‫املتابعة الزمنية لتحول كيميائي يف وسط‬

‫مائي‬
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‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪-‬‬

‫‪1‬‬
𝑁𝐴 = 6,023. 1023 NA ▪ 𝑁
𝑛=
𝑁𝐴
𝑁 ▪
𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 M ▪ 𝑚 𝒏
𝑛=
g 𝑚 ▪ 𝑀 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑉𝑔 ▪ 𝑉𝑔
𝑛=
𝑉𝑀
𝐿/ 𝑉𝑀 ▪
𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑛 ▪ 𝑐= 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝑳 𝒄
𝑉
𝐿 𝑉 ▪
𝑚
g 𝑚 ▪ 𝑐𝑚 = 𝒈/𝑳 𝒕 𝒄𝒎
𝑉
𝐿 𝑉 ▪
𝑚
g 𝑚 ▪ 𝜌= 𝒈/𝒎𝑳 𝝆
𝑉
𝑚𝐿 𝑉 ▪
𝜌𝑒 ▪
𝜌𝑒 = 1 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑙 = 1𝑘𝑔/𝑙 𝜌
𝑑= 𝒅
𝜌 ▪ 𝜌𝑒

𝑐1 ▪
𝑐2 ▪
𝑐1 𝑉1 = 𝑐2 𝑉2
𝑉1 ▪
𝑉2 ▪
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ▪
𝑐1 ▪
𝑐1 𝑉2
𝑐2 ▪ 𝐹= = 𝑭
𝑐2 𝑉1
𝑉1 ▪
𝑉2 ▪
𝑃 ▪
𝑑 ▪ 10 . 𝑃. 𝑑
𝐶=
𝑀
𝑀 ▪

𝑚
𝑚 ▪ 𝑃= × 100
𝑚′
𝑚′ ▪
𝑆
𝐾=𝐿 ▪
𝐼
𝐴 𝐼 ▪ 𝐺= = 𝐾𝜎 𝑺 𝑮
𝑈
𝑉 𝑈 ▪
𝜎 ▪
𝜆1 ▪ 𝜎 = 𝜆1 [𝑋1 ] + 𝜆2 [𝑋2 ]+.. 𝑺⁄𝒎 𝝈
𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3 [𝑋] ▪

2
 -1
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-3
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0 -
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3
 t12 -4
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-5

𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= ×
𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑐 1 𝑑𝑛
𝑣= 𝑣= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑛
𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑐 1 𝑑𝑛
𝑣=− 𝑣=− ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑑𝑡

-6
-
-
-1
-2
-3
-4

-
-
-
•

4
 2011 1
(2𝐾 + + 𝑆2 𝑂82− ) 𝑉1 = 200𝑚𝑙 𝑡=0
(𝐾 + + 𝐼 − ) 𝑉2 = 200𝑚𝑙 𝐶1 = 0.04 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙
𝐶2 = 0.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙
( 𝐼2 ⁄𝐼− ) ( 𝑆2 𝑂82− ⁄𝑆𝑂4 2− ) 𝑂𝑥 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑑 .1
-
-
𝐼2 .2

[𝐼2 ] = 𝑓(𝑡 )
-
𝑡 = 1.6𝑚𝑖𝑛 -
-3

𝑉 = 10𝑚𝑙
𝐶′ = 0.01 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 (2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑆2 𝑂32− )

𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑆2 𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆4 𝑂62− (𝑎𝑞)

10𝑚𝑙 -
-
𝐸 𝑉𝐸 𝑉, 𝐶′, 𝑉𝐸 [𝐼2 ] -
𝑡 = 1.2𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐸 -
2008 2
(2𝐾 + + 𝑆2 𝑂82− ) (𝑆1 )
𝑉1 = 50𝑚𝑙 𝑡=0 (𝐾 + + 𝐼 − ) (𝑆2 )
(𝑆2 ) 𝑉2 = 50𝑚𝑙 𝐶1 = 0.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 (𝑆1 )
𝑆2 𝑂82− 𝐶2 = 1.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙

2𝐼− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆2 𝑂82− (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑆𝑂4 2− (𝑎𝑞)

