Linear Displacement

Is defined as specified distance in a specified

Transducers and

direction
 It is measured in length units such as meters,
Measurement systems 
kilometers etc.
Symbol is s
By: Yidnekachew Messele

1 2

Measuring Linear Displacement Linear Displacement - Resistive Methods

 Very small displacements:
 Strain Gauges  Resistance is defined by the
 Capacitive
p Sensors following equation
 Inductive Sensors (LVDT) l
R 
 Medium displacements A
 Slide Wire / Film  Therefore if the length, thickness
 Wire wound potentiometer or resistivity of an object
 Large Displacements (above range of most ‘pure’ linear changes with respect to
transducers)
d ) di l
displacement t we can use the th
 Convert linear to angular motion and measure the angular motion with resistance as a way to measure it
an angular displacement transducer
 Measure velocity and integrate signal to obtain displacement

3 4

1
Linear Displacement - Resistive Methods
(Slide Wire/Film)
 This is the simplest way of measuring displacement between a
movingg and a stationaryy object
j
 A piece of wire or film is connected to a stationary object
 A slide, which makes contact with the wire, is attached to the
moving object
 This acts as a very basic potentiometer

5 6

Slide Wire Linear Displacement - Resistive Methods (Wire

 Range Wound Potentiometer)
 ± 1 – 300mm
 Wire Wound potentiometers
 Advantages use the same principle as
 Simple slide wire sensors except
 Good Resolution that they use a coil of
 Low Cost insulated resistance
 Disadvantages  The slider runs on one
 Wire does not have high resistance, film is better (±200 to 500Ω/cm) surface of the coil that is not
 Wear insulated
 Frictional Loading
 Inertial Loading

7 8

2
 Potentiometer
Linear potentiometer is a device in which the resistance varies as
a function of the position of a slider.

x
Rp V=0 to Vex
Rx  Rp
x max
xmax
x
V  Rx
Rp V ex
Rx
Vex V
x  Rx
Rp x max
x  V
V ex x max

X can also be the degrees of turns.

9 10

Potentiometers Linear Displacement - Resistive Methods (Strain

 Resolution Gauges)
 ± 1mm – 4m  Attach the strain gauge to the object
 Advantages  When
h theh object
bj is i in
i tension
i or compressedd iti will
ill result
l in
i a
 Simple
 Robust change in the resistance of the strain gauge
 Disadvantages  This is used to measure the change in length of the object
 Resolution dependant on wire diameter
 Continuous use over portion of the wire will cause wear
 F i ti l Loading
Frictional L di
 Inertial Loading

11 12

3
Strain Gauges Linear Displacement - Capacitive Methods
 Capacitance is defined as
 Advantages: A  0 r
 Therefore we could use the C 
 Relatively easy to understand and attach change in d
 Cheap  Plate Area
 Permittivity of the dielectric
 Disadvantages  Distance between the plates
 Need temperature compensation as a wayy to measure
displacement

13 14

Linear Displacement - Capacitive Methods Linear Displacement - Capacitive Methods

(Variable Area) (Distance Between the Plates)

 If we have to electrodes, one fixed and the other movable we

 If we have an two electrodes and one moves relative to the other in a linear
direction we will get an effective change in the area of the plates can arrange it that the distance between the plates changes for
 This results in a change in the capacitance which can be related to a change in displacement
displacement A  0 r
C 
 A  wx  0  r C 
x
d
15 16

4
 Linear Displacement - Capacitive Methods Linear Displacement - Capacitive Methods
(Distance Between the Plates) (Permittivity)
 This type of capacitive arrangement
consists of two fixed outer pplates and
one central moveable plate
 The central plate can move towards
either of the plates which essentially
changes the capacitance between the
moveable plate and the fixed plates
 If the moveable plate is in the centre  The dielectric moves relative to the plates and this causes a
of the capacitor,
capacitor voltages V1 and V2 change
h iin the
th relative
l ti permittivity
itti it off the
th dielectric
di l t i
will be equal

17 18

Linear Displacement - Inductive Methods Linear Displacement - Inductive Methods

(Linear Variable Differential Transformers LVDTs)
 Inductive methods use very similar principles to resistive and
capacitive methods  LVDTs are accurate
 The inductance of a coil is given by the following equation
transducers
d which
hi h are
L
N 2 A
[ Henrys ] often used in industrial
l
and scientific applications
 Where N is the number of turns in the coil, µ is the effective
permeability of the medium in and around the coil, A is the to measure very small
cross sectional area and l is the length of the coil in m displacements
 As with the other examples if we change any one of these
parameters we get a change in the inductance

19 20

5
 This produces an alternating magnetic field which induces a
Linear Displacement - Inductive Methods 
signal into the secondary windings
(Linear Variable Differential Transformers LVDTs)
 The strength of the signal is dependant on the position of the
 An LVDT consists of a central core in the coils
primary coil wound over the whole  When the core is placed in the centre of the coil the output will
length of the transducer and two be zero
outer secondary coils  Moving the coil in either direction causes the signal to increase
 A magnetic core is able to move  The output signal is proportional to the displacement
freely through the coil
 The primary windings are energized
with a constant amplitude AC
signal (1 – 10kHz)

21 22

Linear Variable-Differential Transformer Linear Variable-Differential Transformer

(LVDT) (LVDT)
Vo=V1-V2 Vo=V1-V2

V1 V2 V1 V2
LVDTs are devices to measure displacement
-x by modifying spatial distribution of an X=0
alternating magnetic field.

