is to make
judgments
E In 1795, the German philologist Friedrich August Wolf argued for the about qualities of art, music, films
first time that not only were Homer's works not written down by Homer, sense = feel, notice, observe
but they weren't even by Homer. They were, rather, a loose collection of qualitatively = relating to the quality
oddly = in a strange or unusual way
songs transmitted by generations of Greek bards*, and only redacted* in repetitive = done many times in the
their present form at some later date. In 1920, an eighteen-year-old same way and boring
scholar named Milman Parry took up the question of Homeric authorship epithets = a word or short phrase used
as his Master's thesis at the University of California, Berkeley. He to describe someone, especially
when praising them or saying
suggested that the reason Homer's epics seemed unlike other literature
something unpleasant about them
was because they were unlike other literature. Parry had discovered what off-key= wrong or not suitable for the
Wood and Wolf had missed: the evidence that the poems had been situation
transmitted orally was right there in the text itself. All those stylistic blameless = not guilty of anything bad
quirks, including the formulaic and recurring plot elements and the In terms of= with regard to, regarding,
as regards
bizarrely repetitive epithets -"clever Odysseus" and "gray-eyed Athena"- Theme= the main subject or idea in a
that had always perplexed readers were actually like thumbprints left by piece of writing, speech, film
a potter: material evidence of how the poems had been crafted. They Formulaic= made from ideas
were mnemonic* aids that helped the bard(s) fit the meter and pattern or expressions that have been used
many times before and are therefore not
of the line, and remember the essence of the poems.
very new or interesting
Predictability=the ability to be
F The greatest author of antiquity was actually, Parry argued, just "one forecasted
of a long tradition of oral poets that... composed wholly without the aid of narrative =a description of events in a
writing". Parry realised that if you were setting out to create memorable story, especially in a novel
Army = a large organized group of
poems, the Odyssey and the Iliad were exactly the kind of poems you'd people trained to fight on land in a war
create. It's said that clichés* are the worst sin a writer can commit, but to heroic = brave, courageous, daring
an oral bard, they were essential. The very reason that clichés so easily Shield= guard, defense, protection
seep into our speech and writing - their insidious memorability - is rival = enemy, competitor, opponent
pop up= appear, occur, show up
exactly why they played such an important role in oral storytelling. The Circumstance= event, situation,
principles that the oral bards discovered as they sharpened their stories condition
through telling and retelling were the same mnemonic principles that Finely= in a very skilled manner;
psychologists rediscovered when they began conducting their first excellently
scientific experiments on memory around the turn of the twentieth Deliberate= planned, intended,
purposeful
century. Words that rhyme are much more memorable than words that
39
don't, and concrete nouns are easier to remember than abstract ones. Masterpiece= masterwork, a work
Finding patterns and structure in information is how our brains extract of art, a piece of writing or music that
has high quality
meaning from the world, and putting words to music and rhyme is a way Quirk=something strange that happens
of adding extra levels of pattern and structure to language. by chance
Fundamental= basic, primary, principal
self-referential= making reference to
itself or oneself
Hint= clue, signal, indicator
Embed= insert, implant, set
Contemporary= modern, latest,
present-day
Publish= print produce, issue
Laboriously= taking a lot of time
and effort
as far as= to the extent that
Enquiry= question, query, investigation
Philologist= a person who studies
words and the way words
and languages develop
Argue = explain, justify, claim
Loose= free, unsteady, untied

Authorship= the fact that you have
written a particular book or document
Thesis= theory, argument, proposal
Epic = a book, poem, or film that tells a
long story about brave actions and
exciting events
Evidence= fact, sign, proof
Stylistic= of or concerning style,
especially literary style
Recur= happen again
Plot= story, storyline, scenario
Bizarrely= in a very strange or unusual
manner
Perplexed=confused and worried
by something that you do
not understand
Thumbprint= an impression or mark
made on a surface
Craft= make something using a special
skill
Mnemonic= something such as
a poem or a sentence that you use to
help you remember a rule or a name
Aid= help, support, assistance
Pattern= sample design, model
Essence= core, soul, spirit
antiquity = ancient past
Compose= write, create, plan
Sin= crime, scandal, disgrace
Commit= do, perform, carry out
Bard= a traditional poet about epics
Essential= important, necessary,
crucial
Seep= flow, leak, sweat
40
Insidious= relating to problem that

