Lecture 2

Laws of thermodynamics
 Laws of thermodynamics
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states
“If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other”.

It serves as a basis for the validity of temperature

measurement. By replacing the third body with a
thermometer.

The zeroth law can be restated as

“Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact”.
 Laws of thermodynamics
The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e and is expressed as
e= E/m (kJ/kg)

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential,
electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear and their sum constitutes the total energy
‘E’ of a system
The total energy of a system in two groups: macroscopic and microscopic.
The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies
The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a
system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent of
outside reference frames.
The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a
system and is denoted by “U”.
 Laws of thermodynamics
The total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential, and internal energies
and is expressed as

E = U + KE + PE
= U+ (1/2) m v2 + mgz (kJ)
or, on a unit mass basis,
e = u + ke + pe
= u +(1/2) v2 + gz (kJ/kg)

Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of the center of gravity remain constant
during a process are frequently referred to as stationary systems.

The change in the total energy ∆E of a stationary system is identical to the change in
its internal energy ∆ U.
 Laws of thermodynamics
Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time.

Energy flow rate Mass flow rate Volume flow rate

Mass flow rate:

Analogous to m=ρV
ρ = Fluid density, Ac = Cross-sectional area of flow,
and Vavg = Average flow velocity normal to Ac .
The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate. Similarly
Energy flow rate:

Analogous to E = me.

Mass and energy flow rates associated with

the flow of steam in a pipe of inner diameter D
with an average velocity of Vavg
 Laws of thermodynamics
Internal energy is defined as the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system.
It is related to
The molecular structure and
The degree of molecular activity

The translational kinetic energy is due to the movement of the molecules of a gas
through space with some velocity.
The atoms of polyatomic molecules rotate about an axis, and the energy associated
with this rotation is the rotational kinetic energy.
The atoms of a polyatomic molecule may also vibrate about their common center of
mass, and the energy associated with this back-and-forth motion is the vibrational
kinetic energy.
For gases, the kinetic energy is mostly due to translational and rotational motions,
with vibrational motion becoming significant at higher temperatures.
The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energies of
the molecules is called the sensible energy .
 Laws of thermodynamics
The average velocity and the degree of activity of the molecules are proportional
to the temperature of the gas.

Temperatures kinetic energies internal energy.

The internal energy is also associated with various binding forces between the
molecules of a substance, between the atoms within a molecule, and between
the particles within an atom and its nucleus.
The phase-change process:
The binding forces of the molecules to each other are strongest in solids and
weakest in gases. If sufficient energy is added to the molecules of a solid or
liquid, the molecules overcome these molecular forces and break away, turning
the substance into a gas. This is a phase-change process. Because of this added
energy, a system in the gas phase is at a higher internal energy level than it is in
the solid or the liquid phase. The internal energy associated with the phase
change of a system is called the latent energy.
 Laws of thermodynamics
Some Types of energy:

The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be
converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical
device such as an ideal turbine.
Examples:
A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its pressure, and a
turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its pressure.
The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called
chemical energy.

The nuclear forces are much larger than the forces that bind the electrons
to the nucleus. The tremendous amount of energy associated with the
strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear energy