V2 = V1
V1 > V2 Vi Vi

Vi Vo Vo
Vi
Oscillating excitation voltage-50 Hz to 25 kHz 23 24

6
 Linear Variable-Differential Transformer LVDTs
(LVDT)
 Range: ±2.5nm - ±10cm
Vo=V1-V2
 Advantages:
V1 V2
 Good resolution
+x
 Disadvantages:
V2 > V1  Needs shielding to prevent interference from magnetic
Vi sources
Vi

Vo
So, the direction of displacement can be determined from the relative phase of the
25 26
signal.

Force Sensors
 The fundamental operating principles of force, acceleration, and
torque instrumentation are closely allied to the piezoelectric and
Force,
o ce, Torque
o que and Tactile
actile strain gage devices used to measure static and dynamic pressures.
 Piezoelectric sensor produces a voltage when it is "squeezed" by a
Sensors force that is proportional to the force applied.

27 28

7
 Difference between these devices and static force detection Torque Sensors
devices such as strain gages is that the electrical signal generated
 Torque is measured by either sensing the actual shaft deflection
by the crystal decays rapidly after the application of force.
caused by a twisting force, or by detecting the effects of this
 The high impedance electrical signal generated by the
deflection.
piezoelectric crystal is converted to a low impedance signal
suitable for such an instrument as a digital storage oscilloscope.  The surface of a shaft under torque will experience compression
 Depending on the application requirements, dynamic force can and tension, as shown in Figure.
be measured as either compression, tensile, or torque force.
 Applications may include the measurement of spring or sliding
f i ti forces,
friction f chain
h i tensions,
t i clutch
l t h release
l f
forces.

29 30

 To measure torque, strain gage elements usually are mounted in Force/Torque Measurement
pairs on the shaft, one gauge measuring the increase in length (in  Force and torque measurement finds application in many
the direction in which the surface is under tension), the other practical and experimental studies as well as in control
measuring the decrease in length in the other direction. applications.
 F
Force-motion
i causality.
li When
Wh measuring i force,
f i can be
it b critical
ii l
to understand whether force is the input or output to the sensor.
 Design of a force sensors relies on deflection, so measurement of
motion or displacement can be used to measure force, and in this
way the two are intimately related.

31 32

8
Design of a Force Sensor Sensor Mechanisms for Force
 In the force sensor design given, no specific sensing
 Consider a simple sensor that is to be developed to measure a
mechanism was implied. The constraint placed on the
reaction force at the base of a spring, as shown below.
stiffness exists for any type of force sensor.
sensor
 It is clear, however, that the force sensor will have to respond
to a force and provide an output voltage. This can be done in
different ways.

33 34

Sensing Mechanisms Strain-gage Force Sensor Design

 To measure force, it is usually necessary to design a
mechanical structure that determines the stiffness. This  Let’s consider now the force sensor studied earlier, and
structure may itself be a sensing material. consider a design that will use one strain gage on an axially
 F
Force will
ill induce
i d stress, leading
l di to strain
i which
hi h can be
b l d d material.
loaded i l
detected, most commonly, by
– strain gages (via piezoresistive effect)
– some crystals or ceramics (via piezoelectric effect)
 Force can also be detected using a displacement sensor, such
as an LVDT.
LVDT

35 36

9
Strain guages What’s a strain gauge?
 The electrical resistance of a length of wire varies in direct
proportion to the change in any strain applied to it. That’s the
 Many types of force\torque sensors are based on strain gage principle upon which the strain gauge works.
measurements.
measurements  The most accurate way to measure this change in resistance is
 The measurements can be directly related to stress and force by using the wheatstone bridge.
and may be used to measure other types of variables including  The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide
displacement and acceleration choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications.
 They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on
a backingg material.

37 38

 They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected Strain gauge Configuration
to stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined
way.  The strain gauge is connected
into a wheatstone Bridge circuit
with a combination of four
active gauges(full bridge),two
guages (half bridge) or,less
commonly, a single gauge
(quarter bridge).

39 40

10
Guage factor Strain guage contd..
 The complete wheatstone brigde is excited with a stabilized
 A fundamental parameter of the strain guage is its DC supply.
sensitivity
i i i to strain,
i expressedd quantitatively
i i l as the h  As stress is applied to the bonded strain guage, a resistive
guage factor (GF). change takes place and unbalances the wheatstone bridge
which results in signal output with respect to stress value.
 As the signal value is small the signal conditioning electronics
 Guage factor is defined as the ratio of fractional provides amplification to increase the signal.
change
h iin electrical
l i l resistance
i to the
h fractional
f i l change h
in length (strain).