spreads gradually without being noticed,
and causes serious harm
Memorability= the quality or state of
being easy to remember or worth
remembering
Sharpen= improve, enhance, refine
Conduct= carry out, organize, control
Experiment= test, trial, examination
Rhyme= if two words or lines of poetry
rhyme, they end with the same sound,
including a vowel
Concrete= specific, fixed, definite
Abstract= theoretical, conceptual
41
TEST 5
READING PASSAGE 1: TREES IN TROUBLE
decline = fall, reduction, decrease
W
incredibly = to a great degree;
extremely or unusually
Ecologically= connected with the way
hat is causing the decline of the world's giant forests? plants, animals, and people are related
to each other and to their environment
sustain = continue, maintain, preserve
A Big trees are incredibly important ecologically. For a start, they countless = too many to be counted
sustain countless other species. They provide shelter for many Species= type, kind, race
animals, and their trunks and branches can become gardens, hung with shelter = a place to live, considered as
green ferns, orchids and bromeliads, coated with mosses and draped one of the basic needs of life
trunk =the main woody stem of a tree
with vines. With their tall canopies* basking in the sun, they capture Fern= a type of plant
vast amounts of energy. This allows them to produce massive crops of with green leaves and no flowers
fruit, flowers and foliage that sustain much of the animal life in the orchid = a plant that has flowers which
forest. are brightly coloured and
unusually shaped
coat = to cover something with a thin
B Only a small number of tree species have the genetic capacity to layer of something else
grow really big. The mightiest are native to North America, but big trees moss = a very small green plant that
grow all over the globe, from the tropics to the boreal forests of the high grows in
latitudes. To achieve giant stature, a tree needs three things: the right a thick soft furry mass on wet soil, trees,
or rocks
place to establish its seedling, good growing conditions and lots of time drape = wrap, arrange, hang
with low adult mortality*. Disrupt any of these, and you can lose your Vines= a plant that produces grapes
biggest trees. basking = lying in the sun
Capture= catch, gain, take
Vast= huge, great, extensive
C In some parts of the world, populations of big trees are dwindling Massive= huge, great, enormous
because their seedlings cannot survive or grow. In southern India, for Crop= a plant such as wheat, rice,
instance, an aggressive non-native shrub, Lantana camara, is invading or fruit that is grown by farmers and
the floor of many forests. Lantana grows so thickly that young trees often used as food
fail to take root. With no young trees to replace them, it is only a matter Foliage= the leaves of a plant
Genetic= relating to genes
of time before most of the big trees disappear. Across much of northern Capacity= the amount that something
Australia, gamba grass from Africa is overrunning native savannah can produce
woodlands. The grass grows up to four metres tall and burns fiercely, Mighty= tough, powerful, energetic
creating super- hot fires that cause catastrophic tree mortality. Native= local, original, natural-born
Latitude= the distance north or south of
the equator
D Without the right growing conditions trees cannot get really big, and Giant= huge, great, enormous
there is some evidence to suggest tree growth could slow in a warmer Stature= natural height
world, particularly in environments that are already warm. Having Seedling= a young plant, especially
worked for decades at La Selva Biological Station in Puerto Viejo de one raised from seed and not from a
cutting
Sarapiqui, Costa Rica, David and Deborah Clark and colleagues have Mortality= death, especially on a large
shown that tree growth there declines markedly in warmer years. scale
"During the day, their photosynthesis* shuts down when it gets too Disrupt= to prevent something from
warm, and at night they consume more energy because their metabolic continuing in its usual way by causing
problems
rate increases, much as a reptile's would when it gets warmer," explains dwindle = gradually become less and
David Clark. With less energy produced in warmer years and more being less
consumed just to survive, there is even less energy available for growth. Shrub= a small bush
Invading= take over, spread, occupy
E The Clarks' hypothesis, if correct, means tropical forests would shrink Replace= remove, exchange, substitute
Overrunning= spread over, occupy
over time. The largest, oldest trees would progressively die off and tend Woodland= land covered with trees
42
not to be replaced. According to the Clarks, this might trigger a Fiercely= strongly or severely
destabilisation of the climate; as older trees die, forests would release Catastrophic= causing a lot
of destruction, suffering, or death
some of their stored carbon into the atmosphere, prompting a vicious Particularly= especially, specially,
cycle of further warming, forest shrinkage and carbon emissions. sacrificially
Decade= a period of ten years
F Big trees face threats from elsewhere. The most serious is increasing Markedly= in a way that is
very easy to notice
mortality, especially of mature trees. Across much of the planet, forests Photosynthesis=the production by
of slow-growing ancient trees have been cleared for human use. In a green plant that it uses as food,
western North America, most have been replaced by monocultures of caused by the action of sunlight
fast-growing conifers. Siberia's forests are being logged at an incredible Consume= use, absorb, utilize
rate. Logging in tropical forests is selective but the timber cutters usually Metabolic= relating to your body’s
process by which food is changed into
prioritise the biggest and oldest trees. In the Amazon, my colleagues and energy
I found the mortality rate for the biggest trees had tripled in small patches Reptile= a type of animal, such as
of rainforest surrounded by pasture land. This happens for two reasons. a snake or lizard
First, as they grow taller, big trees become thicker and less flexible: when shrink = decline, reduce, lessen
Progressively= gradually over
winds blow across the surrounding cleared land, there is nothing to stop a period of time
their acceleration. When they hit the trees, the impact can snap them in die off= die one by one until there are
half. Second, rainforest fragments dry out when surrounded by dry, hot no more of something
pastures and the resulting drought can have devastating According to= as stated by
consequences: one four-year study has shown that death rates will Trigger= cause, give rise to, bring
about
double for smaller trees but will increase 4.5 times for bigger trees. Destabilisation= the process of making
something become less able to control
G Particular enemies to large trees are insects and disease. Across vast Climate= weather conditions
areas of western North America, increasingly mild winters are causing Atmosphere= air, airspace, sky
prompt = cause, produce, evoke
massive outbreaks of bark beetle. These tiny creatures can kill entire Vicious= unpleasantly strong or severe
forests as they tunnel their way through the inside of trees. In both North Shrinkage= the act of shrinking
America and Europe, fungus-causing diseases such as Dutch elm Emission= leak, release, discharge
disease have killed off millions of stately trees that once gave beauty to face (v) = meet, encounter, experience
forests and cities. As a result of human activity, such enemies reach even threats = danger, trouble, risk
Elsewhere= another place
the remotest corners of the world, threatening to make the ancient mature = fully grown and developed
giants a thing of the past. Log= cut down trees
Selective= affecting or relating to the
best or most suitable people or things
from a larger group
Timber= wood, log, firewood
Patches= a small piece of ground,
especially one used for gardening
Pasture= field, grassland, land covered
with grass
Surround= be all around (someone or
something)
Surrounding= nearby places,
neighboring, bordering
Acceleration= a process in which
something happens more and more
quickly
Impact= effect, influence, impression
Snap= break, crack, separate
fragment = bit, piece, flake
Pasture= field, grassland, land covered
with grass
Drought= a long period
of dry weather when there is not enough
water for plants and animals to live
43
Devastating=
badly damaging or destroying somethin
g
Consequence= result, effect, outcome
Insects= a small creature such as
a fly or ant
Outbreak= the sudden or violent start of
something like war, disease
Bark= sharp, loud sound
Beetle= an insect with a round hard
back that is usually black
Tiny= very small, mini, minor
Creature= animal, anything living or
existing
Entire= total, whole, complete
Tunnel= a passage that has
been dug under the ground
stately = impressive in style
Remote= far, distant, faraway
Giants= a very big animal
44
READING PASSAGE 2: WHALE STRANDINGS
When the last stranded whale of a group eventually dies, the story does stranded = unable to move from the
not end there. A team of researchers begins to investigate, collecting place where they are
Eventually= in the end, finally, at last
skin samples for instance, recording anything that could help them Investigate= to try to find out
answer the crucial question: why? Theories abound, some more the truth about something such as
convincing than others. In recent years, navy sonar has been accused a crime, accident, or scientific problem
of causing certain whales to strand. It is known that noise pollution from crucial = very important, because
everything else depends on it
offshore industry, shipping and sonar can impair underwater Theory= an idea or set of ideas that
communication, but can it really drive whales onto our beaches? In 1998, is intended to explain something about
researchers at the Pelagos Cetacean Research Institute, a Greek non- life or the world, especially an idea that
profit scientific group, linked whale strandings with low- frequency sonar has not yet been proved to be true
tests being carried out by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Abound=exist in very large numbers
Convincing= making you believe that
(NATO). They recorded the stranding of 12 Cuvier's beaked whales over something is true or right
38.2 kilometres of coastline. NATO later admitted it had been testing Navy= the part of a
new sonar technology in the same area at the time as the strandings had country’s military forces that fights
occurred. 'Mass' whale strandings involve four or more animals. at sea
Sonar= equipment on
Typically they all wash ashore together, but in mass atypical strandings a ship or submarine that
(such as the one in Greece), the whales don't strand as a group; they are uses sound waves to find out the
scattered over a larger area. For humans, hearing a sudden loud noise position of objects under the water
might prove frightening, but it does not induce mass fatality. For accuse = to say that you believe
whales, on the other hand, there is a theory on how sonar can kill. The someone is guilty of a crime or of doing
something bad
noise can surprise the animal, causing it to swim too quickly to the offshore = in or under the sea and not
surface. The result is decompression sickness, a hazard human divers far from the coast
know all too well. If a diver ascends too quickly from a high-pressure impair = damage, harm, weaken
underwater environment to a lower-pressure one, gases dissolved in low- frequency=low signal attenuation
and suitable for long-distance
blood and tissue expand and form bubbles. The bubbles block the flow carry out = do something that needs to
of blood to vital organs, and can ultimately lead to death. Plausible as be organized and planned
this seems, it is still a theory and based on our more comprehensive Coastline= the land on the edge of
knowledge of land-based animals. For this reason, some scientists are the coast, especially the shape of this
wary. Whale expert Karen Evans is one such scientist. Another is land as seen from the air
Admit= agree or accept that something
Rosemary Gales, a leading expert on whale strandings. She says sonar is true
technology cannot always be blamed for mass strandings. "It's a case-by- Occur= happen, arise, exist
case situation. Whales have been stranding for a very long time - pre- involve = include, require, count in
sonar." And when 80% of all Australian whale strandings occur around Typically = in most cases; usually
atypical = strange, unusual, unique
Tasmania, Gales and her team must continue in the search for answers. Scatter= spread over a wide area or
When animals beach next to each other at the same time, the most over a long period of time
common cause has nothing to do with humans at all. "They're highly Sudden= quick, unexpected, instant
social creatures," says Gales. When they mass strand - it's complete Prove= show that something is true by
panic and chaos. If one of the group strands and sounds the alarm, providing facts, information
Frightening= making you
others will try to swim to its aid, and become stuck themselves." feel afraid or nervous
Activities such as sonar testing can hint at when a stranding may occur, induce = to cause a
but if conservationists are to reduce the number of strandings, or particular physical condition
improve rescue operations, they need information on where strandings Fatality= death in
an accident or attack
are likely to occur as well. With this in mind, Ralph James, physicist at decompression = reduction
the University of Western Australia in Perth, thinks he may have of the pressure of air on something
discovered why whales turn up only on some beaches. In 1986 he went hazard = danger, risk, problem
to Augusta, Western Australia, where more than 100 false killer whales Ascend= move up through the air
had beached. "I found out from chatting to the locals that whales had dissolve = mixes with a liquid and
becomes part of it
been stranding there for decades. So I asked myself, what is it about this
45
beach?" From this question that James pondered over 20 years ago, Tissue= the material forming animal or
grew the university's Whale Stranding Analysis Project. Data has since plant cells like lung/brain tissue
expand = become larger in size,
revealed that all mass strandings around Australia occur on gently number, or amount
sloping sandy beaches, some with inclines of less than 0.5%. For whale Vital= necessary, important, essential
species that depend on an echolocation system to navigate, this kind Organ= a part of the body, such as
of beach spells disaster. Usually, as they swim, they make clicking the heart or lungs
Ultimately= finally, after everything else
noises, and the resulting sound waves are reflected in an echo and has been done
travel back to them. However, these just fade out on shallow beaches, Plausible = reasonable and likely to
so the whale doesn't hear an echo and it crashes onto the shore. be true or successful
But that is not all. Physics, it appears, can help with the when as well as comprehensive = including all
the where. The ocean is full of bubbles. Larger ones rise quickly to the the necessary facts, details, or problems
that need to be dealt with
surface and disappear, whilst smaller ones - called microbubbles - can Wary= cautious, alert, doubtful
last for days. It is these that absorb whale 'clicks! "Rough weather leading = main, primary, major
generates more bubbles than usual," James adds. So, during and after a Creature= anything that is living, such
storm, echolocating whales are essentially swimming blind. Last year as an animal, fish, or insect
Panic= a sudden strong feeling
was a bad one for strandings in Australia. Can we predict if this - or any of fear or nervousness that makes
other year - will be any better? Some scientists believe we can. They you unable to think clearly
have found trends which could be used to forecast 'bad years' for or behave sensibly
strandings in the future. In 2005, a survey by Klaus Vanselow and Klaus Chao= a situation in which everything is
Ricklefs of sperm whale strandings in the North Sea even found a happening in a confused way and
nothing is organized
correlation between these and the sunspot cycle, and suggested that aid= help, support, assistance
changes in the Earth's magnetic field might be involved. But others are Stuck= impossible or unable to move
sceptical. "Their study was interesting ... but the analyses they used hint = sign, suggestion, clue
were flawed on a number of levels," says Evans. In the same year, she Conservationist= someone who works
to protect animals, plants
co-authored a study on. Australian strandings that uncovered a Rescue= help, saving, assist
completely different trend. "We analysed data from 1920 to 2002 ... and physicist = a scientist who has
observed a clear periodicity in the number of whales stranded each special knowledge and training
year that coincides with a major climatic cycle." To put it more simply, in physics
she says, in the years when strong westerly and southerly winds bring turn up= appear, show up, arrive
locals = native, citizen, resident
cool water rich in nutrients closer to the Australia coast, there is an Decade= a period of ten years
increase in the number of fish. The whales follow. Ponder= spend time thinking carefully
So what causes mass strandings? "It's probably many different and seriously about a problem
components," says James. And he is probably right. But the point is we reveal = show, uncover, display
incline = bend, lean, slope
now know what many of those components are. species = type, kind, race
echolocation = the location of objects
by reflected sound that used by animals
such as dolphins and bats
Navigate= direct, guide, handle
Disaster= a sudden event such as
a flood, storm,
or accident which causes great
damage
click = make a short hard sound
reflect = think about, review, consider
echo = a sound that you hear again
after a loud noise, because it was made
near something such as a wall
fade = disappear, vanish, decline
Shallow= measuring only a
short distance from the top to
the bottom
Shore= the land along the edge of
an ocean or lake
whilst = during the time that
generate = produce, cause, create
46
essentially = basically, fundamentally

