Activities

Section-A

Activity No. A1
AIM
To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without iron core.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
.Inductor coil wound over a hollow asbestos cylinder
Removable soft iron core fitted into the cylinder.
.Battery
Rheostat
One-way key
.Connecting wires
DC ammeter
DC voltmeter
AC ammeter
AC voltmeter
THEORY/PRINCIPLE/FORMULA
A hollow cylindrical coil of copper wire consisting of a large number of turns is called inductor. The
resistance of an inductor is the ratio of the potential difference developed across its ends and the current
flowing through it.
DC voltage-
Resistance, R DC currentI
=

Reactance of an inductor is the opposition to flow of alternating current offered by it. It is denoted by XL
It is expressed as
X = = 2ntfL.

Where f is the frequency.

It is the total effective to flow of alternating current offered by a coil of resistance R
Impedance opposition
and inductance L in an ac circuit. Mathematically, it is expressed as

Where VTms and ms are effective values of ac voltage and ac current.

90 PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII

 HHHHHH7 Activities
DIAGRAV

To AC Mains
To AC Mains

000000g900000 Variac
9999999099O
A
Inductor
with iron
Inductor
without core
QQOIOIIOOIIA| core 5
Soft iron
core

PROCEDURE

1. Using the given coil as unknown resistance, determine the resistance of the coil as in Exp. No. A1.
Now assemble the circuit as shown in figure using AC ammeter and AC voltmeter.

3. Record the current and the potential difference.

4. The ratio gives the impedance of the inductor without the core.
5. Insect the givern iron core inside the inductoor.

6. Determine the inpedance of the inductor without the core as discussed in steps 2 to 5.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of DC ammeter =...**** A
Least count of AC ammeter
Least count of DC voltmeter **************.
V

Least count of AC voltmeter

[ n l e t e=..
r... V

Table for Resistance (without core)

S. No. D.C. ammeter reading I (amp.)

D.C. voltmeter reading V(volts)R=(ohm
1.

2.

3.

6.

Mean, R = . . . . . Ohm

PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XU 91
 Activities

Table for resistance (with core)

Mean, R' =
As above ohm
Table for Impedance (without iron core)

S. No.
A.C. ammeter reading, I (amp.)
A.C. voltmeter reading, V (volts)
Z=ohm
2.

6.

Mean, Z O h m

Table for impedance (with iron core)

As above
Mean Z'= aass Ohm

RESULT
than R.
(i) Impedance, Z =

yR +X is more

with iron is very large as compared to impedance without it. (:: Z' =
4,Z), where
(ii) Impedance Z core

permeability of iron.
4, is relative

PRECAUTIONS

1. All the connections should be clean and tight.

2. The ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with sandpaper.

3. Close the key only while taking observation.

4. Soft iron core must be inserted fully inside the induction coil.
5. Least count of all instruments should be determined before the start of experiment.

sOURCES OF ERROR
1. The connection may be loose.
enough to record the difference in
2. The least count of ac voltmeter and ac ammeter may not be small
impedance accuratly on inserting the iron core.

92 PRACTICAL PHYsICS-CLASS XII.

 Activities
V i v a - O c e

While is meant|by capacitive reactance.

Q.1. Q.8. Is there
any device which may control the
Capacitivereactance (X)
=

AnS.
OC 27C Where alternative current without dissipationof
Cis the capacitance of the capacitor and v is energy?
the frequency. Ans. Yes, pure inductor and pure
capacitor.
What is the Sl
unit of impedance? Q.9. What will be the effect
0.2. on inuuctive
reactance (X) if the
Ans. Ohm (2). frequency of ac source
is increased?
is the impedance of an LR circuit?
o.3. What
Ans. SinceX 2nvL, hence X, will increase.
=