41 42

Ballast circuit Analysis of Force sensors

 Assume a simple signal  The ballast circuit
conditioning
di i i circuit,
i i a output is given by :
ballast circuit, will be
used to convert
 Under strain the gage
resistance change in resistance change is:
strain guage to voltage
change.  Where G is the “gage
factor”. The change in
the output voltage is :
43 44

11
Sensitivity of Force sensor Torque Sensor
 Torque is a measure of the forces that causes an object to
 We can now express the rotate.
output voltage change in  Reaction torque sensors measure static and dynamic torque
terms of sensitivity as : with a stationary or non-rotating transducer.
 Where sensitivity is given  Rotary torque sensors use rotary transducers to measure
by : torque.


45 46

Technology Figures showing Torque sensors

 Magnetoelastic : A magnetoelastic torque sensor detects changes
in permeability by measuring changes in its own magnetic field.
 Piezoelectric : A p piezoelectric material is compressed
p and
generates a charge, which is measured by a charge amplifier.
 Strain guage : To measure torque,strain guage elements usually
are mounted in pairs on the shaft,one guage measuring the
increase in length the other measuring the decrease in the other
direction.

47 48

12
 Torque Measurement Classification of torque sensors
 The need for torque measurements has led to several methods of
 Torques can be divided into two major categories, either static or
acquiring reliable data from objects moving. A torque sensor, or dynamic.
transducer, converts torque into an electrical signal.
 The methods used to measure torque can be further divided into two
 Th mostt common transducer
The t d i a strain
is t i guage that
th t converts
t torque
t i t a
into more categories,
i either
i h reaction
i or in-line.
i li
change in electrical resistance.  A dynamic force involves acceleration, were a static force does not.
 The strain guage is bonded to a beam or structural member that deforms  In reaction method the dynamic torque produced by an engine would be
when a torque or force is applied. measured by placing an inline torque sensor between the crankshaft and
 Deflection induces a stress that changes its resistance. A wheatstone the flywheel, avoiding the rotational inertia of the flywheel and any
bridge
g converts the resistance change g into a calibrated output
p signal.
g losses from the transmission.
transmission
 The design of a reaction torque cell seeks to eliminate side loading  In-line torque measurements are made by inserting a torque sensor
(bending) and axial loading, and is sensitive only to torque loading.
between torque carrying components, much like inserting an excitation
 The sensor’s output is a function of force and distance, and is usually between a socket and a socket wrench.
expressed in inch-pounds, foot-pounds or Newton-meters.
49 50

Technical obstacles Contact/Non-contact methods

 Contact: slip rings are used in contact-type torque sensors to
 Getting power to the gages over the tationary/rotating apply power to and retrive the signal from strain gages
gap andd getting
i the
h signal
i l back.
b k mountedd on the
h rotating
i shaft.
h f

 Non-contact: the rotary transformer couples the strain gages

 The methods to bridge the gap are either contact or for power and signal return. The rotary transformer works on
non-contact. the same principle as any conventional transformer except
either the primary or secondary coils rotate.

51 52

13
Applications of force/torque sensors
In robotic tactile and manufacturing applications
Pressure Measurements


 In control systems when motion feedback is employed.

 In process testing, monitoring and diagnostics applications.
 In measurement of power transmitted through a rotating
device.
 In controlling complex non-linear mechanical systems.

53 54

Pressure definition
Pressure definition  Pressure is the action of one force against another over, a
surface. The pressure P of a force F distributed over an area A is
 Pressure is the action of one force against defined as:
another
th over, a surface.
f The
Th pressure P off a P = F/A
force F distributed over an area A is defined
as: System Length Force Mass Time Pressure

P = F/A MKS Meter Newton Kg

g Sec / 2 = Pascal
N/M

CGS CM Dyne Gram Sec D/CM2

English Inch Pound Slug Sec PSI

55 56

14
How Much is a Pascal (Pa) Static, Dynamic, and Impact pressures
 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi, 750mmHg) is approximately
100 kPa = 1 bar
 1 kPa is about 7 mmHg
 1% of a gas at our altitude is about 7 mmHg  Static pressure is the pressure of fluids or gases that are stationary
How is pressure generated? or not in motion.
 Collision of molecule with wall  Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it
impacts on a surface or an object due to its motion or flow. In Fig.,
 M
Momentum iis mass x velocity
l i
the dynamic pressure is (B − A).
 Sum collisions over area to get force
 Impact pressure (total pressure) is the sum of the static and
dynamic pressures on a surface or object. Point B in Fig. depicts
57
the impact pressure. 58

