Radiation 3

KIRCHOFF’S LAW
G

A1 Ts

G  Eb  Ts 
A2
E1 E2

A3
E3

• Consider a large, isothermal enclosure of surface temperature Ts within which

several small bodies are confined.
• Since these bodies are small relative to the enclosure, they have negligible
influence on the radiation field, which is due to the cumulative effect of emission
and reflection by the enclosure surface.
• Regardless of the radiative properties, such a surface forms a blackbody cavity.
• Accordingly, regardless of its orientation, the irradiation experienced by any body
in the cavity is diffuse and equal to emission from a blackbody at Ts.

G = Eb(Ts)
• Under steady state conditions, thermal equilibrium must exist between the bodies
and the enclosure.
•Hence, T1 = T2 = T3 = ……..= Ts and the net rate of energy transfer to each surface
must be zero.
Applying energy balance to a control surface about body 1, it follows that

1GA1  E1 Ts  A1  0 G  E b Ts 

1 Eb Ts   E1 Ts   0
Since this result must apply to each of the confined bodies, we then obtain
E1 Ts  E 2 Ts  E 3 Ts 
  ......  Eb Ts 
1 2 3
This relation is known as KIRCHOFF’S LAW. No real surface can have an emissive
power exceeding that of a black surface at the same temperature, and the notion of
the black body as an ideal emitter is confirmed.
But, total hemispherical emissivity is given by
E( T )
 (T )
Eb ( T )

E1 Ts  E 2 Ts  E 3 Ts 

  ......  Eb Ts 
1 2 3
1  2  3
   ......  1
1  2  3
Hence, for any surface in the enclosure  = 
Total hemispherical emissivity is equal to total hemispherical absorptivity
The restrictive conditions inherent in this derivation are
• the surface irradiation has been assumed to correspond to emission
from a blackbody at the same temperature as the surface
The derivation can also be repeated for radiation at a specified
wavelength to obtain spectral form of Kirchoff’s law
 (T) =  (T)
This relation is valid when the irradiation or the emitted radiation is
independent of direction. The form of the Kirchoff’s law that involves
no restrictions is the spectral directional form expressed as

 , (T) =  ,  (T)
The emissivity of the surface at a specified wavelength, direction and
temperature is always equal to its absorptivity at the same
wavelength, direction and temperature
It is very tempting to use Kirchoff’s law in radiation analysis since the relation
 =  together with  = 1 -  enables us to determine all three properties of
opaque surface from a knowledge of only one property. Although, this
equation  =  gives acceptable results in most cases, in practice, care should
be exercised when there is considerable difference between the surface
temperature and the temperature of the source of incident radiation.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF KIRCHOFF’S LAW

Gustav Kirchhoff was born in East Prussia, Germany

Kirchhoff formulated his circuit laws, which are now

ubiquitous in electrical engineering, in 1845, while
still a student. He completed this study as a seminar
exercise; it later became his doctoral dissertation.

He proposed his law of thermal radiation 1859, and

gave a proof in 1861.

He was called to the University of Heidelberg in

1854, where he collaborated in spectroscopic work
with Robert Bunsen. Together Kirchhoff and Bunsen
discovered caesium and rubidium in 1861.
 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Visible

1.0

0.8
Greenhouse

 0.6 Solar
radiation
Thickness
0.4 0.038 cm
0.318 cm
0.2 0.635 cm
Infrared
radiation
0.25 0.4 0.6 1.5 3.1 4.7 6.3 7.9
0.7
Wavelength λ, μm
Glass has a transparent window in the wavelength range 0.3 m <  < 3 m
in which over 90% of the solar radiation is emitted
Entire radiation emitted by the surfaces at room temperature falls in the
infrared region (1-1000 m)
Glass allows the solar radiation to enter but does not allow the infrared
radiation from the interior surfaces to escape
 GRAY SURFACE
Gray surface is a surface in which its properties are independent of
wavelength
Diffuse surface is a surface in which its properties are independent of
direction
Emissivity of a gray, diffuse surface is total hemispherical emissivity of
that surface because of the independence of wavelength and direction
Real Surface
   constant
   constant
Diffuse Surface
   constant