predict = see, forecast, imagine
Correlation= connection, link,
relationship
sunspot = a small dark area on
the sun’s surface
magnetic = produced by physical force
that makes two metal objects pull
towards each other or push each other
apart
Sceptical= may be disagree with what
other people tell you
analyse = examine, think about,
research
flawed = wrong, incorrect, inaccurate
co-author = be a joint author of (a
book, paper, or report)
observe = watch, see, notice
periodicity = the quality or character of
happening many times
coincide = happen at the same time as
something else
climatic = relating to the weather in an
area
nutrient = a chemical or food that
provides what is needed for plants or
animals to live and grow
southerly = towards or in the south
Component= part, piece, element
47
READING PASSAGE 3 - SCIENCE IN SPACE
transform = change, alter, modify
H
site = area, place, location
cutting-edge= latest, modern,
innovative
ow will NASA transform the International Space Station from a Premier= best or most important
Orbit= travel in a curved path around
building site into a cutting-edge research laboratory? a much larger object such as
A premier, world-class laboratory in low Earth orbit. That was how the the Earth, the Sun
National Aeronautics and Space Administration agency (NASA) sold the Ambition= a
International Space Station (ISS) to the US Congress in 2001.Today no strong desire to achieve something
one can doubt the agency's technological ambition. The most complex complex = consisting of many
different parts and often difficult
engineering project ever attempted has created an enormous set of to understand
interlinked modules that orbits the planet at more than 27,000 kilometres attempt = try to do something
per hour. It might be travelling fast but, say critics, as a lab it is going enormous = huge, great, extensive
nowhere. So far, it has gone through $150 billion. So where should its interlink =connect or be connected
with something else
future priorities lie? This question was addressed at the recent 1st Critic=someone whose job is to make
annual ISS research and development conference in Colorado. Among judgments about the good and
the presenters was Satoshi Iwase of Aichi Medical University in Japan bad qualities of art, music, films
who has spent several years developing an experiment that could help priority = the thing that you think is
solve one of the key problems that humans will face in space: keeping our most important and that
needs attention before anything else
bodies healthy in weightlessness. One thing that physiologists have address = think about, deal with,
learned is that without gravity our bodies begin to lose strength, leaving tackle
astronauts with weakened bones, musdes and cardiovascular systems. conference = a formal meeting for
To counter these effects on a long-duration mission to, say, Mars, discussion
Experiment= test, trial, research
astronauts will almost certainly need to create their own artificial gravity. face (v) = encounter, experience, deal
This is where Iwase comes in. He leads a team designing a centrifuge for physiologist = an expert in or student
humans. In their preliminary design, an astronaut is strapped into the of the branch of biology that deals with
seat of a machine that resembles an exercise bike. Pedalling provides a the normal functions of living
workout for the astronaut's muscles and cardiovascular system, but it also organisms and their parts
gravity = the force that attracts a body
causes the seat to rotate vertically around a central axis so the rider toward the center of the earth
experiences artificial gravity while exercising. The centrifuge project cardiovascular = relating to the heart
highlights the station's potential as a research lab. Similar machines have and blood vessels
flown in space aboard NASA's shuttles, but they couldn't be tested for Counter= do something in order to
prevent something bad from
long enough to prove whether they were effective. It's been calculated that happening or to reduce its bad effects
to properly assess a centrifuge's impact on human physiology, artificial = made or produced by
astronauts would have to ride it for 30 minutes a day for at least two human
months. The only way to test this is in weightlessness, and the only time Centrifuge=a machine
we have to do that is on the space station,' says Laurence Young, a space that spins a container around very
quickly so that the heavier liquids and
medicine expert at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. There are any solids are forced to the outer edge
certainly plenty of ideas for other experiments: but many projects have yet or bottom
to fly. Even if the centrifuge project gets the green light, it will have to wait preliminary = prior, trial, test
another five years before the station's crew can take a spin. Lengthy strap = fasten with seat belt
resemble=look or seem like something
delays like this are one of the key challenges for NASA, according to an rotate = move in a circle
April 201 I report from the US National Academy of Sciences. Its authors potential = ability, quality, power
said they were 'deeply concerned' about the state of NASA's science Shuttle= rocket-launched spaceship
research, and made a number of recommendations. Besides suggesting assess = evaluate, judge, value
that the agency reduces the time between approving experiments and impact = effect, result, influence
plenty = more than enough
sending them into space, it also recommended setting clearer research crew = team, group of people
priorities. NASA has already begun to take action, hiring management Spin= turn around and around very
consultants ProOrbis to develop a plan to cut through the bureaucracy. quickly
And Congress also directed NASA to hire an independent organisation, according to = as stated by
48
the Centre for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS), to help concern = worry, bother, trouble
manage the station's US lab facilities. One of CASIS's roles is to approving = showing or feeling
agreement
convince public and private investors that science on the station is worth consultant = someone whose job is to
the spend because judged solely by the number of papers published, the give advice
ISS certainly seems poor value: research on the station has generated Bureaucracy=
about 3,100 papers since 1998.The Hubble Space Telescope, a complicated official system that
is annoying or confusing because it
meanwhile, has produced more than I 1,300 papers in just over 20 years, has a lot of rules
yet it cost less than one-tenth of the price of the space station. Yet Mark Facility= special part of a piece
Uhran, assistant associate administrator for the ISS, refutes the criticism of equipment or a system
that the station hasn't done any useful research. He points to progress Solely= just, simply, only
made on a salmonella vaccine, for example. To get the ISS research back meanwhile= at the same time
associate = colleague, someone who
on track, CASIS has examined more than 100 previous microgravity you work or do business with
experiments to identify promising research themes. From this, it has Refute= deny, reject, contradict
opted to focus on life science and medical research, and recently called microgravity = very weak gravity
for proposals for experiments on muscle wasting, osteoporosis and the Identify= discover, find out, confirm
Promising= good, hopeful, positive
immune system. The organisation also maintains that the ISS should be Theme= subject, topic, matter
used to develop products with commercial application and to test those Opt= choose, select, go for
that are either close to or already on the market. Investment from outside Proposal= a plan or suggestion which
organisations is vital, says Uhran, and a balance between academic and is made formally to an official person
commercial research will help attract this. The station needs to attract or group
Osteoporosis= a medical condition in
cutting-edge research, yet many scientists seem to have little idea what which your bones become weak and
goes on aboard it. Jeanne DiFrancesco at ProOrbis conducted more than break easily
200 interviews with people from organisations with potential interests in commercial = related to business and
low gravity studies. Some were aware of the ISS but they didn't know the buying and selling of goods
and services
what's going on up there, she says. 'Others know there's science, but they Vital= important, necessary, essential
don't know what kind.' According to Alan Stern, planetary scientist, the conduct = organize, direct, carry out
biggest public relations boost for the ISS may come from the privately Kind= type, variety, category
funded space flight industry. Companies like SpaceX could help NASA Planetary=relating to or belonging to a
and its partners when it comes to resupplying the ISS, as it suggests it can planet or planets
launch = act of
reduce launch costs by two-thirds. Virgin Atlantic's Spaceship Two or sending a weapon or spacecraft into
Zero2Infinity's high- altitude balloon could also boost the space station's the sky or into space
fortunes. They might not come close to the ISS's orbit, yet Stern believes high- altitude= high above the sea
they will revolutionise the way we, the public, see space. Soon everyone Fortune= luck, chance, fate
interplanetary = traveling between
will be dreaming of interplanetary travel again, he predicts. More planets
importantly, scientists are already queuing for seats on these low-gravity Queue= join a line of people waiting to
space-flight services so they can collect data during a few minutes of do something or go somewhere
weightlessness. This demand for low-cost space flight could eventually frequent = often, regular, routine
lead to a service running on a more frequent basis, giving researchers the submit = present, offer, hand in
slot = a place in an arrangement
chance to test their ideas before submitting a proposal for experiments
on the ISS. Getting flight experience should help them win a slot on the
station, says Stern.
49
50
TEST 6
READING PASSAGE 1 - WHY ARE FINLAND'S SCHOOLS SUCCESSFUL?
achievement = something important
T
that you succeed in doing by your
own efforts
suburb = an area where people live
he country's achievements in education have other nations doing which is away from the centre of
a town or city
their principal= someone who is
homework in charge of a school
extreme=
A At Kirkkojarvi Comprehensive School in Espoo, a suburb west of very unusual and severe or serious
Helsinki, Kari Louhivuori, the school's principal, decided to try something immigrant= someone
who enters another country to live
extreme by Finnish standards. One of his sixth-grade students, a recent there permanently
immigrant, was falling behind, resisting his teacher's best efforts. So he resist= stop yourself from having
decided to hold the boy back a year. Standards in the country have vastly something that you like very much or
improved in reading, math and science literacy over the past decade, in doing something that you want to do
effort=
large part because its teachers are trusted to do whatever it takes to turn the physical or mental energy that is
young lives around. 'I took Besart on that year as my private student,' needed to do something
explains Louhivuori. When he was not studying science, geography and vastly= very much
math, Besart was seated next to Louhivuori's desk, taking books from a literacy = the state of
tall stack, slowly reading one, then another, then devouring them by the being able to read and write
decade= a period of 10 years
dozens. By the end of the year, he had conquered his adopted country's stack= a neat pile of things
vowel-rich language and arrived at the realization that he could, in fact, devour = read something quickly and
learn. eagerly, or watch something with great
interest
dozen= a lot of
B This tale of a single rescued child hints at some of the reasons for conquer= gain control over something
Finland's amazing record of education success. The transformation of its that is difficult, using a lot of effort
education system began some 40 years ago but teachers had little idea it adopt = chosen to replace a previous
had been so successful until 2000. In this year, the first results from the one
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a standardized tale = a story
about exciting imaginary events
test given to 15-year-olds in more than 40 global venues, revealed rescue = to save someone or
Finnish youth to be the best at reading in the world. Three years later, something from a situation
they led in math. By 2006, Finland was first out of the 57 nations that of danger or harm
participate in science In the latest PISA scores, the nation came second hint= clue, suggestion, something that
you say or do to suggest something to
in science, third in reading and sixth in math among nearly half a million someone, without telling them directly
students worldwide. standardize = make all the things of
one particular type the same as each
C In the United States, government officials have attempted to improve other
standards by introducing marketplace competition into public schools. In venue= a place for
an organized meeting, concert
recent years, a group of Wall Street financiers and philanthropists such reveal = show, uncover, display
as Bill Gates have put money behind private-sector ideas, such as participate = join, take part in
charter schools, which have doubled in number in the past decade. an activity or event
President Obama, too, apparently thought competition was the answer.
official = someone who is in a position
One policy invited states to compete for federal dollars using tests and of authority in an organization
other methods to measure teachers, a philosophy that would not be attempt = try to do something,
welcome in Finland. 'I think, in fact, teachers would tear off their shirts,' especially something difficult
said Timo Heikkinen, a Helsinki principal with 24 years of teaching competition = event, contest, match
experience. 'If you only measure the statistics, you miss the human financier = someone who controls
or lends large sums of money
aspect.'
51
philanthropist = a rich person who