Definition Of Pressure Definition Of Pressure Absolute pressure

The pressure is referenced to
zero absolute. Absolute
pressure can only have a
positive value.
Gauge pressure
The pressure is referenced to
atmospheric pressure and by
convention is measured in
the positive direction.
Vacuum pressure
p
The pressure is referenced to
atmospheric pressure and by
convention is measured in
the negative direction.
59 60

15
 Pressure Measurement
Standard Atmospheric Pressure A number of measurement units are used for pressure. They are as follows:
1. Bar (1.013 atm) = 100 kPa
2. Pascals (N/m2) or kilopascal (1000Pa)* 1 psi= 51.714 mmHg
3
3. Pounds per square foot (psf) or pounds per square inch (psi) = 2.0359 in.Hg
= 27.680 in.H2O
4. Atmospheres (atm)
= 6.8946 kPa
5. Torr = 1 mm mercury 1 bar= 14.504 psi
6. Pascals (N/m2) or kilopascal (1000Pa) 1 atm. = 14.696 psi
Pressure Units
 As previously noted, pressure is force per unit area and historically a great
variety of units have been used,
used depending on their suitability for the
application.
 For example, blood pressure is usually measured in mmHg because
mercury manometers were used originally.
 Atmospheric pressure is usually expressed in in mmHg for the same reason.
 Other units used for atmospheric pressure are bar and atm.
61 62

Wet Meters (Manometers)

63 64

16
 Manometer basics Pressure in open tank
 Characterized by its inherent accuracy and simplicity of
operation.
A container filled with a liquid has a pressure (due to the weight
 It’s the U-tube manometer, which is a U-shaped glass tube
of the liquid) at a point in the liquid of:
partially filled with liquid.
liquid P = F/A
 This manometer has no moving parts and requires no calibration. P = W/A
 With both legs of a U-tube manometer open to the atmosphere P = ρgV/A
or subjected to the same pressure, the liquid maintains the same P = ρghA/A
P = ρgh
level in each leg, establishing a zero reference. h
P = pressure
 With a greater pressure applied to the left side of a U-tube F = force A
manometer, the liquid lowers in the left leg and rises in the right A = Area
leg. W = weight of the liquid
 The liquid moves until the unit weight of the liquid, as indicated V = volume above the Area
by h, exactly balances the pressure. g = gravitation
ρ = mass density
65 h = distance from the surface 66

 When the liquid in the tube is mercury, for example, the Variations on the U-Tube Manometer
indicated pressure h is usually expressed in inches (or
 The pressure reading is always the
millimeters) of mercury. To convert to pounds per square
inch (or kilograms per square centimeter), P2 = ρh difference between fluid heights,
Where regardless of the tube sizes.
P2 = pressure, (kg/cm2)
 With both manometer legs open to
ρ = density, (kg/cm3)
h = height, (cm) the atmosphere, the fluid levels are
 Gauge pressure is a measurement relative to atmospheric the same (A).
pressure and it varies with the barometric reading.
 With an equal positive pressure
 A gauge pressure measurement is positive
when the unknown pressure exceeds applied
pp to one legg of each
atmospheric pressure (A), and is negative manometer, the fluid levels differ,
when the unknown pressure is less than but the distance between the fluid
atmospheric pressure (B).
heights is the same (B).

67 68

17
 Reservoir (Well) Manometer Pressure Sensing Pressure
 Pressure is sensed by mechanical
 In a well-type manometer, the cross-sectional area of one elements such as plates, shells, and tubes
leg (the well) is much larger than the other leg. When that are designed and constructed to Sensing
ppressure is applied
pp to the well, the fluid lowers onlyy slightly
g y deflect when ppressure is applied.
pp Element
compared to the fluid rise in the other leg.  This is the basic mechanism converting
pressure to physical movement. displacement
 In this design one leg is replaced by a large diameter well so
that the pressure differential is indicated only by the height  Next, this movement must be transducer Transduction
of the column in the single leg. to obtain an electrical or other output. element

 The pressure difference can be read directly on a single  Finally, signal conditioning may be electric
needed, depending on the type of sensor
scale. For static balance,, If the ratio of A /A is small
1 2 and the application.
application Figure illustrates the Signal
P2  P1   (1  A1 / A2 )h compared with unity, then the three functional blocks. Conditioner
Where error in neglecting this term
 A1 = area of smaller-diameter leg becomes negligible, and the
 A2 = area of well
static balance relation becomes
P2  P1   h
V or I output
69 70

 The main types of sensing

elements are
 Bourdon tubes,
 diaphragms,
 capsules,
p and
 bellows .
 All except diaphragms provide a
fairly large displacement that is
useful in mechanical gauges and
for electrical sensors that require
g
a significant movement.
The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped Bourdon
tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a convoluted
diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F).