Gray Surface

   constant

Diffuse, gray Surface

        constant
 COMMENTARY ON KIRCHOFF’S LAW

Problem of predicting radiant energy exchange between surfaces is

greatly simplified if  =  may be assumed to apply for each surface
Spectral hemispherical emissivity was defined as
2  / 2
    , (  , , ,T ) sin cos  d d
  (  ,T )  0 0
2  / 2
  sin cos  d d
0 0
Spectral hemispherical absorptivity was defined as
2  / 2
    , (  , , ) I  , i (  , , ) sin cos  d d
 (  ) 0 0
2  / 2
  I  , i (  , , ) sin cos  d d
0 0
 Pertinent question is
2  / 2 2  / 2
    , (  , , ,T ) sin cos  d d ??     , (  , , ) I  , i (  , , ) sin cos  d d
  (  ,T )  0 0
2  / 2
  (  )  0 0
2  / 2
  sin cos  d d   I ,i (  , , ) sin cos  d d
0 0 0 0

Since, , = , , it follows by inspection that   =  is applicable if

either of the following conditions are met
1. The irradiation is diffuse (I ,i is independent of  and  )
2. The surface is diffuse ( , = , are independent of  and  )
The first condition is reasonably assumption for many engineering
calculations
The second condition is reasonable for many surfaces, particularly for
electrically non-conducting surfaces
Assuming the existence of either diffuse irradiation or a diffuse
surface, consider what additional conditions must be satisfied for  = 
to be valid.
 
   (  ,T ) E ,b (  ,T ) d ??    (  )G (  )
 (T ) 0  0

Eb ( T )
 G (  )
0
Since,  =  , it follows by inspection that  =  applies if either of the
following conditions are met
1. The irradiation corresponds to emission from a blackbody at the
surface temperature T, in which case G () = Eb, (,T) and G = Eb(T)
2. The surface is gray (  =  are independent of  )
Because the total absorptivity of a surface depends on the spectral
distribution of the irradiation, it cannot be stated unequivocally that  = 
For example, a particular surface may be highly absorbing to radiation
in one spectral region and virtually non-absorbing in another region
Accordingly for two possible irradiation fields G,1 () and G,2 () of Fig
below, the values of  would differ drastically
In contrast, the value of  is independent of the irradiation.
Hence there is no basis for stating that  = 
1
G ,1   
G ,2   

G


1  1 2  0
1  0 2  1

0 1  1 
Spectral absorptivity of a surface Spectral irradiation at the surface
Problem: A diffuse, fire brick wall of temperature 500 K has the spectral emissivity
shown and is exposed to a bed of coals at 2000 K. Determine the total,
hemispherical emissivity and emissive power of the fire brick wall. What is the total
absorptivity of the wall to irradiation resulting from emission by the coals

Known: Brick wall of surface temperature Ts = 500 K and prescribed  () is exposed
to coals at Tc = 2000K

Find:
1. Total hemispherical emissivity of the fire brick wall
2. Total emissive power of the brick wall
3. Absorptivity of the wall to irradiation from the coals
 Ts = 500 K

Tc = 2000 K Brick wall

Coals
Assumptions
1. Brick wall is opaque and diffuse
2. Spectral distribution of irradiation at the brick wall approximates that due to
emission from a blackbody at 2000 K
1 2 
 1  Eb d  2  Eb d  2  Eb d
 T  
1 2
0
 
T 4 T 4 T 4 1T s 1.5m  500K  750m .K : F01.5  0.000
 T    1 F0 T    2 F  T    3 F  T  2T  10m  500K  5000m .K : F010  0.634