D There are no compulsory standardized tests in Finland, apart from gives a lot of money to
help poor people
one exam at the end of students' senior year in high school. There is no charter school= a publicly funded
competition between students, schools or regions. Finland's schools are independent school
publicly funded. The people in the government agencies running them, apparently= used to say that you have
from national officials to local authorities, are educators rather than heard that something is true, although
you are not completely sure about it
business people or politicians. Every school has the same national goals compete= take part in
and draws from the same pool of university-trained educators. The result a competition or event
is that a Finnish child has a good chance of getting the same quality federal = relating to
education no matter whether he or she lives in a rural village or a the central government of a country
university town. statistic= a collection of numbers that
represent facts or measurements
aspect= side, feature, characteristic
E It's almost unheard of for a child to show up hungry to school. Finland compulsory = necessary, required,
provides three years of maternity leave and subsidized day care to obligatory
parents, and preschool for all five-year-olds, where the emphasis is on apart from = but for, except for, aside
from
socializing. In addition, the state subsidizes parents, paying them around agency = company, organization, firm
150 euros per month for every child until he or she turns 17. Schools authority= a person having power
provide food, counseling and taxi service if needed. Health care is even or control in something
free for students taking degree courses. educator = teacher, professor, lecturer
no matter = used to say that
something is not important and will
F Finland's schools were not always a wonder. For the first half of the not affect a situation
twentieth century, only the privileged got a quality education. But In 1963, rural = relating to the countryside
the Finnish Parliament made the bold decision to choose public education maternity =relating to a woman who
as the best means of driving the economy forward and out of recession. is pregnant or who has just had a baby
subsidize = support (an organization
Public schools were organized into one system of comprehensive or activity) financially
schools for ages 7 through 16. Teachers from all over the nation preschool = relating to the time before
contributed to a national curriculum that provided guidelines, not a child is old enough to go to
prescriptions, for them to refer to. Besides Finnish and Swedish (the kindergarten or elementary school
country's second official language), children started learning a third emphasis= special importance or
value
language (English is a favorite) usually beginning at age nine. The equal socialize= participating in social
distribution of equipment was next, meaning that all teachers had their activities
fair share of teaching resources to aid learning. As the comprehensive counsel= give advice to (someone)
schools improved, so did the upper secondary schools (grades 10 wonder= having remarkable abilities
privileged = having special rights,
through 12). The second critical decision came In 1979, when it was advantages
required that every teacher gain a fifth-year Master's degree In theory and means = method, way, measure
practice, paid for by the state. From then on, teachers were effectively economy = the wealth and
granted equal status with doctors and lawyers. Applicants began resources of a country
flooding teaching programs, not because the salaries were so high but recession= a difficult time when there
is less trade, business activity etc in
because autonomous decision-making and respect made the job a country than usual
desirable. And as Louhivuori explains, 'We have our own motivation to comprehensive = including all
succeed because we love the work.' the necessary facts, details, or
problems that need to be dealt with
curriculum = the subjects that
are taught by a school
Prescription= an idea or suggestion
refer = mention, or speak about
someone or something
distribution= sharing things among a
large group of people in a planned way
fair = reasonable, acceptable, average
share = part, portion, percentage
aid = help, support, assistance
upper= higher, senior, higher-level
52
critical = very important because what

happens in the future depends on it
grant = give, allow, permit
status = the official legal position
or condition
flood (v) = increase, expand, enlarge
autonomous = having the freedom to
act without control
respect = a feeling
of admiring someone or what they do,
especially because of
their personal qualities, knowledge,
or skills
desirable= wanted or wished for as
being an attractive, useful, or
necessary
53
READING PASSAGE 2 - AUSTRALIA’S LOST GIANTS
W
megafauna= animals (such as bears, bison, or
mammoths) of particularly large size
hat happened to Australia’s megafauna, the giant (mega= a million – used with units of measurement,
extremely, very big i.e megawatt, megarich, megastore)
giant= huge, massive, enormous, oversize
animals that once existed across this enormous continent? continent= a large mass of land surrounded by sea
fossil= an animal or plant that lived many thousands
of years ago and that has been preserved, or the
In 1969, a fossil hunter named Rod Wells came to Naracoorte shape of one of these animals or plants that has
in South Australia to explore what was then known as Victoria been preserved in rock
Cave. Wells clawed through narrow passages, and eventually hunter= a person who hunts wild animals, or an
into a huge chamber. Its floor of red soil was littered with animal that hunts other animals for food
explore= discover, search, investigate
strange objects. It took Wells a moment to realize what he was claw= to tear or pull at something, using claws or
looking at; the bones of thousands of creatures that must have your fingers
fallen through holes in the ground above and become trapped. passage= way, road, channel, route
Some of the oldest belonged to mammals far larger than any chamber= a room used for a special purpose
found today in Australia. They were the ancient Australian be littered with something= if something is littered
with things, there are a lot of those things in it
megafauna – huge animals of the Pleistocene epoch. In trap= to prevent someone from escaping from
boneyards across the continent, scientists have found the somewhere, especially a dangerous place
fossils of a giant snake, a huge flightless bird, and a seven mammal= a type of animal that drinks milk from its
foot kangaroo, to name but a few. Given how much ink has mother’s body when it is young
Pleistocene= belonging to the period in the Earth’s
been spilled on the extinction of the dinosaurs, it’s a wonder
history that started about two million years ago and
that even more hasn’t been devoted to megafauna. ended about 10,000 years ago
Prehistoric humans never threw spears at Tyrannosaurus rex epoch= period, age, era, time
but really did hunt mammoths and mastodons. boneyard= a burial ground
The disappearance of megafauna in America – mammoths, flightless= unable to fly
to name/mention but a few= used when you are
saber-toothed cats, giant sloths, among others – happened mentioning only a small number of people or things
relatively soon after the arrival of human beings, about 13,000 as examples of a large group
years ago. In the 1960s, paleoecologist Paul Martin extinction= when a particular type of animal or plant
developed what became known as the blitzkrieg hypothesis. stops existing
prehistoric= relating to the time in history before
Modern humans, Martin said, created havoc as they spread
anything was written down
through the Americas, wielding spears to annihilate animals (pre= before someone or something i.e prewar)
that had never faced a technological predator. But this period mammoth= an animal like a large hairy elephant
of extinction wasn’t comprehensive. North America kept its that lived on Earth thousands of years ago
deer, black bears and a small type of bison, and South mastodon= any of various extinct mammals of the
elephant family that are distinguished from the
America its jaguars and llamas. related mammoths chiefly by molar teeth with cone-
shaped cusps
What happened to Australia’s large animals is baffling. For
years scientists blamed the extinctions on climate change. saber-toothed= having long sharp canine teeth
paleoecologist= a person who studies the
Indeed, Australia has been drying out for over a million years,
characteristics of ancient environments and with
and the megafauna were faced with a continent where their relationships to ancient plants and animals
vegetation began to disappear. Australian paleontologist Tim hypothesis= theory, premise, suggestion
Flannery suggests that people, who arrived on the continent havoc= a situation in which there is a lot of damage
around 50,000 years ago, used fire to hunt, which led to or a lack of order, especially so that it is difficult for
something to continue in the normal way
deforestation. Here’s what’s certain, Flannery says. wield= to hold a weapon or tool that you are going
Something dramatic happened to Australia’s dominant land to use
creatures – somewhere around 46,000 years ago, strikingly annihilate= beat, defeat, conquer
soon after the invasion of a tool-wielding, highly intelligent predator= an animal that kills and eats other
animals
predator. comprehensive= including all the necessary facts,
details, or problems that need to be dealt with
54
In Flannery’s 1994 book called The Future Eaters, he sets out jaguar= a large South American wild cat with brown
his thesis that human beings are a new kind of animal on the and yellow fur with black spots
llama= a South American animal with thick hair like
planet, and are in general, one prone to ruining ecosystems. wool, and a long neck
Flannery’s book proved highly controversial. Some viewed it
as critical of the Aborigines, who pride themselves on living in baffling= mysterious, unsolved, inexplicable
harmony with nature. The more basic problem with Flannery’s vegetation= plants in general
deforestation= the cutting or burning down of all the
thesis is that there is no direct evidence that they killed any trees in an area
Australian megafauna. It would be helpful if someone dominant= main, leading, prevailing
uncovered a Diprotodon skeleton with a spear point strikingly= amazingly, outstandingly, extraordinarily,
embedded in a rib – or perhaps Thylacoleo bones next to the extremely
charcoal of a human campfire. Such kill sites have been found invasion= the arrival in a place of a lot of people or
things, often where they are not wanted
in the Americas but not in Australia.
set out= explain, specify, detail
The debate about megafauna pivots to a great degree on the thesis= theory, idea, notion, hypothesis
techniques for dating old bones and the sediments in which prone to= likely to do something or suffer from
something, especially something bad or harmful
they are buried. If scientists can show that the megafauna died ruin= damage, wreck, destroy, devastate
out fairly quickly and that this extinction event happened within controversial= causing a lot of disagreement
a few hundred, or even a couple thousand years, of the arrival in harmony with= when people live or work
of people, that’s a strong case – even if a purely together without fighting or disagreeing with each
circumstantial one – that the one thing was the direct result of other
evidence= proof, sign, confirmation, indication
the other. As it happens, there is one place where there may uncover= to find out about something that has been
be such evidence: Cuddie Springs in New South Wales. Today kept secret
the person most vocal about the site is archeologist Judith skeleton= the structure consisting of all the bones
Field. In 1991, she discovered megafauna bones directly in a human or animal body
embed= to put something firmly and deeply into
adjacent to stone tools – a headline-making find. She says something else, or to be put into something in this
there are two layers showing the association, one about way
30,000 years old, the other 35,000 years old. If that dating is charcoal= a black substance made of burnt wood
accurate, it would mean humans and megafauna coexisted in that can be used as fuel
Australia for something like 20,000 years. “What Cuddie
pivot= to turn or balance on a central point, or to
Springs demonstrates is that you have an extended overlap of make something do this
humans and megafauna,” Field says. Nonsense, say her technique= a special way of doing something
critics. They say the fossils have been moved from their sediment= solid substances that settle at the
original resting places and redeposited in younger sediments. bottom of a liquid
die out= become extinct, disappear, vanish
circumstantial= based on something that appears
Another famous boneyard in the same region is a place called to be true but is not proven
Wellington Caves, where Diprotodon, the largest known vocal= expressing strong opinions publicly,
marsupial*, was first discovered. Scientist Mike Augee says especially about things that you disagree with
that: “This is a sacred site in Australian paleontology.” Here’s adjacent to= next to, in line
association= connection, relationship, correlation
why: In 1830 a local official named George Rankin lowered overlap= if two or more things overlap, part of one
himself into the cave on a rope tied to a protrusion in the cave thing covers part of another thing
wall. The protrusion turned out to be a bone. A surveyor redeposit= to return (something) to a place or put it
named Thomas Mitchell arrived later that year, explored the in a new place
caves in the area, and shipped fossils off to Richard Owen, the marsupial= an animal which carries its young in a
British paleontologist who later gained fame for revealing the pouch e.g. kangaroos and koalas
existence of dinosaurs. Owen recognized that the Wellington sacred= relating to a god or religion
cave bones belonged to an extinct marsupial. Later, between protrusion= something that sticks out
1909 and 1915 sediments in Mammoth Cave that contained surveyor= someone whose job is to examine the
condition of a building, or to measure and record the
fossils were hauled out and examined in a chaotic manner details of an area of land
that no scientist today would approve. Still, one bone in reveal= to make known something that was
particular has drawn extensive attention: a femur with a cut in previously secret or unknown
it, possibly left there by a sharp tool. haul out= to move somewhere with a lot of effort,
especially because you are injured or tired
55
chaotic= disordered, messy, untidy