𝑂𝑥 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑑 .1
.2
.3
𝑡1 .4
2

5
 𝑡1 .5
2

𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 .6
2015 3
( 𝐾 + + 𝑀𝑛𝑂4− ) 𝑉1 = 50𝑚𝑙 𝑡=0
𝑐2 = 0.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿 𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 𝑉2 = 50𝑚𝑙 𝑐1 = 0.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿
(𝐶𝑂2 / 𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 ) , (𝑀𝑛𝑂4− / 𝑀𝑛+2 )
-1
-2
-3
-4
𝑀𝑛𝑂4− -5

𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
[𝑀𝑛𝑂4− ](× 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐿−1 ) 100 98 92 60 30 12 5 3
𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 𝑀𝑛𝑂4− -
𝑐1
[𝑀𝑛+2 ](𝑡 ) = − [𝑀𝑛𝑂4− ](𝑡) 𝑡 [𝑀𝑛+2 ] -
2
[𝑀𝑛𝑂4− ] -
𝑡 = 2𝑚𝑖𝑛 [𝑀𝑛𝑂4− ] -

2013 4
𝑡=0 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− 𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4
𝑉2 = 50𝑚𝑙 𝑐1 = 12 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 𝑉1 = 50𝑚𝑙
𝑐2 = 16 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 (2𝐾 + + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− )

3𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− (𝑎𝑞) + 8 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐶𝑟 3+ (𝑎𝑞) + 6𝐶𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) + 7𝐻2 O(𝑙)
𝑂𝑥 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑑 -1

-2

-
-
1 𝑑[𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 ]
𝑣=− ×
3 𝑑𝑡
-
𝑡 = 12𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 4𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑂2 -3
-4

6
 5
𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− 𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂(𝑙)
ρ = 0.8𝑔/𝑚𝑙 𝑉1 = 3,4𝑚𝑙 𝑡=0
(2𝐾 + + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− ) 𝑉2 = 100𝑚𝑙 𝑀 = 46𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶2 = 0,2𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙
[𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 2− ]
𝑉𝑇 ≈ 100𝑚𝑙
(𝐶2 𝐻4 𝑂2⁄𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂) (𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 2−⁄𝐶𝑟 3+ ) -1
-2
-
-3
3
𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 2− 𝑣 4
𝑡 = 15𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑟 3+ -4
𝑣𝐶𝑟 3+ = 2 × 𝑉𝑇 × 𝑣
𝑡 = 45𝑚𝑖𝑛 -5
2013 6

-
-
-
𝐶𝑙2
(𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐻𝑂− )
𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) + 2𝐻𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐶𝑙𝑂 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
2𝐶𝑙𝑂 − (𝑎𝑞) = 2 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) -
-
− − +
𝐶𝑙𝑂 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻3 𝑂 (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
-
𝐶𝑙𝑂 − -

𝑡 = 8𝑠 𝐶𝑙𝑂 − -
θ = 30℃ ; 𝜃 = 40℃
-
1 𝑑[𝐶𝑙𝑂 − ]
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑙 = − ×
2 𝑑𝑡

7
 θ = 30℃ ; 𝜃 = 40℃ 𝑡=0 -
-
-
-
7
(𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑙 − )
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)
𝑉 = 40 𝑚𝑙 𝑚 = 1𝑔 𝑡=0
𝐶 = 0.05𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙

𝑉𝐻2
𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 1 2 3 4 5
𝑉𝐻2 (𝑚𝑙) 0 6.3 9.9 12 13.5 14.2
-1
-2
-3
2×𝑉𝐻2
[𝐻 + ] = 𝐶 − [𝐻 + ] -4
𝑉×𝑉𝑀
𝐻+ [𝐻 + ] = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) -5
𝑡 = 5𝑚𝑖𝑛 -6
𝑡 = 4𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡=0 𝐻+ -7
-
-8
𝑀 (𝑍𝑛) = 65.4 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑉𝑀 = 25 𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙
2008 8
𝜃 = 12℃ 𝐻2 𝑂2
2𝐻2 𝑂2 = 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2
𝑉𝑀 = 24𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙
[𝐻2 𝑂2 ]0 = 0.08 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙 𝑉𝑆 = 500𝑚𝑙 𝑡=0
𝑂2

𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
𝑉𝑂2 (𝑚𝑙) 0 60 114 162 204 234 253 276 288 294 300
[𝐻2 𝑂2 ](𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙)

-1

8
 𝑉𝑀 𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑂2 [𝐻2 𝑂2 ]0 𝑡 [𝐻2 𝑂2 ] -2
-3
[𝐻2 𝑂2 ] = 𝑓 (𝑡 )