71 72

18
Primary Pressure Elements Bellows
Capsule, Bellows & Spring Opposed Diaphragm

 In general a bellows can detect a slightly lower pressure than a

diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 0-2000 psi
 Accuracy in the range of 1% span

73 74

Bourdon Tube
 In “C” type Bourdon tube, a section of tubing that is closed at
one end is partially flattened and coiled.
 When a pressure is applied to the open end, the tube uncoils.
 This movement provides a displacement that is proportional to
the applied pressure.
 The tube is mechanically linked to a pointer on a pressure dial
to give a calibrated reading.

75 76

19
 77 78

Bourdon Tubes Bourdon Tubes

(a) C-type tube.

(b) Spiral tube.
(c) Helical tube
79 80

20
Diaphragm Gauges Diaphragm
 To amplify the motion that a diaphragm capsule produces, several
capsules are connected end to end.
 Diaphragm type pressure gauges used to measure gauge, absolute, or
diff
differential
ti l pressure.
 They are normally used to measure low pressures of 1 inch of Hg, but
they can also be manufactured to measure higher pressures in the range
of 0 to 330 psig.
(a) flat diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm 
 They can also be built for use in vacuum service.
 A diaphragm
p g usuallyy is designed
g so that the deflection-versus-
pressure characteristics are as linear as possible over a
specified pressure range, and with a minimum of hysteresis
and minimum shift in the zero point.

81 82

Capsule
A capsule is formed
by joining the
peripheries of two
diaphragms through
soldering or welding.
Used in some absolute
pressure gages.

83 84

21
Use of capsule element in pressure gage Potentiometric type sensor
 A mechanical device such as a diaphragm is used to
move the wiper arm of a potentiometer as the input
pressure changes.
 A direct current voltage (DC) V is applied to the top
of the potentiometer, and the voltage that is dropped
from the wiper arm to the bottom of the pot is sent
to an electronic unit.
 It normally cover a range of 5 psi to 10,000 psi.
 Can be operated over a wide range of temperatures.
 S bject to wear
Subject ear because
beca se of the mechanical contact
between the slider and the resistance element.
 Therefore, the instrument life is fairly short, and
they tend to become noisier as the pot wears out.

85 86

Bellows Resistance Transducer Inductance-Type Transducers

 Bellows or a bourdon tube with a
variable resistor.  The inductance-type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a
movable magnetic core, and a pressure sensing element.
 Bellow expand or contract causes the
 An AC voltage is applied to the coil, and, as the core moves,
attached slider to move along the the inductance of the coil changes.
slidewire.
 This increase or decrees the
resistance.
 Th
Thus i di ti
indicating an increase
i or
decrease in pressure.

87 88

22
LVDT
 Another type of inductance transducer, utilizes two coils
wound on a single tube and is commonly referred to as a
Differential Transformer or sometimes as a Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT).
89
•Piezoelectric sensors convert stress into
an electric potential and vice versa.
•Sensors based on this technology are
used to measure varying pressures.
91
Piezoelectric
 Piezoelectric elements are bi-directional transducers capable of
converting stress into an electric potential and vice versa.
 One important factor to remember is that this is a dynamic
effect providing an output only when the input is changing.
effect, changing
 This means that these sensors can be used only for varying
pressures.
 The piezoelectric element has a high-impedance output and
care must be taken to avoid loading the output by the interface
electronics. Some piezoelectric pressure sensors include an
internal amplifier to provide an easy electrical interface.
interface
90
Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors
 Strain gauge sensors originally used a metal diaphragm with strain gauges
bonded to it.
 the signal due to deformation of the material is small, on the order of 0.1% of
the base resistance
 Semiconductor strain gauges are widely used, both bonded and integrated
into a silicon diaphragm, because the response to applied stress is an order of
magnitude larger than for a metallic strain gauge.
 When the crystal lattice structure of silicon is deformed by applied stress, the
resistance changes. This is called the piezoresistive effect. Following are
some of the types of strain gauges used in pressure sensors.
 D
Deposited
i d strain
i gauge. Metallic
M lli straini gauges can be b formed
f d on a diaphragm
di h
by means of thin film deposition. This construction minimizes the effects of
repeatability and hysteresis that bonded strain gauges exhibit. These sensors
exhibit the relatively low output of metallic strain gauges.
92
23
 93 94

Range of Elastic-Element Pressure Dead-weight pressure gauge

 A cylindrical piston 1 is placed inside a stainless-steel cylinder 2.
Gages 

The measuring pressure is supplied through the vent 8 to the fluid 4.
The gravitational force developed by calibrated weights 3 can balance this
force and the piston itself..
 Th bbalance
The l should
h ld bbe achieved
hi d forf a certain
t i position
iti off the
th piston
i t against
i ta
pointer 9 of the stainless-steel cylinder.
 A manual piston pump 5 is used to achieve approximate force balance (to
increase pressure in the system), whereas a wheel-type piston pump 6 serves
for accurate balancing.
 A Bourdon-type pressure gauge 7 is used for visual reading of pressure.
9 3
7
1
2
5 8
2