 T    1 F0    2 F0   F0    3 1  F0 

1 1 2 2

1 2 1 2

 T   0.10  0.50.634  1.0  0.81  0.631

 T   0.61
2
E Ts   Eb Ts   Ts4  0.61 5.67  108  500  2162 W / m 2
4

E Ts   2162 W / m 2
3. The total absorptivity of the wall to radiation from the coals is

   (  )G (  )
 0

 G (  )
0

Since the surface is diffuse,  () =  (). Moreover, since the spectral distribution
of the irradiation approximates that due to emission from a blackbody at 2000K,
G ()  E,b (,Tc). It follows that

   (  )E ,b (  ,Tc )
 0

 E ,b (  ,Tc )
0
  Tc    1F0    2 F0   F0    3 1  F0
1 2 1 2

1T s 1.5m  2000K  3000m .K : F01.5  0.273
2T  10m  2000K  20000m .K : F010  0.986

  0.10.273  0.50.986  0.273  0.81  0.986

  0.395

Comments: the emissivity depends on the surface temperature Ts, while the
absorptivity depends on the spectral distribution of the irradiation, which depends
on the temperature of the source Tc.

The surface is not gray,   . This results is to be expected. Since emission is

associated with Ts = 500 K, its spectral maximum occurs at max  6 m. In contrast,
since irradiation is associated with emission from a source at Tc = 2000K, its spectral
maximum occurs at max  1.5 m. Even though  =  ,  and  decrease with
increasing Ts and Tc, respectively, and it is only for Ts = Tc that  = .
Problem: A small, solid metallic sphere has an opaque, diffuse coating for which  =
0.8 for   5 m and  = 0.1 for  > 5 m. The sphere, which is initially at a uniform
temperature of 300 K, is inserted into a large furnace whose walls are at 1200 K.
Determine the total, hemispherical absorptivity and emissivity of the coating for the
initial condition and for the final, steady state condition.
Known: small metallic sphere with spectrally selective absorptivity, initially at Ts =
300 K, is inserted into a large furnace at Tf = 1200 K
Find:
1. Total, hemispherical absorptivity and emissivity of sphere coating for the initial
condition
2. values of  and  after sphere has been in furnace a long time

G

 Eb Sphere of mass, M,
area As, temperature
Ts, and specific heat Cp
Assumptions:
1. Coating is opaque and diffuse
2. since furnace surface is much larger than that of sphere, irradiation
approximates emission from a blackbody at Tf
Total hemispherical absorptivity

   (  )G (  )
 0

 G (  )
0

 
G (  )  E ,b T f  E ,b  ,1200K 

   (  )E ,b  ,1200K 
 0
Eb 1200K 
1 

 E ,b  ,1200K  d  E ,b  ,1200K  d
1
    ,1 0
   ,2
Eb 1200K  Eb 1200K 

    ,1 F0     ,2 F  
1 1
 1T f  5m  1200K  6000m .K : F05  0.738

  0.8  0.738  0.11  0.738  0.62

Total hemispherical emissivity

   E ,b (  ,Ts )d
 Ts   0

E ,b ( Ts )
Since the surface is diffuse,   =  
1 

 E ,b  ,300K  d  E ,b  ,300K  d
1
    ,1 0
   ,2
Eb 300K  Eb 300K 

    ,1 F0     ,2 F  
1 1

1Ts  5m  300K  1500m .K : F0 5  0.014

  0.8  0.014  0.11  0.014  0.11

  0.11
Comments
1. The equilibrium condition that eventually exists (Ts = Tf) corresponds precisely to
the condition for which Kirchoff’s law was derived. Hence  = 
2. . Because the spectral characteristics of the coating and the furance temperature
remain fixed, there is no change in the value of  with increasing time.
However, as Ts increases with time, the value of  will change. After a
sufficiently long time, Ts = Tf and  =  ( = 0.62)
RADIATION EXCHANGE BETEWEEN SURFACES