𝑡 = 24𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 16𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡1
2
[𝐻2 𝑂2 ] 𝜃` = 35℃ -4

2015 9
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) (𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − )
𝑉 = 100𝑚𝐿 𝑚 = 0.654𝑔 𝑡=0
𝐶 = 0.01𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙
𝑃 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 𝜃 = 20° 𝐶
𝑍𝑛2+ ⁄𝑍𝑛 𝐻3 𝑂+ ⁄𝐻2 -
-
-
-
-
𝑃 𝑑𝑉𝐻2
𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑙 = ×
𝑉𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑡

𝑡=0 -
𝐻3 𝑂 + -
-
𝑀(𝑍𝑛) = 65.4 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑅 = 8,314 (𝑆𝐼) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
2016 10
(𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − )
𝑉= 𝑚 = 0.81𝑔 𝑡=0 𝐴𝑙3+
𝑐 = 0.18 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 60𝑚𝐿

𝑉𝐻2 = 𝑓(𝑡 )

2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 6𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐴𝑙3+ (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔) + 6𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

(𝑂𝑥 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑑 ) -1

9
 -2
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑥 (𝑡 ) -3
𝑉𝐻2 (𝑡 )

𝑉𝑓 (𝐻2 )
𝑡1⁄2
𝑉𝑓 (𝐻2 )
𝑡1⁄2 𝑉𝐻2 (𝑡1⁄2 ) =
2
1 𝑑𝑉𝐻2 (𝑡)
𝑣= × 𝑡 -4
3𝑉𝑀 𝑑𝑡

𝑡 = 300𝑠
𝑉𝑀 = 24𝐿. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 𝑀 (𝐴𝑙) = 27𝑔. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
11
20𝐿 𝑉 = 1𝐿 20𝑉 •
𝑉𝑀 = 22.4 𝐿⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
2𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑂2 (𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
2𝑉𝑂2
𝑐1 = -
𝑉×𝑉𝑀

𝑉2 = 200𝑚𝐿 𝐻2 𝑂2 𝑉1 = 2𝑚𝐿 •
𝑉𝑇 = 200𝑚𝐿 𝑐2 (𝐾 + + 𝐼 − )
-
(𝐻2 𝑂⁄𝐻2 𝑂2 ) (𝐼2 ⁄𝐼− )
-
-

𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 -
𝑐2
-
𝐼− 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑖𝑛
2011 12
𝑡=0 𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72−
𝑉2 = 𝑐1 = 0.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 (2𝐾 + + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− ) 𝑉1 = 40𝑚𝑙
𝑐2 60𝑚𝑙

10
 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− /𝐶𝑟 3+ 𝐶𝑂2 /𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 .
-
-
𝐶𝑟 3+ .
𝑡 = 20𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑟 3+ -
𝑥𝑓 -
𝑡1
2

.
𝑐2

2016 13
𝑚 = 3.175𝑔 𝑡=0
𝐶0 (𝐴𝑔+ + 𝑁𝑂3 − ) 𝑉 = 200𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝐴𝑔 = 𝑓(𝑡 )
𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 2𝐴𝑔+ (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐶𝑢2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐴𝑔(𝑠)
-
(𝑂𝑥 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑑 ) -
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 -
𝐶0 -
-
𝑡1⁄2 -
-
1 𝑑𝑚𝐴𝑔 (𝑡)
𝑀𝐴𝑔 𝑣𝐴𝑔 (𝑡) = ×
𝑀𝐴𝑔 𝑑𝑡

𝑡=0
𝑀𝐶𝑢 = 63.5 𝑔. 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝑀𝐴𝑔 = 108 𝑔. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
14
(2𝐾 + + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− ) 𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞)
𝑐1 𝑉1 = 100𝑚𝑙
𝑐2 𝑉2 = 100𝑚𝑙
𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) 𝑉0 = 20𝑚𝑙

-
20𝑚𝑙 -

11
 𝐶𝑂2 / 𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 2− /𝐶𝑟 3+ -
-
𝑛0 (𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 ) -
-
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
𝑐2 .
𝑐1 .
𝑛0 +𝑛𝑓
𝑛1⁄ = 𝑡 = 𝑡1⁄ -
2 2 2
𝑛0 𝑛𝑓
𝑡1⁄
2
𝑡 = 5𝑠 𝑣 -