Unfortunately, the Earth preserves its history haphazardly. femur= the thigh bone
Bones disintegrate, the land erodes, the climate changes, haphazardly= randomly, chaotically, messily
forests come and go, rivers change their course – and history, disintegrate= break up, or make something break
if not destroyed, is steadily concealed. By necessity, up, into very small pieces
narratives are constructed from limited data. Australia’s first erode= if the weather erodes rock or soil, or if rock
or soil erodes, its surface is gradually destroyed
people expressed themselves in rock art. Paleontologist Peter conceal= hide, cover, secrete
Murray has studied a rock painting in far northern Australia that construct= build, create, erect
shows what looks very much like a megafauna marsupial distinction= difference, dissimilarity, discrepancy
known as Palorchestes. In Western Australia another site interpretation= the way in which someone explains
shows what appears to be a hunter with either a marsupial lion or understands an event, information, someone’s
actions etc
or a Tasmanian tiger – a major distinction, since the
marsupial lion went extinct and the much smaller Tasmanian
tiger survived into the more recent historical era. But as Murray
says, “Every step of the way involves interpretation. The data
doesn’t just speak for itself.”
56
READING PASSAGE 3 - THE SWIFFER
For a fascinating tale about creativity, look at a cleaning product called fascinating = very interesting and
the Swiffer and how it came about, urges writer Jonah Lehrer. In the enchanting
tale = a story
story of the Swiffer, he argues, we have the key elements in producing about exciting imaginary events
breakthrough ideas: frustration, moments of insight and sheer hard urge = strongly suggest that someone
work. The story starts with a multinational company which had invented does something
products for keeping homes spotless, and couldn't come up with better argue= disagree with someone in words
breakthrough= development,
ways to clean floors, so it hired designers to watch how people cleaned. improvement, innovation
Frustrated after hundreds of hours of observation, they one day noticed frustration= the feeling of
a woman do with a paper towel what people do all the time: wipe being annoyed, upset because you
something up and throw it away. An idea popped into lead designer cannot control or change a situation
Harry West's head: the solution to their problem was a floor mop with a insight = a clear understanding of
something or part of something
disposable cleaning surface. Mountains of prototypes and years of sheer = completely, totally, thoroughly
teamwork later, they unveiled the Swiffer, which quickly became a multinational = company that has
commercial success. factories, offices, and business activities
Lehrer, the author of Imagine, a new book that seeks to explain how in many different countries
spotless= clean, unstained, pure
creativity works, says this study of the imagination started from a desire frustrated= feeling annoyed, upset, and
to understand what happens in the brain at the moment of sudden impatient, because you cannot control
insight. 'But the book definitely spiraled out of control,' Lehrer says. or change a situation, or achieve
'When you talk to creative people, they'll tell you about the 'eureka'* something
moment, but when you press them they also talk about the hard work that observation= watching, viewing,
inspection
comes afterwards, so I realised I needed to write about that, too. And throw away= to get rid of something
then I realised I couldn't just look at creativity from the perspective of the that you do not want or need
brain, because it's also about the culture and context, about the group pop= come suddenly or unexpectedly
and the team and the way we collaborate.' When it comes to the out of or away from something
mop= a thing used for washing floors,
mysterious process by which inspiration comes into your head as if consisting of a long stick with threads of
from nowhere, Lehrer says modern neuroscience has produced a 'first thick string or a piece of sponge
draft' explanation of what is happening in the brain. He writes of how fastened to one end
burnt-out American singer Bob Dylan decided to walk away from his disposable = intended to be used once
musical career in 1965 and escape to a cabin in the woods, only to be or for a short time and then thrown away
prototypes = the first form that a new
overcome by a desire to write. Apparently 'Like a Rolling Stone' design of a car, machine has, or a
suddenly flowed from his pen. 'It's like a ghost is writing a song,' Dylan model of it used to test the design
has reportedly said. 'It gives you the song and it goes away.' But it's no before it is produced
ghost, according to Lehrer. Instead, the right hemisphere of the brain is unveiled = show or tell people about a
new product or plan for the first time
assembling connections between past influences and making something commercial = related to business and
entirely new. Neuroscientists have roughly charted this process by the buying and selling of goods and
mapping the brains of people doing word puzzles solved by making services
sense of remotely connecting information. For instance, subjects are seek = try to achieve or get something
given three words - such as 'age', 'mile' and 'sand' - and asked to come sudden= happening, coming, or done
quickly or when you do not expect it
up with a single word that can precede or follow each of them to form a definitely= certainly, for sure, obviously
compound word. (It happens to be 'stone'.) Using brain-imaging spiral= show a continuous and dramatic
equipment, researchers discovered that when people get the answer in increase
an apparent flash of insight, a small fold of tissue called the anterior afterward= later, after, next
perspective= outlook, view, viewpoint
superior temporal gyrus suddenly lights up just beforehand. This stays context= situation, events, or
silent when the word puzzle is solved through careful analysis. Lehrer information that are related to
says that this area of the brain lights up only after we've hit the wall on a something and that help you to
problem. Then the brain starts hunting through the 'filing cabinets of the understand it
right hemisphere' to make the connections that produce the right answer.
Studies have demonstrated it's possible to predict a moment of insight
57
up to eight seconds before it arrives. The predictive signal is a steady collaborate= work together with a
rhythm of alpha waves emanating from the brain's right hemisphere, person or group in order to achieve
something
which are closely associated with relaxing activities. 'When our minds mysterious = difficult to explain or
are at ease-when those alpha waves are rippling through the brain - understand
we're more likely to direct the spotlight of attention towards that stream of inspiration = good idea about what you
remote associations emanating from the right hemisphere,' Lehrer writes. should do, write, say
neuroscience = scientific study of the
'In contrast, when we are diligently focused, our attention tends to be brain
towards the details of the problems we are trying to solve.' In other burnt-out = tired because you have
words, then we are less likely to make those vital associations. So, been working too hard
heading out for a walk or lying down are important phases of the creative escape= leave a place
process, and smart companies know this. Some now have a policy of cabin= a small house
overcome = deal with successfully
encouraging staff to take time out during the day and spend time on suddenly = happening unexpectedly
things that at first glance are unproductive (like playing a PC game), but reportedly = according to reports or
day-dreaming has been shown to be positively correlated with problem- other information
solving. However, to be more imaginative, says Lehrer, it's also crucial to hemisphere = half of a sphere
assembling = gathering something
collaborate with people from a wide range of backgrounds because if together
colleagues are too socially intimate, creativity is stifled. Creativity, it entirely = completely, totally, thoroughly
seems, thrives on serendipity. American entrepreneur Steve Jobs neuroscientists = experts who study
believed so. Lehrer describes how at Pixar Animation, Jobs designed the the brain
entire workplace to maximise the chance of strangers bumping into charted = Make a map
remotely = by only a small amount
each other, striking up conversations and learning from one another. He precede = come before; be earlier in
also points to a study of 766 business graduates who had gone on to time
own their own companies. Those with the greatest diversity of compound = composed of many parts
acquaintances enjoyed far more success. Lehrer says he has taken all apparent= easy to notice
fold = bend a piece of something
this on board, and despite his inherent shyness, when he's sitting next to tissue= a soft thin paper or cloth
strangers on a plane or at a conference, forces himself to initiate anterior = earlier in time
conversations. As for predictions that the rise of the Internet would make superior= better, more powerful, more
the need for shared working space obsolete, Lehrer says research effective
shows the opposite has occurred; when people meet face-to-face, the temporal = limited by time
beforehand= before something else
level of creativity increases. This is why the kind of place we live in is so happens
important to innovation. According to theoretical physicist Geoffrey hit the wall = experience a sudden loss
West, when corporate institutions get bigger, they often become less of energy
receptive to change. Cities, however, allow our ingenuity to grow by demonstrate= show, prove, verify
predictive = relating to the ability to
pulling huge numbers of different people together, who then exchange show what is going to happen
ideas. Working from the comfort of our homes may be convenient, Rhythm= pattern of sounds
therefore, but it seems we need the company of others to achieve our emanate = produce a smell, light or to
finest 'eureka' moments. show a particular quality
ease= ability to feel relaxed
rippling = move in small waves
remote = far from something
diligently = hard-working and careful
and thorough
vital = very important
encouraging= giving you hope and
confidence
glance= quickly look at something
unproductive = not producing desired
results
correlated = mutually related
crucial= very important
range = a variety of different things
colleague= someone you work with
Intimate= private and friendly
stifle=stop something from happening
thrive= become very successful
58
Serendipity= luck, chance, accident