Surface 2

Surface 1
Surface 3

Point
source
• Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orientation of the
surfaces relative to each other as well as their radiation properties and
temperatures.
• This dependence on the orientation is accounted for by the view factor
• By facing the fire from front or back – maximum radiation
• By facing the fire from the side – minimum radiation
 VIEW FACTOR (Shape Factor, Configuration Factor And Angle Factor)
Fij – the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that strikes the
surface j directly
F12 – the fraction of the radiation leaving surface 1 that strikes the
surface 2 directly
F21 – the fraction of the radiation leaving surface 2 that strikes the
surface 1 directly
Geometry for the determination of the view factor n2 dA2
2
A2
n1

r
1 d  21

dA1

A1
 Consider two differential surfaces dA1
n2 dA2
and dA2 on two arbitrarily oriented
2

n1
surfaces A1 and A2
Distance between dA1 and dA2 is r
1 d  21
r Angle between the normals of the
A2

surfaces and the line that connects dA1

dA1
and dA2 are  1 and  2
A1

Surface 1 emits and reflects radiation diffusely in all directions with a

constant intensity of I1
Solid angle subtended by dA2 when viewed by dA1 is d 21
Rate at which the radiation leaves the dA1 in the direction of  1 = I1cos 1dA1
dA cos  2
d 21  2
r2
Portion of the radiation that strikes dA2
 dA2 cos  2
QdA1 dA2  I 1 cos 1dA1d21  I 1 cos 1dA1
r2
The total rate at which radiation leaves dA1 (via emission and
reflection) in all directions is radiosity (which is J1 =  I1) times the
surface area
Q dA1  J1dA1   I1dA1
Differential view factor dFdA1 dA2 which is the fraction of radiation
leaving dA1 that strikes dA2 directly
dA2 cos  2
Q dA1  dA2 I 1 cos  1dA1 r 2 cos  1 cos  2
dFdA1  dA2     dA2
QdA1  I 1 dA1 r 2

The view factor from a differential area dA1 to a finite area A2 can be
determined from the fact that the fraction of radiation leaving dA1
that strikes A2 is the sum of the fractions of radition striking the
differential areas dA2.
Therefore, the view factor FdA1 A2 is determined by integrating
cos  1 cos  2

dFdA1 dA2 over A2
FdA1  A2  dA2
r 2
A2
The total rate at which radiation leaves the entire A1 (via emission and
reflection) in all directions is
Q A1  J 1 A1   I 1 A1
The portion of this radiation that strikes dA2 is determined by
considering the radiation that leaves dA1 and strikes dA2 and
integrating it over A1
I 1 cos  1 cos  2
Q A1  dA2 

A1
Q dA1  dA2 

A1
r2
dA1dA2

Integration of this relation over A2 gives the radiation that strikes the
entire area A2
I 1 cos  1 cos  2
Q A1  A2 

A2
Q A1  dA2 

A1 A2
r2
dA1dA2
 Q A1  A2 cos  1 cos  2

1
F12  FA1  A2    dA1dA2
Q A1 A1 r 2
A1 A2

Q A2  A1 cos  1 cos  2

1
F21  FA2  A1    dA1dA2
Q A2 A2 r 2
A1 A2

These relations confirm that the view factors between two surfaces
depends on their relative orientations and the distance between them
RECIPROCITY RULE A1F12  A2 F21
The view factor relations developed above are applicable to any two
surfaces i and j provided that the surfaces are diffuse emitters and
diffuse reflectors (so that the assumption of constant intensity is valid)
 Outer
sphere

2
1 F11  0 Inner
sphere
a) Plane surface 1

2
In a geometry that consists of two concentric
spheres, the view factor since the entire F1 2  1
F2 2  0 radiation leaving the surface of the smaller
b) Convex surface
sphere will be intercepted by the larger sphere

F3 3  0

c) Concave surface
 View factor expressed for some geometries of finite size (3D)
Geometry Relation

X  X L Y Y L
Aligned parallel rectangles
 
   
12
2 2 
  1 X 1Y 
 
2
12
X 
 In    tan1 12
 
 X 1 Y
 
2 2
j   1 X Y  1Y
2

L    
 
2 
  
12
2 Y
Fi  j   Y 1  X tan1 
 XY 
 
12

2
i 1 X
Y  
X   X tan1 X  Y tan1 Y 
 
 
 