2016 15
(𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − ) 𝐴𝑙
2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 6𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐴𝑙3+ (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔) + 6𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
𝑉 = 100𝑚𝐿 𝑡=0 𝑚0 𝐴𝑙
𝐶
𝑡
𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
𝑚 (𝑔 ) 4.05 2.84 2.27 1.94 1.78 1.70 1.64 1.62 1.62
𝑚 (𝑡 ) -
1𝑐𝑚 → 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ; 1𝑐𝑚 → 0.5𝑔

-
𝐶 𝑛0 (𝐻3 𝑂+ ) 𝑛0 (𝐴𝑙)
𝑚0 +𝑚𝑓
𝑚𝑓 𝑚1⁄2 = 𝑡 = 𝑡1⁄2 -
2

𝑡1⁄2
1 𝑑𝑚
𝑡 = 3𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑉 = − × -
2.𝑉.𝑀 𝑑𝑡

𝑀 = 27 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
2014 16
𝑐0 = 2 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) 𝑉0 = 250𝑚𝑙
𝑚 = 0.5𝑔 𝑍𝑛(𝑠)
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼− (𝑎𝑞)
𝜎

12
𝑡(× 102 𝑠) 0 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
𝜎 (𝑆 ⁄𝑚 ) 0 0.18 0.26 0.38 0.45 0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.52
𝑥 (𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙)
-1
-2
-3
𝑥 𝜎 -4
𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 )
-5
𝑡2 = 1000𝑠 𝑡1 = 400𝑠

𝜆𝐼− = 7.7 𝑚𝑆 . 𝑚2 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝜆𝑍𝑛2+ = 10.56 𝑚𝑆 . 𝑚2 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀(𝑍𝑛) = 65.4 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

2015 17
(2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑆2 𝑂3 2− )
𝑉1 = 480𝑚𝐿 𝑡=0 (𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − )
𝑐2 = 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿 𝑉2 = 20𝑚𝐿 𝑐1 = 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿
𝑆2 𝑂3 2− (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑆(𝑆) + 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
-1
-2
-3

𝜎 = 𝑓 (𝑡 )
-
𝑡 -4
𝜎 = 20.6 − 170𝑥
-
-
1 𝑑𝜎
𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑙 = − ×
170𝑉 𝑑𝑡

𝑡=0 -
𝑡1 -
2

18
𝑉0 = 100𝑚𝑙
0.089𝑔 𝐶0 = 0.01 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 (𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑂𝐻 − )

13
 𝑉0 = 100𝑚𝑙 𝑀 = 88.11 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶4 𝐻8 𝑂2
𝐶4 𝐻8 𝑂2 + 𝑂𝐻 − = 𝐶2 𝐻3 𝑂2 − + 𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂
30℃

𝑡(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 5 9 13 20 27
𝜎 (𝑆 ⁄𝑚 ) 0.250 0.210 0.192 0.178 0.160 0.148
𝑥 (𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙)
-1
𝜆𝐶2 𝐻3 𝑂2 − = 4.1𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 , 𝜆𝑁𝑎+ = 5𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 , 𝜆𝑂𝐻 − = 20𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
-2
-3
𝜎0 −𝜎
t=0 σ0 𝑥 = 𝐶0 𝑉0 × 𝑥 -4
𝜎0 −𝜎𝑓

𝜎𝑓 = 0.091 𝑆⁄𝑚
𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑡 )

𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 5𝑚𝑖𝑛
-
𝑡 = 20𝑚𝑖𝑛 -5
100𝑚𝑙 -6

40℃
40℃
-
2014 19
H2 O2

2𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)

𝑡=0 𝑉0 = 10𝑚𝑙
𝑡
(2𝐾 + + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− ) (2𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝑆𝑂4 − )

14
 𝑉𝐸 𝑐 = 0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙

-
3𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂72− (𝑞𝑎) + 8 𝐻3 𝑂 +
(𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐶𝑟 3+
(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) + 15𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
-
-
𝑉𝐸 -
𝑉0 𝑉𝐸 𝑐 [𝐻2 𝑂2 ] -
1𝑙 10𝑉 -
𝑂2 10𝑙
-
-
𝑡1⁄ -
2
𝑉𝐸 𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) -
-
𝑡2 = 600𝑠 𝑡1 = 200𝑠
𝑉𝑀 = 22.4 𝐿⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
2011 20

2𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)

.
1𝑙 10𝑉 𝑆0 500𝑚𝑙 •
𝑉𝑀 = 22.4 𝑙 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 10𝑙
250𝑚𝑙 200𝑚𝑙 100𝑚𝑙 50𝑚𝑙 •
50𝑚𝑙
250𝑚𝑙 10𝑚𝑙 5𝑚𝑙 1𝑚𝑙
𝐶′ = 2 × 10−3 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙 •
98% •
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 )
𝑆0 200𝑚𝑙 𝑆
𝑆 .
.
𝑆 𝑆0 .

