ASSIGNMENT 2 BOI115:

ATRHOPODS

DUE DATES: 24/07/2022

NAME: NORHIDAYATI BINTI MD GHAZALI

MATRIC NUMBER: 158767

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ARTHROPODS

WHAT ARE ARTHROPODS?

Arthropods is an invertebrate animal of the large phylum Arthropoda. The animal kingdom's
largest phylum, the Arthropoda comprises familiar species like lobsters, crabs, spiders, mites,
aphids, centipedes, and millipedes as well as many more. Members of this phylum make up
around 84 percent of all animal species that have been described so far. Arthropods are
abundant over the planet and can be found in a wide range of environments thanks to their
diverse range of specialised adaptations. There are species that are adapted to live in aquatic
conditions, species that dwell in terrestrial environments, and even species that have evolved
the ability to fly.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC

The bodies of arthropods are segmented, similar to those of annelids, another phylum that at
least some arthropods are undoubtedly connected to. Many types of arthropods are
characterised by having a large number of body segments. In other cases, the segments have

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become fused together form functional groups, also known as tagmata (singular: tagma), such
as the head and thorax of an insect. This process of fusion, which is referred to as tagmatization,
is of critical significance in the evolution of arthropods. During the larval stage of development,
the original segments of the majority of arthropods may be identified. Each and every arthropod
have a separate head, which may or may not be connected to the thorax to form a tagma known
as the cephalothorax. The majority of these creatures are bilaterally symmetrical. The following
is a list of some of the most prominent features that are shared by arthropods:

i. EXOSKELETON

Chitin is a component of the exoskeleton,

also known as the cuticle, that covers the
bodies of all arthropods. The epidermis
produces this tough outer coating, which is
united with it, and acts as a resistance
against which the muscles contract. At
some periods, the exoskeleton maintains a degree of flexibility that makes it
possible for the exoskeleton to bend and for appendages to move. Arthropods are
protected from injury, predation, and loss of water by their exoskeletons, which also
help defend them against parasites and other pathogens. Molting or ecdysis, occurs
in all arthropods, where the outer layer of skin is lost. As they expand, they form a
new exoskeleton. Hormones regulate this. When the new exoskeleton is finished,
fluid separates them. This fluid dissolves old exoskeleton chitin, protein, and
calcium carbonate. The fluid builds up until the original exoskeleton cracks open
and is shed. The arthropod emerges with a pale, fragile exoskeleton. The arthropod
"puffs up" to full size. Blood flow to all bodily parts helps them expand, and many
insects and spiders breathe air. The exoskeleton hardens. Soft exoskeleton makes
animal susceptible. Arthropods hide under stones, leaves, or branches at this stage.

ii. Compound Eye

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 The compound eye, which is found in many
arthropods, is another essential feature.
Compound eyes are made up of ommatidia,
which are independent visual units. There are
eight retinular cells plus a light-sensitive
centre core (referred to as the "rhabdom") in
each ommatidium. Insects have two major forms of compound eyes: apposition and
superposition. Bees, butterflies, and other nocturnal insects have apposition eyes,
as do certain other species of insects. Each ommatidium is secluded from the others
by a wall of pigment cells that prevents light from passing between them. To
maximise the quantity of light that enters each ommatidium, such as those found in
moths and other insects that are active at night, superposition eyes are used. The
colour of the arthropod eye is provided by the pigment cells, but this pigment is not
essential for vision. The ommatidium's visual pigment is found in a region known
as the rhabdom. The arthropod's mental picture of the outside environment is built
from the images collected by its ommatidiums.

iii. Circulatory System

The circulatory system of arthropods is

open. Their heart is located in the dorsal
position. The artery systems of the
arthropods can be either very extensive or
very limited, and they carry blood either into
hemocoels or into tissue voids. The paired
openings, known as ostia, connect the heart to the arteries. Valve mechanisms are
responsible for regulating the flow of blood through these openings. As a result of
the presence of the oxygen-carrying pigment hemocyanin in their blood,
crustaceans and arachnids have blue blood. Because oxygen is transported to the
tissues of an insect straight through the tracheal system, such pigments are not
present in insects. Hemoglobin can be found in the blood of certain kinds of tiny
crustaceans as well as the larvae of insects.