Coaxial parallel disks

rj
j
R j  rj L Ri  ri L
1  R 2j
L S  1
Ri2
  2 1 2
ri
1  rj   
i Fi  j  S  S2  4   
2   ri   
 
Perpendicular rectangles with
HZ X W Y X
common edge
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
j  
Z  
i  
Y X  
 W tan 1 1  H tan 1 1 
 W H 
 
1 
  1 
1 2
Fi  j   H2 W 2 tan 1
W    
1 2
H2 W 2
 
 
  
 1W 2 1 H2  
  
 




1W  H2 2


 
   2 W2  
 1  W 1W  H  
2
 2
 
  In     
 4   1  W 2
1  H 2

   
   

  
H2
  H2 1W 2  H2  
     


  1W
  2
1  H  
2
   

 View factor expression for some infinitely long (2D) geometries
Geometry Relation
Parallel plates with midlines connected wj
wi
by perpendicular line Wi  & Wj 
L L

wi
   
12 12
 W W 2
 4   W j  Wi
2
 4
i
Fi  j   i j
  
2Wi
L

j
wj

Inclined plate of equal width and with a

common edge
j
1
Fi  j  1  sin 
2
i
w
 View factor expression for some infinitely long (2D) geometries
Geometry Relation
Perpendicular plates with common
edge j

  2 1 2
1  wj  wj   
Fi  j  1   1     
2 wi   wi   
  
wj

wi

Three-sided enclosure
wi  w j  wk
Fi  j 
2 wi

wi
View factor expression for some infinitely long (2D) geometries
Geometry Relation
s   D 2 
12

Fi  j  1  1    
  s  
12
1  s  D 
2 2
D
i  tan  2 
s  D 
RECIPROCITY RELATION

Ai Fi  j  Aj F j i
When determining the pair of view factors, easier one is evaluated
first and then the more difficult one by applying the reciprocity
relation
SUMMATION RULE
The conservation of energy principle requires that the entire radiation
leaving any surface i of an enclosure be intercepted by the surfaces of
the enclosure. Therefore, the sum of the view factors from surface i of
an enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must
equal unity. N

F
j 1
i j 1
N - number of the surfaces of an enclosure
3
N  3   Fi  j  F1 1  F1 2  F1 3  1
j 1
Surface i
Radiation leaving any surface I of an
enclosure must be intercepted completely
by the surfaces of the enclosure.
Therefore, the sum of the view factors
from surface I to each one of the surfaces
of the enclosure must be unity.
To calculate radiation exchange in an enclosure of N surfaces, a total of
N2 view factors is needed.
F11 F12 F13 ..... F1 N
F21 F22 F23 ..... F2 N
.
.
FN 1 FN 2 FN 3 ..... FNN

Summation rule applied to each of the N surfaces of an enclosure gives

N relations for the determination of the view factors
Reciprocity rule gives ½ N(N-1) additional relations
The total number of view factors that need to be evaluated directly for
an N surface enclosure becomes
  1
N   N  N  N  1  N  N  1
2 1
 2  2
N = 3 total number of view factors 2 33  1  3
1
Problem: Determine the view factor of two concentric spheres

r1
r2
1
2
Solution: The view factors associated with two concentric spheres are to be
determined.
Assumptions: The surfaces are diffuse emitters and reflectors.
Analysis: The outer surface of the smaller sphere (surface 1) and inner surface of the
larger sphere (surface 2) form a two surface enclosure. Therefore, N = 2 and this
enclosure involves N2 = 22 = 4 view factors, which are F11, F12, F21 and F22. In this two
surface enclosure, we need to determine only