15
 ‫𝑆‬

‫‪.‬‬
‫𝑙𝑚‪10‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬

‫•‬
‫‪.‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫𝑆‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫‪𝑆0‬‬

‫‪2014‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬
‫𝑞𝑎) ‪(𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 −‬‬ ‫)𝑠( ‪𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3‬‬
‫)𝑙(𝑂 ‪𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2‬‬
‫‪2g‬‬ ‫‪c‬‬ ‫𝑉‬
‫‪𝑉𝐶𝑂2‬‬

‫شكل‪2-‬‬ ‫شكل‪1-‬‬

‫‪-‬‬
‫‪2𝑉𝐶𝑂2‬‬
‫𝑀𝑉‬ ‫‪[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 𝑐 −‬‬ ‫)𝑞𝑎( ‪𝐻3 𝑂+‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫𝑀𝑉×𝑉‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪V‬‬ ‫‪c‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪16‬‬
 -
[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) -
-
𝑡 = 80𝑠 -
-
𝑉𝑀 = 24 𝑙 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝐶𝑎 = 40 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑜 = 16 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝐶 = 12 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

(𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑂𝐻 − ) 𝐶𝑙2
𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) + 2𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐶𝑙𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
(°𝐶ℎ𝑙) -
°𝐶ℎ𝑙 = 𝐶0 . 𝑉𝑀
𝐶0 𝑉𝑀 = 22.4𝐿. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
𝐶0 𝐶𝑙𝑂− 20℃ (𝐴 ) -
(𝐾 + + 𝐼 − ) 𝑉1 = 2𝑚𝐿 𝐶1
I2
𝐶𝑙𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
𝑆2 𝑂3 2− (2Na+ + S2 O3 2− )
𝑉𝐸 = 20𝑚𝑙 𝐶2 = 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙
(𝑆4 𝑂6 2− ⁄𝑆2 𝑂3 2− ) (𝐼2 ⁄𝐼− ) (𝑂𝑥 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑑 )
-
𝐶2 ×𝑉𝐸
°𝐶ℎ𝑙 C0 𝑐1 𝐶1 = -
2𝑉1

2𝐶𝑙𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) -

𝐶𝑙𝑂−
40℃ 20℃ (A)
𝑡=0
-
(𝐴 ) 𝐶𝑙𝑂−
𝐶𝑙𝑂− -
𝑡 = 50𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑟
-

17
 23
25℃ (𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − ) 𝑍𝑛
𝐶0 = 0.4𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙 𝑉0 = 75𝑚𝑙 𝑚 = 0.5𝑔

-
𝑍𝑛2+ ⁄𝑍𝑛 𝐻3 𝑂+ ⁄𝐻2 -
-
-
(𝑃−𝑃0 )𝑉
𝑃0 𝑥= -
𝑅𝑇

𝑉 = 250𝑚𝑙
𝑃𝑓 +𝑃0
𝑃𝑓 𝑡1⁄ 𝑃= 𝑡 = 𝑡1⁄ -
2 2 2

𝑡=0 -
𝐻3 𝑂+
𝑀(𝑍𝑛) = 65.4 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 , 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 , 𝑅 = 8,314 (𝑆𝐼),

𝐻𝑁𝑂3

𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

𝑐 𝑉 = 75𝑚𝐿 650𝑚𝑔
3
-1
[𝑍𝑛2+ ]
4 𝑦 = [𝐻 +
3𝑂 ]

𝑥 𝑉 𝑐 𝑦 -
-
𝑡1/2 𝑐
-
𝑐𝑉 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑡1/2 𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 2 ×
(1+2𝑦(𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑦= -
2