entrepreneur = business person
entire = all, whole, total
maximise= increase as much as
possible
strike up= start talking to
graduates = someone who has
completed a university degree
diversity=the fact of including many
different types of people or things
acquaintance= someone you know but
not your close friend
inherent = existing in something as a
part of it
initiate = begin, start, bring about
prediction = a statement about what
you think is going to happen
obsolete= no longer produced or used
Innovation= new idea, method, or
invention
theoretical= relating to the study of
ideas rather than to practical uses of the
ideas
physicist = a scientist who has special
knowledge and training in physics
corporate= belonging to or relating to a
corporation
institution = a large organization that
has a particular kind of work or purpose
receptive= willing to consider new ideas
ingenuity= skill at inventing things and
thinking of new ideas
59
TEST 7
READING PASSAGE 1- THE HIDDEN HISTORY OF EXPLORATION
EXHIBITION
We have all heard tales of lone, heroic explorers, but what about the tale= story, fiction
local individuals who guided and protected European explorers in many lone= single, lonely, solitary
heroic= brave, courageous, valiant
different parts of the globe? Or the go-betweens - including interpreters #coward
and traders - who translated the needs and demands of explorers into a go-between= someone who takes
language that locals could understand? Such questions have received messages from one person or group to
surprisingly little attention in standard histories, where European explorers another because the two sides cannot
meet or do not want to meet trader=
are usually the heroes, sometimes the villains. The Hidden Histories of seller merchant dealer
Exploration exhibition at Britain’s Royal Geographical Society in London translate (smth) into smth= turn,
sets out to present an alternative view, in which exploration is a convert, transform
fundamentally collective experience of work, involving many different villain= bad character, antihero,
people. Many of the most famous examples of explorers said to have criminal #hero
set out= plan, aim, intend
been ‘lone travellers’ - say, Mungo Park or David Livingstone in Africa - collective= shared, united cooperative
were anything but ‘alone’ on their travels. They depended on local support #individual
of various kinds - for food, shelter, protection, information, guidance and shelter= housing, accommodation,
solace - as well as on other resources from elsewhere. refuge
solace= comfort, relief, consolation
seek= try, attempt, strive
The Royal Geographical Society (RGS) seeks to record this story in its astonishingly= amazingly,
Hidden Histories project, using its astonishingly rich collections. The surprisingly, astoundingly
storage of geographical information was one of the main rationales for storage of = the process of keeping
the foundation of the RGS in 1830, and the Society's collections now or putting something in a special place
while it is not being used.
contain more than two million individual items, including books, rationale= foundation, basis,
manuscripts, maps, photographs art-works, artefacts and film - a rich justification
storehouse of material reflecting the wide geographical extent of British artefact/artifact= an object such as
interest across the globe. In addition to their remarkable scope and a tool, weapon etc that was made in
the past and is historically important
range, these collections contain a striking visual record of exploration: storehouse of smth = store,
the impulse to collect the world is reflected in a large and diverse image warehouse, stockroom
archive. For the researcher, this archive can yield many surprises: extent of= range of, scale of, span
materials gathered for one purpose – say, maps relating to an scope= range, scale, extent
international boundary dispute or photographs taken on a scientific striking= impressive, noticeable,
extraordinary
expedition - may today be put to quite different uses. impulse= desire, motivation, urge
diverse= different, various, assorted
In their published narratives, European explorers rarely portrayed archive= a place where a large
themselves as vulnerable or dependent on others, despite the fact that number of historical records are stored,
or the records that are stored
without this support they were quite literally lost. Archival research yield=produce, generate
confirms that Europeans were not merely dependent on the work of a boundary dispute= a disagreement
porters, soldiers, translators, cooks, pilots, guides, hunters, and about where a boundary should be, for
collectors: they also relied on local expertise. Such assistance was example between neighbours
essential in identifying potential dangers – poisonous species, expedition= trip, journey, voyage,
excursion
unpredictable rivers, uncharted territories – which could mean the put something to (good) use= to use
difference between life and death. The assistants themselves were usually something such as knowledge or skills
in a strong bargaining position. In the Amazon, for example, access to for a particular purpose
entire regions would depend on the willingness of local crew members narrative= story, tale, description
portray= describe, represent, depict,
60
and other assistants to enter areas inhabited by relatively powerful vulnerable= unprotected,
Amerindian groups. In an account of his journey across South American, defenseless, susceptible
literally= accurately, exactly
published in 1836, William Smyth thus complained of frequent archival research= a type of research
“desertion” by his helpers: ‘without them it was impossible to get on’. which involves seeking out and
extracting evidence from archival
records
merely= just, only,
porter= carrier, transporter, hauler
Those providing local support and information to explorers were soldier= fighter, warrior
themselves often not ‘locals’. For example, the history of African expertise= skills, knowledge,
exploration in the nineteenth century is dominated by the use of Zanzibar proficiency
as a recruiting station for porters, soldiers and guides who would then poisonous = dangerous, toxic,
noxious#harmless
travel thousands of miles across the continent. In some accounts, the uncharted= new, unexplored,
leading African members of expedition parties - the ‘officers’ or ‘foremen’ uncultivatedunknown #familiar
- are identified, and their portraits published alongside those of European territory= land, area, terrain
explorers. bargaining (position)= negotiation
crew= team, group, party
inhabit = live, , occupy
The information provided by locals and intermediaries was of potential an account of= a report or description
importance to geographical science. How was this evidence judged? The of an event or experience.
formal procedures of scientific evaluation provided one framework. complain of= criticize, protest
Alongside these were more ‘common sense’ notions of veracity and desertion= abandonment, neglect
get on= handle, deal with, manage
reliability, religiously-inspired judgments about the authenticity of dominate= control, govern, take over
testimony, and the routine procedures for cross-checking empirical recruit employ, hire, enlist
observations developed in many professions. expedition= trip, voyage, excursion
intermediary= go-between, negotiator,
mediator
Given explorers' need for local information and support, it was in their framework= outline, context, structure
interests to develop effective working partnerships with knowledgeable notion= idea, view, perception
intermediaries who could act as brokers in their dealings with local veracity= truth, accuracy, reliability,
inhabitants. Many of these people acquired far more experience of authenticity
exploration than most Europeans could hope to attain. Some managed religiously-inspired= started for
religious reasons
large groups of men and women, piloted the explorers’ river craft, or authenticity= truth, accuracy,
undertook mapping work. The tradition was continued with the Everest correctness #inaccuracy
expeditions in the 1920s and 1930s, which regularly employed the Tibetan testimony= evidence, proof, ,
interpreter Karma Paul. In Europe, exploration was increasingly thought of testament
cross-checking= the process of
as a career; the same might be said of the non-Europeans on whom their verifying figures or information by using
expeditions depended. an alternative source or method
empirical= experiential, experimental,
These individuals often forged close working relationships with European practical
explorers. Such partnerships depended on mutual respect, though they given smth= considering, taking
something into account
were not always easy or intimate, as is particularly clear from the history be/work in partnership (with
of the Everest expeditions depicted in the Hidden Histories exhibition. somebody)= the state of being a
The entire back wall is covered by an enlarged version of a single sheet of partner in business
photographs of Sherpas taken during the 1936 Everest expedition. The broker= agent, dealer, stockbroker
acquire= get, gain, achieve, obtain
document is a powerful reminder of the manpower on which European attain= reach, achieve, accomplish
mountaineering expeditions depended, and also of the importance of #fail
local knowledge and assistance. Transformed from archive to wall pilot= guide, direct, navigate
display, it tells a powerful story through the medium of individual portraits craft= a small boat