4
6
95 96

24
Calibration of Pressure Sensing
Devises
97
 Since 1989 there were at least 23 distinct type of
for technologies available the measurement of
flow in closed conduit.
 Flow meters selection are part of the basic art of
the instrument engineer, and while only handful
of these technologies contribute to the majority of
installations.
And wide product knowledge is essential to find
 g
the most cost effective solution to any flow
measurement application.
99
Flow Measurement
98
Types of Flows Reynolds Number
 The performance of flow meters is also influenced by a dimensionless
unit called the Reynolds Number. It is defined as the ratio of the liquid's
inertial forces to its drag forces.
The Reynolds number is used for determined whether a flow is laminar

or turbulent.
 Laminar flow within pipes will occur when the Reynolds number is below the critical
Reynolds number of 2300 and turbulent flow when it is above 2300.
The value of 2300 has been determined experimentally and a certain range around

this value is considered the transition region between laminar and turbulent flow.
100
25
Venturi Meter Ventrui meter
Mass Balance
2
S  D 
V a  V b  b   V b  b   V b  2

In the venturi meter velocity is increased and the pressure decreased  Sa   Da 

in the upstream cone.
Th pressure drop
The d f
from points
i F to I can beb usedd to measure the
h rate
of flow through the meter.
Venturi meters are most commonly used for liquids, especially
water.
101 102

Venturi Meter Venturi Meter

Solving for the neck velocity Vb
Mechanical Energy Balance

1 2 pa  pb 
Wˆ 
1
 1

 bV b 2   aV a 2  g  z   p b  p a   h f

Vb 
2 b   a 4 
0 0 0
So with Mass Balance Result To account for small differences in a and b introduce a correction factor Cv

 2 pb  pa  2 pa  pb 
= 0.98 – 0.99.

 b a 4
V b
2


Vb 
Cv

1  4

103 104

26
Venturi Meter Orifice Meter
Since friction cannot be eliminated in the venturi meter a permanent loss in
pressure occurs. Because of the small angle of divergence in the recovery
cone, the permanent pressure loss is relatively small (about 10% of the
venturi differential pa–pb).
)

The orifice meter consists of an accurately machined and drilled plate

concentrically mounted between two flanges. The position of the pressure
taps is somewhat arbitrary.

105 106

Orifice Meter Orifice Meter

The development of the orifice meter equation is similar to that of the venturi
The orifice meter has several practical advantages when meter and gives:

p
compared to venturi meters. C0 2 pa  pb 
• Lower cost V 
• Smaller physical size 1  4 
• Flexibility to change throat to pipe diameter ratio to q  V S0
measure a larger range of flow rates where:
 = ratio of orifice diameter to p
pipe
p diameter ≈ 0.5 usuallyy
Disadvantage: S0 = cross sectional area of orifice
• Large power consumption in the form of irrecoverable – = bulk velocity through the orifice
V
C0 = orifice coefficient ≈ 0.61 for Re > 30,000
pressure loss
107 108

27
There is a large pressure drop much of which is not recoverable.
This can be a severe limitation when considering use of an orifice
meter.

109 110

Comparison
Venturi Orifice
High Capital Cost Low Capital Cost

Low Operating Cost High Operating Cost

(good p recovery) (poor p recovery)
Not Flexible More Flexibility
(β fixed) (interchangeable)
Large Physical Size Compact

111 112

28
 Rotameters Rotameters
Rotameters fall into the category of flow measurement
devices called variable area meters. Three types of forces must be accounted for
y g rotameter pperformance:
when analyzing
These devices have nearly constant pressure and depend
on changing cross sectional area to indicate flow rate. • Flow Buoyancy
• Gravity
Gravity
Rotameters are extremely simple, robust devices that can • Buoyancy
measure flow rates of both liquids and gasses.
F our analysis
For l i neglect
l td drag effect
ff t
Fluid flows up through the tapered tube and suspends a
‘float’ in the column of fluid. The position of the float
indicates the flow rate on a marked scale.
Flow
113 114

Rotameter Rotameter
Mass Balance Momentum Balance
Assume Gradual Taper Note:
• p3 = p2
V1 S  V 2 S • Must account for force due to float

Q
V1  V 2 
S  Q V 3  V1    p 1  p 2 S   g  zS  V f    f gV f
Flow Between Float and Tube

V3 
Q
 V1
S p Q 
2

 g  z     1 
S  gV
 f  b   
S  S f  S3   S   S 3  S 
S3 is annular flow area at plane 3
115 116

29
Rotameter Rotameter
Mechanical Energy Balance Combining Momentum and Mechanical Energy Balance

p
Wˆ 
1
2
 
V 3 2  V1 2  g  z 

 hf
2
 Q  
  1 
S  gV
 f  b     1 Q 
2
 S  
  1  1  K R 
2

 
 S   S 3  S  2  S    S 3  
0
V32 (Base velocity head on smallest flow
Assume: hf  KR area)
After Some Manipulation
2

S Sf 2 gV f 
1 2 
2 2
p 2 S  2 S 
f
Q  S3
 g  z  V1  V1    K R V1    1  K R S S f  
2
Sf
 2  S3   S 3  

117 118

Rotameter Turbine Meter

Assuming Sf ≈ S a discharge coefficient can be
defined C  1  K 
1 2
R R

2 gV f f 
Q  S 3C R
Sf 

CR must be determined experimentally. As Q increases the float rides Measure by determining RPM of turbine (3) via sensor (6). Turbine meters
higher, the assumption that Sf = S is poorer, and the previous expression accurate but fragile.
is more nearly correct.