iv. Nervous System

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 The nervous system of arthropods is structured like a
ladder, and it consists of a double chain of segmental
ganglia that runs down the ventral surface. A split
occurs in the double chains so that they can go around
the oesophagus and then terminate in a pair of dorsal
ganglia. Because they are significantly larger than the
other ganglia, the dorsal ganglia are sometimes
referred to as the brain. However, in contrast to annelids, a significant number of
arthropod activities are controlled at the segmental level. Even after having their
brains removed, members of certain animals are still able to walk, feed, and do other
typical tasks. However, in arthropods, the brain appears to be more of an inhibitor
than a stimulant, such as in the earthworm.

v. Respiratory System

The tracheae and book lungs that serve as

respiratory organs are present in terrestrial
arthropods. The former refers to a network of
very small tubes that, when combined, make it
possible for gases to enter the inside of the body.
The latter are blood-filled plates contained
within internal chambers that are coated with chitin. Over these plates, air that has
been taken in by the tracheae travels in a circular motion, allowing for the exchange
of gases. On the other hand, gills are used for respiration in the case of aquatic
arthropods. Even though the gills, which are outgrowths of the skin, are covered by
an exoskeleton, the exoskeleton is thin in this area, allowing gaseous exchange to
take place.

vi. Excretory System

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 Although different arthropod families
have their own unique excretory
systems, we'll concentrate on the
Malpighian tubule excretory system
that originated in terrestrial
uniramians. Located at the intersection
of the midgut and hindgut, the
digestive tract's malpighian tubules are
long, thin projections. The walls of
Malpighian tubules allow fluid to flow into and out of the blood that bathes them.
Uric acid and guanine are precipitated as this fluid moves through the intestines
toward the hindgut. The hindgut is the final destination for these waste products
before they are excreted. As the arthropod moves through the digestive tract, it takes
in the majority of the fluid and returns it to its own body. Malpighian tubules, a
water conservation mechanism, were another essential adaptation that allowed
arthropods to invade the land.

CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODS

In the classification of arthropods, body segmentation, specialisation, quantity, and appearance

(particularly the appearance of antennae and mouthparts) are essential factors. The position of
the gonopores, the head's structure, and the respiratory and excretory systems' adaptations are
all noteworthy from a taxonomic perspective. Arthropods are classified into five sub-phylum
and each then subdivide into classes

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i. Subphylum Trilobitomorpha (trilobites)
Extinct; head consists of 5 segments containing antennae and compound
eyes; oval, flattened body composed of segmented cephalon, thorax, and
pygidium; dorsal surface moulded longitudinally into 3 lobes; each segment
contains a pair of similar, branched appendages; More than 4,000 fossil
species have been identified from the Cambrian Period through the end of
the Paleozoic Era.

ii. Subphylum Chelicerata

The body is divided into two parts: the prosoma (the cephalothorax) and the
opisthosoma (the abdomen). There are no antennae, and the first pair of
appendages consists of chelicerae flanking the mouth. There is three classes
for this subphylum which is class Merostomata, class Arachinida, and
class Pycnogonida.

iii. Subphylum Crustacea

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 The majority are aquatic, with a head that has two pairs of antennae, a pair
of mandibles, and two pairs of maxillae; the trunk is highly variable, but it
is frequently covered in part or entirely by a fold of the head that faces
backward (carapace); paired appendages are biramous, with one branch
often missing; most species have two stalked or stalkless compound eyes;
when present, gas exchange organs are gills; most are marine,

iv. Subphylum Myriapoda

Chiefly terrestrial; segmental appendages primitively unbranched; head
appendages comprise a pair of antennae, a pair of mandibles, and 1 or 2
pairs of maxillae; trunk and appendages variable; respiratory organs are
tracheae. It have four classes which is class Chilopoda, class Symphyla,
class Diplopoda, and class Pauropoda.

v. Subphylum Hexapoda
This subphylum have two class which is class Insecta and class
Entognatha. For class Insecta, the body is made up of a head, thorax, and
abdomen. The head has simple eyes and usually a pair of lateral compound
eyes. There are two pairs of maxillae, but the second pair is fused (labium).
The thorax is made up of three segments, each with a pair of legs, and the
second and third segments usually have wings. The abdomen is made up of
11 segments, but adults don't have any appendages. There is a gonopore

ADAPTION AND EVOLUTION

The phylum of arthropods is the largest of any animal on

the planet. Arthropods make up a large portion of the
natural world's biodiversity. They have developed a wide
variety of responses to the conditions in their habitat. For
example, the vast majority of arthropods are rather modest
in size. Arthropods have a large head that is made up of
paired antennae and compound eyes. Arthropods can be classified into several different
orders. The group of animals known as the Arthropoda was the first to develop a head.