N  N  1  22  1  1
1 1
2 2
view factor directly. The remaining three view factors can be determined by the
application of the summation and reciprocity rules. But it turns out that we can
determine not only one but two view factors directly in this case by a simple
inspection.
F11 = 0, since no radiation leaving surface 1 strikes itself
F12 = 1, since all radiation leaving surface 1 strikes surface 2
Or F11 = 0
F11 + F12 = 1  F12 = 1

The view factor F21 is determined by applying the reciprocity relation

to surfaces 1 and 2
A1F12 = A2F21
2
A1 4r 2
 r1 
F21  F12   1   
1
A2 4r 1
2
 r2 

F21 + F22 = 1
2
 r1 
F22  1   
 r2 
 SUPERPOSITION RULE

3
3 3

2
2 2

1
1 1
F1 2 ,3  F12  F13

Sometimes, the view factor associated with a given geometry is not available in
standard tables and charts. In such cases, it is desirable to express the given
geometry as the sum or difference of some geometries with known view factors
The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of the view factors
from surface i to the parts of surface j
Note that the reverse of this is not true. That is, the view factor from a surface j to a
surface i is not equal to the sum of the view factors from the parts of surface j to
surface i
To obtain a relation F(2-3)1
F12 3   F12  F13

A1 F12 3   A1 F12  A1 F13

By reciprocity rule
A2  A3 F23 1  A2 F21  A3 F31
A2 F21  A3 F31
F2  3 1 
 A2  A3 
F12 3   F12  F13 Is possible

F2 31  F21  F31 Is not possible

The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum of

the view factors from surface i to the parts of surface j
 SYMMETRY RULE

2 3

Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third

surface will have identical view factors from that surface
Fi  j  Fi k
By reciprocity rule F j i  Fk i
Problem: Determine the view factors from the base of the pyramid to each of its four
side surfaces. The base of the pyramid is a square, and its side surfaces are isosceles
triangles.

1
Solution: The view factors from the base of a pyramid to each of its four side
surfaces for the case of a square base are to be determined.
Assumptions: the surfaces are diffuse emitters and reflectors
Analysis: the base of the pyramid (surface 1) and its four side surfaces (surfaces 2, 3,
4 and 5) form a five surface enclosure. The first thing we notice about this enclosure
is its symmetry. The four side surfaces are symmetric about the base surface. Then,
from the symmetry rule, we have

F12  F13  F14  F15

F11  F12  F13  F14  F15  1

F11  0

F12  F13  F14  F15  0.25

Discussion: Note that each of the four side surfaces of the pyramid receive one-
fourth of the entire radiation leaving the base surface, as expected. Also note that
the presence of symmetry greatly simplified the determination of the view factors.
Problem: Determine the view factor from any one side to any other side of the
infinitely long triangular duct whose cross section is given in Fig.
Solution: The view factors associated with an infinitely long triangular duct are to be
determined.
Assumptions: The surfaces are diffuse emitters and reflectors
Analysis: The widths of the sides of the triangular cross section of the duct are L1, L2,
and L3 and the surface areas corresponding to them are A1, A2 and A3 respectively.
Since the duct is infinitely long, the fraction of radiation leaving any surface that
escapes through the ends of the duct is negligible. Therefore, the infinitely long duct
can be considered to be a three surface enclosure, N = 3.
This enclosure involves N2 = 32 = 9 view factors, and we need to determine the view
factors directly.

N  N  1  33  1  3
1 1
2 2
L3 L2

L1
 F11  F22  F33  0

Since all the three surfaces are flat. The remaining six view factors can be
determined by the application of the summation and reciprocity rules.
By applying the summation rule to each of the three surfaces gives

F11  F12  F13  1 A1F12  A1 F13  A1

F21  F22  F23  1  A2 F21  A2 F23  A2
F31  F32  F33  1 A3 F31  A3 F32  A3
By applying the reciprocity rule

A1 F12  A2 F21 A1F12  A1 F13  A1

A1 F13  A3 F31 A1F12  A3 F32  A2
A2 F23  A3 F32 A1 F13  A2 F23  A3
Solving these three algebraic equations
 A1  A2  A3 L1  L2  L3
F12  
2 A1 2 L1
A2  A3  A1 L1  L3  L2
F23  
2 A1 2 L1
A1  A2  A3 L2  L3  L1
F13  
2 A1 2 L1
View factors between infinitely long surfaces: The cross-string method
•Many problems encountered in practice involve geometries of
constant cross section such as channels and ducts that are very long
in one direction relative to the other direction.