119 120

30
 Temperature Measurement
 Temperature measurement is a
crucial part of many industrial
Temperature Measurement 
processes.
Examples of industries where it is
important are mineral processing,
plastics, petrochemical, food etc.
 There are a large number of different
methods to measure temperature .
 These use different physical
properties. We will discuss some of
these and look at some common
temperature measurement sensors

121 122

What is Temperature? Thermal Measurement Method: Linear

 Temperature is a measure of the Expansion of a Solid
average kinetic energy of particles in a  Rod thermometers and bimetallic
medium thermometers are based on this
 Th international
The i t ti l unit it for
f temperature
t t principle.
i i l
is Kelvin (K) or degrees Celsius (ºC)  These indicate temperature due
where  Where a is the linear temperature
to the different thermal coefficient, L is the length of the bar
K = °C + 273.15 expansion of two different and dT is the change in temperature
 The measurement of low to medium metals.  If the original length of the bar is L0
t
temperatures
t (-273
( 273 ºC - ~500
500 ºC) iis  A solid bar will change in length at T0 , the new length L1 at T1 can be
defined as thermometry while the when it experiences a change in calculated as follows:
measurement of higher temperatures it temperature L1  L 0  L 0  T1  T 0 
is known as pyrometry dL   LdT  L 0 1    T 
123 124

31
Thermal Measurement Method: Thermal Thermal Measurement Method: Vapour
Expansion of Liquids Pressure of Liquids
 Used in liquid glass thermometers for a  Vapor pressure is dependant on
direct indication of temperature temperature
 The principle is similar to that in solids  The equation for an ideal gas is
except that we consider a volumetric pv  RT
temperature coefficient b
 Where p is pressure, v is a
V 1  V 0 1    T  specific volume, T is the  Measuring the volume change at a
temperature andd R is
i the
h molar
l constant pressure
 It is considered constant over a limited gas constant  Measuring the pressure difference
range  Therefore temperature can be at a constant volume
measured in two ways:
125 126

Temperature Measurement with Conductivity in Metals

Electrical Sensors
 Convert temperature to an electrical
signal
i l
 They often require some form of
power source
 Great advantage is that the signals
from these sensors are transmittable
over long distances which makes
remote measurement feasible
 Good conductivity in metals is due to the freely mobile
electrons in the atomic lattice
 The number of free electrons and their kinetic energy are
functions of temperature. As the temperature increases, the
amplitude and frequency of vibration increases
 The free electrons’ movement is now hindered through the
medium and therefore the resistance of the material increases
 If an increase
i i temperature causes an increase
in i i resistance
in i
of a material it is said to have a Positive Temperature
Coefficient (PTC)

127 128

32
 The relationship between the temperature of metals and its electrical  Any metal used for temperature measurement should meet
resistance is not liner but can be described by the following these requirements:
equation:  T  T1  T 0
 Good long term stability in terms of resistance

R1 ( t )  R 0 1  a   T  b   T 2 3
 c  T  ....   High temperature coefficient of resistivity a
 Resistant to corrosion and chemical impurities
 Not effected by other physical quantities such as pressure
 Where R1 is the resistance at temperature T1, R0 is the resistance of  Good reproducibility of change in resistance as a function of
the material at a reference temperature T0 . temperature
 a, b and c are the temperature coefficients of resistivity and are  Platinum (Pt) and Nickel (Ni) satisfy most of the above
dependant on the metal. They are only constant over a specific requirements
range
g
 However, for certain materials it is possible to neglect the higher
terms for specific temperature ranges without introducing too large
an error
 This reduces the equation to a linear relationship
129 130

 The most common types of RTD are:

Electrical Temperature Measurement:
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)  Wire-wound in a ceramic insulator R(T )  R0 (1  T )
 Wires which are encapsulated in glass
 Use the fact that certain materials
resistance changes in a predictable way  Resistance often measured usingg a Wheatstone Bridge
g
arrangement
with a change in temperature
 The are mainly made from metallic
conductors and mostly of platinum
 They are becoming the temperature
sensor off choice
h i i industry
in i d f
for
temperature measurements below 600
ºC