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Arthropods always have two of every type of appendage, even those with joints. Arthropods
that fly often have either one or two sets of wings. Because of this, they are able to more
easily spread. The bodies of arthropods are protected by an exoskeleton made of chitinous
material. The exoskeleton is responsible for providing support to the body as well as
attachment points for the muscles. In addition to this, it stops the body from losing water.
Molting, also known as ecdysis, is the process by which an animal sheds its exoskeleton in
order to make room for new growth. In addition to having a mouth and an anus, arthropods
have a fully developed digestive system. The kind of food that they consume causes variation
in the mouthparts that they have. Some of them have lapping and chewing, others have
sucking or syphoning, and others have syphoning. Gills, the trachea, or book lungs may be
used in the process of breathing. Malpighian tubules are the organs that are responsible for
the excretion process in terrestrial arthropods. The elimination of wastes containing nitrogen
as uric acid helps to keep the body from losing too much water. Arthropods are unisexual
creatures.

The evolution of segmentation among annelids was the first important breakthrough in
coelomate body structure. In the phylum of arthropods, which most likely descended from an
annelid ancestor, jointed appendages were an even more revolutionary change. Although
arthropods have segmented bodies like those of annelids, they often fuse together into
functional groups as adults. Legs, antennae, and a variety of mouthparts are examples of
arthropod jointed appendages. Arthropods. As a result of their ability to use a wide range of
appendages, arthropods have been the most successful of all animal groups.

The second big change in the body plan of arthropods is that they have a rigid exoskeleton
made of chitin and protein. Any animal has a skeleton that serves as a framework for muscles
to attach to. As an added layer of defence against predators and evaporation, arthropod
muscles are attached to the inner surface of their hard exoskeleton. Chitin shares toughness
and flexibility with cellulose, the most prevalent structural component of plants. Chitin and
protein combine to form an outer layer that is both strong and flexible, allowing it to flex in
response to muscle contractions. Calcium salt deposits strengthen the exoskeleton in most
crustaceans, but at the expense of flexibility. A drawback, though, is that there is a limit.

Large insects' exoskeletons need to be significantly thicker to withstand the muscle pull than
those of little insects. Why don't we see beetles the size of birds or crabs the size of cows?
Because the exoskeleton would be so thick that the animal would be unable to move its

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enormous weight. There are few arthropods larger than your thumb because of the intrinsic
size constraint in the body design of arthropods.

HOW ARTHROPODS ARE SUCCESS IN BOTH AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL

ENVIRONMENT

The possession of a chitinous exoskeleton, along

with comparatively small size, short life cycles, and
genetic adaptability, have enabled arthropods to
colonise every conceivable terrestrial habitat. This
is the one factor that is shared by all arthropods and
can undoubtedly be attributed to a large portion of
their success. The insects are probably more
successful than the arachnids because their ability to fly enables them to migrate from one
environment to another and utilise each to its own greatest advantage. This gives the insects a
competitive advantage over the arachnids. However, the Coleoptera, which is the largest
order of all, demonstrates a contradictory tendency toward a substantial reduction in the
number of wings and even toward a complete lack of flight. It's also true that not all insects
enjoy the same level of success. There is no way to escape the conclusion that the
endopterygote orders Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera hold the position
of preeminence. Although Orthoptera and Isoptera are by no means unsuccessful, they do not
exploit the diversity of habitats occupied by Endopterygota, which are able to utilise different
modes of life when they are larvae and when they are adults. This allows Endopterygota to
exploit a wider variety of environments.

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REFERENCE:

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July 18, 2022, from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/characteristics-of-

anthropods.html

Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L. (1988). The Success of Terrestrial Arthropods. SpringerLink.

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D. Barnes, R. (2021, September 22). Arthropod - Classification. Encyclopedia Britannica.

Retrieved July 18, 2022, from

https://www.britannica.com/animal/arthropod/Classification

J, S. K. (2017, June 13). Nervous System of Arthropods| Invertebrates | Zoology. Zoology

Notes. Retrieved July 20, 2022, from

https://www.notesonzoology.com/arthropods/nervous-system-arthropods/nervous-

system-of-arthropods-with-diagram-invertebrates-zoology/6821

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