- including Karma Paul, veteran of previous expeditions, and the young undertake= start, carry out, embark on
forge= build, form, create
Tensing Norgay, 17 years before his successful 1953 ascent. This was a mutual= shared, joint, reciprocated
highly charged and transitional moment as the contribution of the intimate= close, friendly#distant
Sherpas, depicted here with identity tags round their necks, was depict= describe, represent, portray
beginning to be much more widely recognised. These touching portraits manpower= all the workers available
for a particular kind of work
61
encourage us to see them as agents rather than simply colonial subjects mountaineering= the sport of climbing
or paid employees. Here is a living history, which looks beyond what we mountains
transform= change, alter, convert
already know about exploration: a larger history in which we come to medium= something that is used for a
recognise the contribution of everyone involved. particular purpose
veteran of: expert
ascent = the process of moving
forward to a better position or of
making progress, # descent
charged= a charged situation or
subject makes people feel
very angry, anxious, or excited, and is
likely to cause arguments or violence
transitional= relating to a period
during which something is changing
from one state or form into another
identity tag= a tag attached to
something or someone in order to
identify them
agent= a person or thing that has an
important effect on a situation
colonial= relating to a country that
controls and rules other countries,
usually ones that are far away
subject= citizen
look beyond = Literally, to try to see a
point past someone or something
come to do smth= to finally reach a
state in which something happens or
you do something
62
READING PASSAGE 2 – FATAL ATTRACTION
E
marvel= admire, be amazed, be surprised, be
impressed
flesh-eating= meat-eating, carnivorous
volutionist Charles Darwin first marvelled at flesh-
digest= to change food that you have just eaten into
substances that your body can use
eating plants in the mid-19th century. Today, biologists, using bizarre= strange, unusual, weird
21st-century tools to study cells and DNA, are beginning to adaptation= the process of changing something to
make it suitable for a new situation
understand how these plants hunt, eat and digest - and how
such bizarre adaptations arose in the first place. Venus flytrap= a plant that feeds on insects and
catches them by quickly closing its leaves when their
The leaves of the Venus flytrap plant are covered in hairs. surface is touched so that the insects cannot escape
insect= a small creature such as a fly or ant, that
When an insect brushes against them, this triggers a tiny has six legs, and sometimes wings
electric charge, which travels down tunnels in the leaf and brush against someone/something= to touch
opens up pores in the leaf's cell membranes. Water surges someone or something lightly when passing them
from the cells on the inside of the leaf to those on the outside, trigger= to make something happen very quickly,
causing the leaf to rapidly flip in shape from convex to especially a series of events
tiny= small, little, petite
concave, like a soft contact lens. As the leaves flip, they snap pore= one of the small holes in your skin that liquid,
together, trapping the insect in their sharp-toothed jaws. especially sweat, can pass through, or a similar hole
in the surface of a plant
The bladderwort has an equally sophisticated way of setting membrane= a very thin layer of material that covers
something
its underwater trap. It pumps water out of tiny bag-like surge= to suddenly move very quickly in a particular
bladders, making a vacuum inside. When small creatures direction
swim past, they bend the hairs on the bladder, causing a flap convex= curved outwards, like the surface of the
to open. The low pressure sucks water in, carrying the animal eye
concave= a concave surface is curved inwards in
along with it. In one five-hundredth of a second, the door
the middle
swings shut again. The Drosera sundew, meanwhile, has a snap= to move into a particular position suddenly,
thick, sweet liquid oozing from its leaves, which first attracts making a short sharp noise, or to make something
insects, then holds them fast before the leaves snap shut. move like this
Pitcher plants use yet another strategy, growing long tube-
bladderwort= any of a genus of chiefly aquatic
shaped leaves to imprison their prey. Raffles' pitcher plant, plants having leaves with tiny saclike structures to
from the jungles of Borneo, produces nectar that both lures trap small invertebrates
insects and forms a slick surface on which they can't get a sophisticated= complicated, complex
grip. Insects that land on the rim of the pitcher slide on the pump= to make liquid or gas move in a particular
liquid and tumble in. direction, using a pump
bladder= the organ in your body that holds urine
(=waste liquid) until it is passed out of your body
Many carnivorous plants secrete enzymes to penetrate the vacuum= a space that is completely empty of all
hard exoskeleton of insects so they can absorb nutrients from gas, especially one from which all the air has been
taken away
inside their prey. But the purple pitcher plant, which lives in flap= a thin flat piece of cloth, paper, skin etc that is
bogs and infertile sandy soils in North America, enlists other fixed by one edge to a surface, which you can lift up
organisms to process its food. It is home to an intricate food easily
ooze= if a thick liquid oozes from something or if
web of mosquito larvae, midges and bacteria, many of which
something oozes a thick liquid, that liquid flows from
can survive only in this unique habitat. These animals shred it very slowly
the prey that fall into the pitcher, and the smaller organisms pitcher= a container for holding and pouring a
feed on the debris. Finally, the plant absorbs the nutrients liquid, with a handle and a shaped part to help the
liquid flow out
released. strategy= plan, approach, tactic
While such plants clearly thrive on being carnivorous, the imprison= put in prison, lock up
benefits of eating flesh are not the ones you might expect. prey= an animal, bird etc that is hunted and eaten by
another animal
Carnivorous animals such as ourselves use the carbon in
63
protein and the fat in meat to build muscles and store energy. nectar= the sweet liquid that bees collect from
Carnivorous plants instead draw nitrogen, phosphorus, and flowers or thick juice made from particular fruit
lure= attract, tempt, entice
other critical nutrients from their prey in order to build light- slick= smooth, slippery, glossy
harvesting enzymes. Eating animals, in other words, lets grip= the way you hold something tightly, or your
carnivorous plants do what all plants do: carry out ability to do this
photosynthesis, that is, grow by harnessing energy directly rim= the outside edge of something circular
tumble= to fall down quickly and suddenly,
from the sun. especially with a rolling movement
Carnivorous plants are, in fact, very inefficient at converting secrete= hide, conceal
sunlight into tissue. This is because of all the energy they penetrate= to enter something and pass or spread
expend to make the equipment to catch animals - the through it, especially when this is difficult
absorb= to take in liquid, gas, or another substance
enzymes, the pumps, and so on. A pitcher or a flytrap cannot from the surface or space around something
carry out much photosynthesis because, unlike plants with infertile= infertile land or soil is not good enough to
ordinary leaves, they do not have flat solar panels that can grow plants in
grab lots of sunlight. There are, however, some special intricate= complicated, complex
larvae= a young insect with a soft tube-shaped
conditions in which the benefits of being carnivorous do body, which will later become an insect with wings
outweigh the costs. The poor soil of bogs, for example, offers midge= a small flying insect that can bite people
little nitrogen and phosphorus, so carnivorous plants enjoy an shred= to cut or tear something into small thin
advantage over plants that obtain these nutrients by more pieces
conventional means. Bogs are also flooded with sunshine, so debris= the pieces of something that are left after it
has been destroyed in an accident, explosion etc
even an inefficient carnivorous plant can photosynthesise
enough light to survive. thrive= grow well, flourish, prosper, succeed
photosynthesis= the production by a green plant of
Evolution has repeatedly made this trade-off. By comparing special substances like sugar that it uses as food,
caused by the action of sunlight on chlorophyll
the DNA of carnivorous plants with other species, scientists harness= to control and use the natural force or
have found that they evolved independently on at least six power of something
separate occasions. Some carnivorous plants that look nearly
identical turn out to be only distantly related. The two kinds of ordinary= normal, commonplace, usual
pitcher plants - the tropical genus Nepenthes and the North conventional= traditional, common, typical
trade-off= a balance between two opposing things,
American Sarracenia - have, surprisingly, evolved from that you are willing to accept in order to achieve
different ancestors, although both grow deep pitchershaped something
leaves and employ the same strategy for capturing prey. identical= alike, the same, indistinguishable
stem= the long thin part of a plant, from which