•Such geometries can conveniently be considered to be two-

dimensional, since any radiation interaction through their end surfaces
is negligible. These geometries can subsequently be modeled as
being infinitely long, and the view factor between their surfaces can
be determined by the amazingly simple cross-strings method
developed by H.C.Hottel in the 1950s.

•The surfaces of the geometry need not be flat; they can be convex,
concave or any irregular shape
 2

C L2

L5 L6
Fi  j 
 L5  L6    L3  L4 
L4 2L1
L3

L1 B
A

 Crossed strings   Uncrossed strings

Fi  j 
2   String on surface i 
The crossed-strings method is applicable even when the two surfaces
considered share a common edge, as in a triangle. In such cases, the
common edge can be treated as an imaginary string of zero length. The
method can also be applied to surfaces that are partially blocked by
other surfaces by allowing the strings to bend around the blocking
surfaces.
 The crossed strings method for view factors
Problem: Two infinitely long parallel plates of widths a = 12 cm and b = 5 cm are
located a distance c =6 cm apart, as in fig. Determine the view factor F1-2 from
surface 1 to surface 2 by using the crossed strings method. Derive the crossed
strings formula by forming triangles on the given geometry and using earlier
equations for view factors between the sides of triangles.

b = L2 = 5 cm
2
C D

L3 L4

L5
L6
c = 6 cm

A B
1
a = L1 = 12 cm
Solution: The view factors between two infinitely long parallel plates are to be
determined using the crossed string method, and the formula for the view factor is
to be derived.
Assumptions: The surfaces are diffuse emitters and reflectors.
Analysis: a. First we label the endpoints of both surfaces and draw straight dashed
lines between the endpoints as in fig. Then, we identify the crossed and uncrossed
strings and apply the crossed strings method.
 Crossed strings   Uncrossed strings  L5  L6    L3  L4 
F1 2  
2   String on surface 1 2 L1

L1  a  12 cm L4  7 2  6 2  9.22 cm
L2  b  5 cm L5  5 2  6 2  7.81 cm
L3  c  6 cm L6  122  6 2  13.42 cm

F1 2 
7.81  13.42  6  9.22  0.25
2  12
(b) The geometry is infinitely long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the
paper, and thus the two plates (surfaces 1 and 2) and the two openings (imaginary
surfaces 3 and 4) form a four surface enclosure. Then applying the summation rule
to surface 1 yields
F11  F12  F13  F14  1

F11  0 F12  1  F13  F14

Where the view factors F13 and F14 can be determined by considering the triangles
ABC and ABD respectively

L2  L3  L6 L1  L4  L5
F13  ; F14 
2 L1 2 L1
L1  L3  L6 L1  L4  L5
F12  1  
2 L1 2 L1

F12 
 L5  L6    L3  L4 
2L1
 Radiation heat transfer between black surfaces
Two general black surfaces maintained at uniform
temperature T1 and T2
T1 T2
A1 A2 By reciprocity relation,
.
Q 12 2 A1 F1 2  A2 F2 1
1

 Radiation leaving   Radiation leaving 

   
Q 1 2   the entire surface 1    the entire surface 2 
 that strikes surface 2   that strikes surface 1 
   
Q
12 A E F
1 b1 12 A E F2 b 2 2 1
Negative value of Q 1 2 indicates that the net radiation heat transfer
is from surface 2 to 1
Q1  Q1 2  Q 2
 Enclosure with N black surfaces
Consider an enclosure consisting of N black surfaces maintained at
specified temperatures
The net radiation heat transfer from any surface i of this enclosure is
determined by adding up the net radiation heat transfers from surface
i to each of the surfaces of the enclosure