-2
𝑀(𝑍𝑛) = 65𝑔. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1

18
 1
𝐻2 𝑂2
10𝑙 1𝑙 (10𝑉 )
𝑉𝑀 = 22.4 𝑙 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 O2
2𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) -

𝑛(𝐻2 𝑂2 ) = 0.89𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑛𝑂2 𝑡=0 -
𝑛(𝐻2 𝑂2 )

𝑂2 𝐻2 𝑂2 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 -
𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 -
-
-
𝑡= 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 -
10𝑚𝑖𝑛
-
-
-

2
𝐶𝑂2 𝐶4 𝐻4 𝑂6 2− 𝐻2 𝑂2

𝑉2 = 50𝑚𝐿 𝐶1 𝐻2 𝑂2 𝑉1 = 50𝑚𝐿
𝐶2 𝐾𝑁𝑎𝐶4 𝐻4 𝑂6
𝐶𝑂2

19
 𝑃 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 , 𝜃 = 20℃
(𝐶𝑂2 ⁄𝐶4 𝐻4 𝑂6 2− ) (𝐻2 𝑂2 ⁄𝐻2 𝑂) -1

-2
-3
𝑡 = 60𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 20𝑚𝑖𝑛 -
-
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 -
𝐶2 𝐶1 -

-4

-
-
𝑅 = 8.314𝑆𝐼 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

𝑉1 = 50𝑚𝑙 𝐼− 𝐶𝑙𝑂 −
𝑉2 = 50𝑚𝑙 𝐶1 𝐶𝑙𝑂 −
𝐶2 𝐾𝐼

𝐶𝑙𝑂 − (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼− (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

-1
-2
𝑉 = 5𝑚𝑙 -3
(2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑆2 𝑂32− )
𝐶′ = 0.01 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙
𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑆2 𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆4 𝑂62− (𝑎𝑞)
)
)
𝐸 (2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑆2 𝑂32− ) 𝑉𝐸 𝑉, 𝐶′, 𝑉𝐸 [𝐼2 ] )
𝐶 ′ ×𝑉𝐸
[𝐼 − ]0 [𝐼− ](𝑡 ) = [𝐼− ]0 − 𝐼− )
𝑉

[𝐼 − ] 3 -4
20
 𝐶1 𝑥𝑓 𝐶2
𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐸
[𝐼 − ]0 +[𝐼 − ]𝑓
[𝐼− ](𝑡1⁄2 ) =
2
[𝐼 −] [𝐼 − ]0
𝑓

𝑡1⁄2 -
𝐼− -5
𝑡 = 5𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑙 −

𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛 -6
4

𝐶1 = 0.04𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 𝐻2 𝑂2 𝑉1 = 50𝑚𝐿 .I
𝑉2 = 150𝑚𝐿 (𝐾 + + 𝐼 − ) 𝑡=0
(𝑆0 ) 𝐶2 = 0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
-
(𝐻2 𝑂2 ⁄𝐻2 𝑂) (𝐼2 ⁄𝐼− )
-
(𝑆0 ) [𝐻2 𝑂2 ]0 -
𝑉 = 20𝑚𝑙 (𝑆0 ) .II
𝑡 = 4𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶0 = 0.01 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿 (2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑆2 𝑂3 2− ) 𝐼2
𝑉𝐸

𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
𝑉𝐸 (𝑚𝐿) 0.0 7.2 13.2 18.0 22.0 25.3 27.9 30.1 31.9
[𝐻2 𝑂2 ](𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿)

𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑆2 𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆4 𝑂62− (𝑎𝑞)

-1
-2
(𝑆0 ) -3
21
 𝐶0 𝑉𝐸
[𝐻2 𝑂2 ] = [𝐻2 𝑂2 ]0 −
2𝑉
[𝐻2 𝑂2 ] = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) -4
-5
𝑡 = 15𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 9𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐻2 𝑂2 -6
-
(𝑆0 ) 200𝑚𝐿 -7
-
5
𝑆2 𝑂8 2− 𝐼−
2𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆2 𝑂8 2− (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑆𝑂4 2− (𝑎𝑞)
250𝑚𝐿 𝑐1 𝑉1 = 20𝑚𝐿 𝑡=0
20 𝑐2 = 0.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿 𝑉2 = 80𝑚𝐿
150𝑚𝐿 5𝑚𝐿
𝐼2
𝑐0 = 0.025 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿 (2𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆2 𝑂3 2− (𝑎𝑞) )
𝑉𝐸
-