In several cases, scientists can see how complex carnivorous leaves, flowers, or fruit grow
plants evolved from simpler ones. Venus flytraps, for example, curl= to form a twisted or curved shape, or to make
share an ancestor with Portuguese sundews, which only catch something do this
prey passively, via 'flypaper' glands on their stems. They share
a more recent ancestor with Drosera sundews, which can also marginal= bare
exquisitely= very sensitive and delicate in the way
curl their leaves over their prey. Venus flytraps appear to have you behave or do things
evolved an even more elaborate version of this kind of trap, run-off= rain or other liquid that flows off the land
complete with jaw-like leaves. into rivers
exotic= unusual, striking, bizarre

Unfortunately, the adaptations that enable carnivorous plants vigorous= energetic, dynamic, strong
to thrive in marginal habitats also make them exquisitely botanist= someone whose job is to make scientific
sensitive. Agricultural run-off and pollution from power plants studies of wild plants
are adding extra nitrogen to many bogs in North America. poach= to illegally catch or shoot animals, birds, or
Carnivorous plants are so finely tuned to low levels of nitrogen fish, especially on private land without permission
halt= stop, pause, finish
that this extra fertilizer is overloading their systems, and they assault= the crime of physically attacking someone
eventually burn themselves out and die. suppress= to prevent something from growing or
developing, or from working effectively
outcompete= to succeed in getting more food,
space, etc. than another type of plant or animal
64
Humans also threaten carnivorous plants in other ways. The native= natural, inborn, innate
black market trade in exotic carnivorous plants is so vigorous delight in something= to enjoy something very
much, especially something that other people think
now that botanists are keeping the location of some rare is not nice
species a secret. But even if the poaching of carnivorous sheer= pure, absolute, complete
plants can be halted, they will continue to suffer from other inventive= creative, imaginative, resourceful,
assaults. In the pine savannah of North Carolina, the innovative
increasing suppression of fires is allowing other plants to grow
too quickly and outcompete the flytraps in their native
environment. Good news, perhaps, for flies. But a loss for all
who, like Darwin, delight in the sheer inventiveness of
evolution.
65
READING PASSAGE 3 – WANT TO BE FRIENDS?
C
miss out= to fail to use an opportunity to enjoy or
get an advantage from something
ould the benefits of online social networking be too
enmeshed= very involved in an unpleasant or
complicated situation
good to miss out on? insight= understanding, perception, awareness
illuminate= explain, enlighten, clarify, illustrate
aspect= part, side, facet
For many hundreds of thousands of people worldwide, online sociologist= someone who studies of societies and
networking has become enmeshed in our daily lives. However, the behaviour of people in groups
it is a decades-old insight from a study of traditional social loose= not firmly fastened in place
networks that best illuminates one of the most important acquaintance= a relationship with someone you
know, but who is not a close friend
aspects of today's online networking. In 1973 sociologist exert= to use your power, influence etc in order to
Mark Granovetter showed how the loose acquaintances, or make something happen
'weak ties’, in our social network exert a disproportionate disproportionate= uneven, unequal, inconsistent
significant= major, large, considerable, substantial
influence over our behaviour and choices. Granovetter's recommendation= suggestion, advice, counsel,
research showed that a significant percentage of people get proposal
their jobs as a result of recommendations or advice provided tie= link, bond, connection, relation
explode= to suddenly increase greatly in number,
by a weak tie. Today our number of weak-tie contacts has amount, or degree
exploded via online social networking. 'You couldn’t maintain maintain= keep, preserve, continue, sustain
all of those weak ties on your own,' says Jennifer Golbeck of catalogue= to make a complete list of all the things
in a group
the University of Maryland. 'Online sites, such as Facebook, tip= a helpful piece of advice
give you a way of cataloguing them.' The result? It’s now alter= change, modify, adjust
significantly easier for the schoolfriend you haven’t seen in cereal= a breakfast food made from grain and
usually eaten with milk
years to pass you a tip that alters your behaviour, from
recommendation of a low-cholesterol breakfast cereal to a profound= great, intense, overwhelming, extreme
party invite where you meet your future wife or husband. consequence= something that happens as a result
of a particular action or set of conditions
trusted= reliable, trustworthy, confidential
The explosion of weak ties could have profound relevant= directly relating to the subject or problem
consequences for our social structures too, according to being discussed or considered ≠ irrelevant
inaccurate= wrong, incorrect, imprecise ≠ accurate
Judith Donath of the Berkman Center for Internet and Society thrive= to become very successful or very strong
at Harvard University. 'We're already seeing changes,' she and healthy
says. For example, many people now turn to their online social fundamentally= basically, essentially, primarily,
networks ahead of sources such as newspapers and television profoundly
transform= to completely change the appearance,
for trusted and relevant news or information. What they hear form, or character of something or someone,
could well be inaccurate, but the change is happening especially in a way that improves it
nonetheless. If these huge ‘supernets’ - some of them notion= idea, view, concept, belief
numbering up to 5,000 people - continue to thrive and grow, vast= huge, massive, enormous
they could fundamentally change the way we share network= a group of people, organizations etc that
information and transform our notions of relationships. are connected or that work together
evolutionary= relating to the way in which plants
and animals develop and change gradually over a
But are these vast networks really that relevant to US on a long period of time
personal level? Robin Dunbar, an evolutionary anthropologist= someone who studies people, their
societies, cultures
anthropologist at the University of Oxford, believes that our primate= a member of the group of animals that
primate brains place a cap on the number of genuine social includes humans and monkeys
66
relationships we can actually cope with: roughly 1 50. genuine= honest, unaffected, sincere
cope with= manage, handle, survive, deal with
According to Dunbar, online social networking appears to be roughly= about, around, almost, approximately
very good for ‘servicing’ relationships, but not for service= to provide people with something they
establishing them. He argues that our evolutionary roots need or want
establish= to begin a relationship with someone or
mean we still depend heavily on physical and face-to-face
a situation that will continue
contact to be able to create ties. root= the origin or main part of something such as a
custom, law, activity etc, from which other things
Nonetheless, there is evidence that online networking can have developed
transform our daily interactions. In an experiment at Cornell evidence= proof, confirmation, sign
University, psychologist Jeff Hancock asked participants to try psychologist= someone who is trained in
to encourage other participants to like them via instant psychology
instant= immediate, prompt, instantaneous
messaging conversation. Beforehand, some members of the win over somebody= to get someone’s support or
trial were allowed to view the Facebook profile of the person friendship by persuading them or being nice to them
they were trying to win over. He found that those with keep updated= to keep someone informed of the
latest news
Facebook access asked questions to which they already knew subsequent= later, following, consequent
the answers or raised things they had in common, and as
result were much more successful in their social relationships. tangible= clear enough or definite enough to be
easily seen or noticed ≠ intangible
Hancock concluded that people who use these sites to keep well-being= a feeling of being comfortable, healthy,
updated on the activities of their acquaintances are more likely and happy
to be liked in subsequent social interactions. frequency= the number of times that something
happens within a particular period of time or within a
particular group of people
Online social networking may also have tangible effects on our correlate= if two or more facts, ideas etc correlate
well-being. Nicole Ellison of Michigan State University found or if you correlate them, they are closely connected
to each other or one causes the other
that the frequency of networking site use correlates with self- esteem= the feeling of being satisfied with your
greater self- esteem, Support and affirmation from the weak own abilities, and that you deserve to be liked or
ties could be the explanation, G says Ellison. ‘Asking your respected
affirm= to state publicly that something is true
close friends for help or advice is nothing new, but we are barrier= a rule, problem etc that prevents people
seeing a lowering of barriers among acquaintances,' she says. from doing something, or limits what they can do
People are readily sharing personal feelings and experiences readily= quickly, willingly, and without complaining
broadcast= to tell something to a lot of people
to a wider circle than they might once have done. Sandy
befall= if something unpleasant or dangerous
Pentland at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology agrees. befalls you, it happens to you
‘The ability to broadcast to our social group means we need
never feel alone,' he says. ‘The things that befall US are often interface= the way in which two subjects, events etc
affect each other
due to a lack of social support. There's more of a safety net visibility= the situation of being noticed by people in
now.’ general
sphere= a particular area of activity, work,
knowledge etc
Henry Holzman, also at MIT, who studies the interface norm= the usual or normal situation, way of doing
between online social networking and the real world, points out something etc
that increased visibility also means our various social transparent= a lie, excuse etc that is transparent
does not deceive people
spheres - family, work, friends - are merging, and so we will limited= not very great in amount, number, ability
have to prepare for new societal norms. 'We’ll have to learn etc
how to live a more transparent life,’ he says. ‘We may have to glimpse= a quick look at someone or something
that does not allow you to see them clearly
give up some ability to show very limited glimpses of
ourselves to others.' dominance= the fact of being more powerful, more
important, or more noticeable than other people or
things
Another way that online networking appears to be changing repeated= done or happening again and again
our social structures is through dominance. In one repeated consensus= an opinion that everyone in a group
experiment, Michael Kearns of the University of Pennsylvania agrees with or accepts = agreement
67
asked 30 volunteers to quickly reach consensus in an online persuade= to make someone decide to do
something, especially by giving them reasons why
game over a choice between two colours. Each person was they should do it, or asking them many times to do it
offered a cash reward if they succeeded in persuading the extra= additional, further, added
group to pick one or other colour. All participants could see the connected= if two facts, events, people etc are
connected, there is some kind of relationship
colour chosen by some of the other people, but certain
between them
participants had an extra advantage: the ability to see more of give up= to stop doing something, especially
the participants' chosen colours than others. Every time Kearns something that you do regularly
found that those who could see the choices of more financial= relating to money or the management of
money
participants (in other words, were better connected) incentive= something that encourages you to work
persuaded the group to pick their colour, even when they had harder, start a new activity etc
to persuade the vast majority to give up their financial setting= the place where something is or where
something happens, and the general environment
incentive. While Kearns warns that the setting was artificial, artificial= not real or not made of natural things but
he says it’s possible that greater persuasive power could lie made to be like something that is real or natural ≠
with well-connected individuals in the everyday online world natural
too.
68

Boost Your Vocabulary - The Official Cambridge Guide To IELTS (To Be Updated) - 09072021

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ĐÂY LÀ BẢN CHƯA HOÀN THIỆN

CỦA CUỐN SÁCH. CÁC BẠN VUI

Cuốn sách này là của

Trân trọng cảm ơn,

Thầy Đinh Thắng

03 LÝ DO TẠI SAO NÊN HỌC TỪ VỰNG

HƯỚNG DẪN SỬ DỤNG SÁCH

CÁC BƯỚC SỬ DỤNG

CÁCH 1: LÀM TEST TRƯỚC, HỌC TỪ VỰNG SAU

CÁCH 2: HỌC TỪ VỰNG TRƯỚC, ĐỌC TEST SAU

bronze-age= the time, between about 6000 and

enthusiasm= eagerness, passion, excitement

diversify= vary, expand #specialize

comparison with other venues. competitive advantage= a condition or

serving the needs of the airport, its partners, and stakeholders

pointless= meaningless, useless, senseless

assertion= claim, declaration, proclamation

flavor = Taste, essence, savor

illustrate = show, display / explain / demonstrate,

READING PASSAGE 2 – DAWN OF THE ROBOTS

vacuum= a space that is completely empty of all

'Robots first learn basic competence - how to move around a hear

READING PASSAGE 3 – IT’S YOUR CHOICE? OR IS IT REALLY?

societal= relating to a particular society

creature= an animal, a living thing

READING PASSAGE 2 - High speed, high rise

founder = a creator, maker

READING PASSAGE 3: When conversations flow

consequently= therefore, hence

partners, by coordinating their behavior. This interpersonal utterance= a spoken statement

explorer= traveler, scout, adventurer

READING PASSAGE 2: The rise of agribots

checkout = a point at which goods are

Simon Blackmore, extent= level, scale, degree

job market= the market in which

READING PASSAGE 3: HOMER'S LITERARY LEGACY

ancient = old, early, past

Loose= free, unsteady, untied

Insidious= relating to problem that

decline = fall, reduction, decrease

READING PASSAGE 2: WHALE STRANDINGS

essentially = basically, fundamentally

READING PASSAGE 3 - SCIENCE IN SPACE

transform = change, alter, modify

READING PASSAGE 1 - WHY ARE FINLAND'S SCHOOLS SUCCESSFUL?

achievement = something important

philanthropist = a rich person who

critical = very important because what

READING PASSAGE 2 - AUSTRALIA’S LOST GIANTS

chaotic= disordered, messy, untidy

READING PASSAGE 3 - THE SWIFFER

Serendipity= luck, chance, accident

READING PASSAGE 2 – FATAL ATTRACTION

stem= the long thin part of a plant, from which

exotic= unusual, striking, bizarre

READING PASSAGE 3 – WANT TO BE FRIENDS?

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