 
N N

Q i  
j 1
Q i  j  
j 1
Ai F i  j Ti 4  T j4

Negative value of heat transfer indicates that the net radiation heat
transfer from surface i (ie., surface i gains radiation energy instead of
losing). Also, the net heat transfer from a surface to itself to zero,
regardless of the shape of the surface.
  Ti  T 
N N

1
Q i   j 1
Q i  j  AF
j 1
i i j
4
j
4

Q 1 
3
 Q1 j 

 T14  T14    T14  T24    T14  T34    T14  T24    T14  T34 
1 1 1 1 1
j 1
A1F 11 A1F 1 2 A1F 1 3 A1F 1 2 A1F 1 3

Q 2 
3
 Q 2 j 

 T24  T14    T24  T34 
1 1
j 1
A2 F 21 A2 F 2 3

Q 3 
3
 Q 3 j 

 T34  T14    T34  T24 
1 1
j 1
A3 F 31 A3 F 3 2
 RADIATION HEAT TRANFER IN A BLACK FURNACE
Problem: Consider the 5 m 5 m 5 m cubical furance shown in figure, whose
surfaces closely approximate black surfaces. The base, top and side surfaces of the
furnace are maintained at uniform temperatures of 800 K, 1500 K, and 500 K,
respectively. Determine (a) the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the base
and the side surfaces, (b) the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the base
and the top surface, (c)the net radiation heat transfer from the base surface.
SOLUTION: The surfaces of a cubical furnace are black and are maintained at uniform
temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the base and side
surfaces, between the base and the top surface, from the base surface are to be
determined.
ASSUMPTIONS: The surfaces are black and isothermal.
2
T2 = 1500 K

3
T3 = 500 K

1 T2 = 800 K
ANALYSIS: (a) considering that the geometry involves six surfaces, we may be
tempted at first to treat the furnace as a six surface enclosure. However, the four
side surfaces possess the same properties, and thus we can treat them as a single
side surface in radiation analysis. We consider the base surface to be surface 1, the
top surface to be surface 2, and the side surfaces to be surface 3.
Then, the problem reduces to determining Q , Q and Q
1 3 1 2 1


Q13  A1 F13 T1  T3
4 4
 
F11  F12  F13  1  0  0.2  F13  1  F13  0.8
F11  0 X Y
X  1;Y   1  F1 2  0.2
L L
F12  0.2
  
    
1

 
  2
1 X 1Y 2  2 1  X  
 ln   X 1  Y 2 2 Tan1   

 
2 2 1 
  1  X  Y   1Y 2 2  
2    
Fi  j   
XY    
 
1  

  Y 1  X 2 2
Tan 1  Y
  X Tan1
 X   Y Tan 1
Y 


 
1 
  1 X2 2  
   

 1   
  1  11  1  2 1   
ln
  111   1 1  1 2 Tan1

1
 
   1
 1  1  
2  2 
F1 2   
   
1
  11  1 2 Tan   
 1Tan 1  1Tan 1
 1 1  1  1
 1  
  1  1  
 2 

F12 
2
0.14384  0.87042  0.87042  0.7853  0.7853


F12  0.2
 
Q 1 3  25m 2   0.8   5.67  10  800
8 4

 5004  394 kW
The net rate of radiation from surface 1 to surface 2 is given by

Q12  A1 F12 T1  T2
4 4
 
   
Q 13  25m 2 0.2 5.67  108 8004  15004  1319kW 
The negative sign indicates that net radiation heat transfer is from surface 2 to
surface 1
The net rate of radiation from surface 1
3
Q 12   Q 1 j  Q 11  Q 12  Q 13
j 1

3
Q 1   Q 1 j  0  ( 1319 )  ( 394 )  925 kW
j 1

The negative sign indicates that net radiation heat transfer is to surface 1. that is,
the base of the furnace is gaining net radiation at a rate of about 925 kW.