-
𝐼2 ⁄𝐼− 𝑆4 𝑂62− ⁄𝑆2 𝑂3 2−

𝑥 = 10𝑐0 𝑉𝐸 𝑥 -
𝑆2 𝑂8 2− 𝑐1 -
𝑉 𝑉𝐸 𝑐0 -
𝑡 = 40 𝑡 = 20
-

𝑉1 = 400𝑚𝑙 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) 𝑍𝑛(𝑠)

𝑚 = 3.27𝑔 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) 𝐶1 = 0.2𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞)

22
 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼 − (𝑎𝑞)
𝜃 = 25℃
𝑡 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 1 2 3 6 9 12 15 18
[𝐼2 ](𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿) 200 164.5 139.1 120.9 91.9 81.2 77.2 75 75
[𝐼− ](𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿)
(𝑂𝑥 ⁄𝑅𝑒𝑑 ) -1
-2
-3
[𝐼− ] = 2(𝐶1 − [𝐼2 ]) -4
[𝐼2 ] = 𝑔(𝑡 ) [𝐼 − ] = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) -5
𝑥𝑓 -6
𝑡1/2 -7
𝑡 = 6𝑚𝑖𝑛 [𝐼 − ] = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) -8
[𝐼2 ] = 𝑔(𝑡 ) 𝐼2
𝜃 = 40℃ -9
𝑀(𝑍𝑛) = 65.4 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
7
(𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − )𝑎𝑞 CaCO3 (s)
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 𝐶𝑎2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

c0 = 0.1 mol⁄L •
•
200𝑚𝑙 150𝑚𝑙 100𝑚𝑙 •
20𝑚𝑙 10𝑚𝑙 5𝑚𝑙 -
𝑉 = 200𝑚𝐿 𝑐 = 10 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝐿
-
0.4g -
-
-
σ -
𝑡=0 𝜎0 -
𝑠 ⁄𝑚 σ 𝜎 = 0.425 − 290𝑥 t -
-
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ] [𝐶𝑎2+ ] -
-

23
 𝑡=0 -
-
𝑥 -
𝐶𝑉
𝑥=
3
CaCO3 -
-
-
𝐶′1 = 5𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
𝑥𝑓 -

𝑡=0 -
𝐶 = 12 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 , 𝑂 = 16 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 , 𝐶𝑎 = 40𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙,
𝜆(𝐶𝑙 ) = 7,5 𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 , 𝜆( 𝐶𝑎2+ ) = 12 𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 ,
−
𝜆(𝐻3 𝑂+ ) = 35𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑀𝑔 (𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − )
𝑉= 𝑚0 = 2.4𝑔 𝑡=0 𝑀𝑔2+
𝐶 200𝑚𝐿

𝑡(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
𝑃 × 105 (𝑃𝑎) 0.0 3.50 5.40 6.30 6.80 7.00 7.20 7.26 7.30 7.30
𝑚 (𝑔 )
-1
(𝐻3 𝑂+ ⁄𝐻2 ) (𝑀𝑔2+ ⁄𝑀𝑔) -2
-3
𝑀𝑃𝑉𝑔
𝑀 𝑚 (𝑡 ) = 𝑚 0 − -4
𝑅𝑇

𝑉𝑔 = 250𝑚𝑙
𝑚 = 𝑓 (𝑡 ) -5
𝐶 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 -6
-7
𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 4𝑚𝑖𝑛 -
-
𝑡1⁄2 -8
-9

24
 -10
-
𝐵 𝐴 𝜎 = 𝐴 − 𝐵𝑥 -

.𝑃 = 2.5 × 105 𝑃𝑎 -
𝑅 = 8.31 𝑆𝐼 𝜃 = 25℃ 𝑀(𝑀𝑔) = 24.3𝑔. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
𝜆(𝐶𝑙 − ) = 7,5 𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 , 𝜆( 𝑀𝑔2+ ) = 11 𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 ,
𝜆(𝐻3 𝑂+ ) = 35𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑡=0 25℃ (𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − )

𝑉 = 180𝑚𝐿 𝑚 = 0.4𝑔
𝐶 = 0.018 𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑙

2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 6𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 2𝐴𝑙3+ (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔) + 6𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