131 132

33
  Advantages: Thomas Johan Seebeck
 High accuracy and can therefore be used in precision  A German-Estonian Physicist who
applications discovered that a voltage was
 Has low drift with time produced across a metal bar when a
 Wide operating temperature range temperature difference existed in the
bar in 1821
 From this he formulated the Seebeck
 Disadvantages: Principle which is used in some
 Are not often used above 660
660ºC
C as it is difficult to keep the temperature measurement devices
platinum pure

133 134

The Seebeck Effect Electrical Temperature Measurement:

Thermocouples
 If two different metals are joined together to
form a continuous loop and their junctions  Are the most commonly used
are at different temperatures, an e.m.f. will electronic temperature measurement
devices
be generated which cause a current to flow
 Consists of two dissimilar metals
 If a millivoltmeter is inserted into the loop, which are joined together at both ends
its output reading will give us an indication  One of the conductors is broken in
of the temperature difference between the the middle. A potential difference is
two junctions of the loop generated across the break if the
junctions are held at different
 This concept forms the basis of a temperatures
thermocouple  Therefore if one end of a
thermocouple is held at a known
reference, the temperature of the
other end can be calculated
135 136

34
Thermocouples Types Thermocouples
• Various metal combinations can be used for different temperature and
voltage ranges, the following are examples of common combinations:  Advantages:
 Wide operating temperature range can be used at high
MAXMIUM
ANSI
ALLOY COMBINATION TEMPERATURE
mV temperatures
CODE OUTPUT
RANGE  Fairly cheap
B Platinum/Rhodium 0°C to +1700°C 0 to +12.426
E Chromel/Constantan –200°C to +900°C –8.824 to +68.783  Interchangeable
J Iron/Constantan 0°C to +750°C 0 to +42.283
K Chromel/Alumel –200°C to +1250°C –5.973 to +50.633  Have standard connectors
N Nicrosil/Nisil –270°C to +1300°C –4.345 to +47.502
R Platinum/Rhodium Platinum 0°C to +1450°C 0 to +16.741  Disadvantages:
g
S Platinum/Rhodium Platinum 0°C to +1450°C 0 to +14.973
T Copper/Constantan –200°C to +350°C –5.602 to +17.816  Lack of precision

137 138

Electrical Temperature Measurement: Thermistors

Semiconductor Sensors  A semiconductor used as a temperature sensor.
 Silicon Measuring Resistors (PTC)  Mixture of metal oxides pressed into a bead, wafer or other
shape.
p
 Small ll non-linearity
li i  Beads can be very small, less than 1 mm in some cases.
 -70ºC - 160ºC gives a resistance change of 14W to 4kW  The resistance decreases as temperature increases, negative
 Semiconductor Diodes temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
 If supplied with a constant current, the conducting voltage is
a function of absolute temperature
p
 Almost linear between -50ºC - 150ºC

139 140

35
 Thermistors Thermistors
 Most are seen in medical Advantages Disadvantages
equipment markets.  High sensitivity to small  Limited temperature
 Thermistors are also used are temperat re changes
temperature range
for engine coolant, oil, and air  Temperature  Fragile
temperature measurement in measurements become  Some initial accuracy
more stable with use “drift”
the transportation industry.
 Copper
pp or nickel  Decalibration if used
extension wires can be beyond the sensor’s
used temperature ratings
 Lack of standards for
141 replacement 142

Electrical Temperature Measurement: Electrical Temperature Measurement:

Radiation Thermometers Capacitive and Inductive Sensors
 Also known as pyrometers
 Both these types of sensors
 Theyy are non-contact sensors are used in oscillating circuits
 Used in the measurement range
 The dielectric constant of
-100 ºC - 3500 ºC most materials is temperature
 They are used to measure the
dependant
temperature of a surface if it is
visible  The magnetic permeability of
 Often used for objects with
Vicalloy toroid coils changes
rapid temperature changes, as a function of temperature
moving objects and small
objects
143 144

36
Electrical Temperature Measurement:
Crystal Oscillator Methods
 If crystals are cut along certain
axes, their resonant frequency will
be largely affected by temperature
 The crystal can then be used in an
oscillating circuit
145
Electrical Temperature Measurement:
Temperature Dependant Colours
 Strips which change colour
according to the temperature
of the surface they are attached
to
 For example the strips used on
the
h side
id off fish
fi h tanks
k
147
Electrical Temperature Measurement:
Acoustic Methods
 Uses the fact that the velocity
of sound in a medium will
change according to the
temperature of the medium
146
Infrared Thermometry
 Infrared thermometers measure the amount of
radiation emitted by an object.
 Peak magnitude is often in the infrared region.
region
 Surface emissivity must be known. This can add a lot
of error.
 Reflection from other objects can introduce error as
well.
well
 Surface whose temp you’re measuring must fill the
field of view of your camera.
148
37
Benefits of Infrared Thermometry
 Can be used for
 Movingg objects
j
 Non-contact applications where
sensors would affect results or
be difficult to insert or
conditions are hazardous
 L
Large di t
distances
 Very high temperatures

149

38