-5
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 -6
𝜎 𝑘 𝐺 = 𝑘𝜎 -7
𝑘 𝜆𝐶𝑙 − 𝜆𝐻3 𝑂+ 𝑘 𝐺0 -
-
𝑘𝑥
𝜆𝐴𝑙3+ 𝐺 = 𝐺0 − (6𝜆𝐻3𝑂+ − 2𝜆𝐴𝑙3+ )
𝑉
𝐺0 −𝐺
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 × -
𝐺0 −𝐺𝑓

𝑡1⁄2 -8
𝐺0 +𝐺𝑓
𝑡1⁄2 𝐺(𝑡1⁄2 ) =
2

𝑡 -9
𝐶 𝑑𝐺(𝑡)
𝑣=− ×
6(𝐺0 −𝐺𝑓 ) 𝑑𝑡

𝑡 = 3𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜆(𝐶𝑙 − ) = 7,5 𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝜆(𝐻3 𝑂+ ) = 35𝑚𝑆. 𝑚2 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀(𝐴𝑙) = 27𝑔. 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝑡=0 𝐵𝑟 − 𝐵𝑟𝑂3 −
𝑉2 = 100𝑚𝑙 𝑐1 (𝐾 + + 𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − ) 𝑉1 = 100𝑚𝑙
𝑐2 (𝐾 + + 𝐵𝑟 − )
(𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − /𝐵𝑟2 ) (𝐵𝑟2 /𝐵𝑟 − )

25
 𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − + 5𝐵𝑟 − + 6𝐻 + = 3𝐵𝑟2 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 -

𝐵𝑟 − 𝐵𝑟𝑂3 −
5 1
𝑛𝐵𝑟 − = 𝑐2 𝑉2 − 𝑛𝐵𝑟2 𝑛𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − = 𝑐1 𝑉1 − 𝑛𝐵𝑟2
3 3
2 1 -2

𝑛𝐵𝑟 − 𝑛𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − 1 -
-
-
𝑐2 𝑐1 -
-
[𝐵𝑟𝑂3 − ] = [𝐵𝑟 − ] -
-
𝑐2
𝑐3 = (𝐾 + + 𝐵𝑟 − ) -
2

-
𝑡1/2 -
-
𝑛𝐵𝑟2 -

𝐶0 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) 𝑉0 = 100𝑚𝑙
𝑚 = 1𝑔 𝑍𝑛(𝑠)
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐼− (𝑎𝑞)
𝜃 = 25℃
𝑦 = [𝐼− ] + [𝑍𝑛2+ ] 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑡 )
-1

26
 -2
-3
-4
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 -
-
𝐶0 -
𝑦𝑓
𝑡1/2 𝑦(𝑡1/2 ) = -5
2
𝑉0 𝑑𝑦
𝑡2 = 12𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡1 = 4𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣= × -6
3 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑣′ = ×𝑣 𝐼− 𝑣′
𝑉0
𝐶0 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞) -7

100𝑚𝑙 100𝑚𝑙 100𝑚𝑙 𝐼2 (𝑎𝑞)

0𝑚𝑙 100𝑚𝑙 100𝑚𝑙
1𝑔 1𝑔 1𝑔 𝑍𝑛(𝑠)
𝜃 = 40℃ 𝜃 = 40℃ 𝜃 = 25℃
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 -
𝑦𝑓 -
-
-
-

𝑀(𝑍𝑛) = 65.4 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐻3 𝑂+ 𝑆2 𝑂3 2−
𝑐1 = 0.04𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 (2𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑆2 𝑂3 2− ) 𝑉1 = 100𝑚𝑙 𝑡=0
𝑐2 (𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑙 − ) 𝑉2 = 100𝑚𝑙

𝑆2 𝑂3 2− (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) = 𝑆(𝑆) + 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

(𝑜𝑥/𝑅𝑒𝑑 ) -1
-2
𝑦 -3
𝑦 = [𝑆2 𝑂3 2− ] + [𝐻3 𝑂+ ]
-

27
 𝑥 𝑉𝑇 𝑐2 𝑐1 𝑦 -
𝑥𝑓 𝑐2 -
𝑦0 +𝑦𝑓
𝑡1⁄2 𝑦(𝑡1⁄2 ) = 𝑦(𝑡1⁄2 ) -4
2
-5
1 𝑑𝑦
𝑣=− ×
3 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 = 20𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 10𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑆
𝑡 = 4𝑚𝑖𝑛 -6

28