Ans. Impedence of an LR circuit (2) =

/r2+ (oL? Q.10. What will be effect on
capacitive reactance
or
Z yR+ (2twL? (X)if the frequency of ac source is
where L is self inductance of the coil, v is increased?
frequency of ac and R is the resistance Ans.
X decreases as Xc=
associated with the coil.
Q.11. What is an ideal inductor?
the SI unit of reactance?
Q.4. What is Ans. An ideal inductor is that which has self
only
Ans. ohm (2). inductance. It does not have any ohmic
0.5. Is there any inductance of a coil in a direct resistance any kind of capacitive reactance.
or

current? Q.12. Is it possible to have an ideal inductor in

Ans. No, as no change of magnetic flux is involved the laboratory?
with direct current. Ans. No, it is not possible to have an ideal inductor
Q.6. DC ammeter and voltmeter can't be used in without any ohmic resistance, since inductor
AC. Why? is made up of some conducting wire which

Ans. In altermating current, the direction of current

offers resistance.

changes 100 times per second due to which Q.13. How can you have a resistor without
the needle of these devices cannot follow the inducetance?
direction change. Hence, the pointer will not Ans. If a wire wound resistor has non-inductive
be deflected and will remain at rest. winding. t has no inductance.
Q.7. What is the frequency of domestic Q.14. What is the reciprocal of reactance?
alternating current supply? How many Ans. Susceptance (of an AC circuit).
times does it become zero in one second?
Q.15. What is the reciprocal of impedance.
Ans. 50 Hz. It becomes twice in each
zero cycle Ans. Admittance.
and so it becomes zero 100 times per second.

PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII 93

 Activities

Activity No. A2
AIM
To measure resistance, voltage (ACIDC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given
circuit using multimeter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Multimeter
Carbon resistors
.Cartridge fuse
Step-down transformer
Battery eliminator/Cell
.One-way key
THEORY/PRINCIPLE/FORMULA
A multimeter is an instrument used for
measuring the current, voltage (ac/dc) and resistance (high/low). It
is also known as AVO meter where A stands for current in
amperes, V stands for voltage in volt and O stands
for resistance in ohm.
Carbon resistoes are small in size and made of carbon. Their values are
given using a colour code: To
remember the colour sequence in the increasing order of the number assigned to the colour BBROY GB VGW
named after BB Roy of Great Britain is Very Good Worker.

DIAGRAM

SLUNUsa

RAD

94 PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XI-

 HHTTTAcs
Activities
P R O C E D U R E

Measure Resistance
A. To
C h e c k and
mark the given carbon resistors
1.
at X, X, and X
1 r d the coloured bands marked on them in proper order and find their resistance with the help
code table.
of colour
3. Set the multimeter to proper resistance range according to the value of resistance to be measured.
To1uch the two leads of the multimeter directly and adjust the pointer to zero reading by adjuster
4. T
knob.

Touch the two leads of the multimeter to the terminals of the given resistance. Record the reading of
5. the meter.
the resistance from

6. Repeat the above steps with other resistances X, and X.

measure AC Voltage
B. To
knob to AC voltage range 100 V.
1. Set the multimeter
2, Connect the leads of the multimeter to the terminals of the secondary coil of the given step-down
transformer

the transformer circuit and record the AC voltage output of the transformer.
3. Switch on

4. Repeat the above steps with other values of tapping of battery eliminator.
C. To Measure DC Voltage
voltage range 0 10 V.
1. Set the multimeter knob to DC
to

and the terminal of the cell. Record the

2. Touch the two leads to the positive terminal negative
voltage.
D. To Measure AC/DC Current
Proceed as for AC/DC voltage but taking care that the leads of the multimeter are in series with appropri-

ate circuit.

E. Continuity Check
1. Set the multimeter to measure resistance.
(leads) of the multimeter directly. Adjust the reading
to zero.
2. Connect the two terminals
3. Touch the ends of the cartridge fuse with the leads of the multimeter. If the value of resistance drops
of the fuse. If the resistance is infinite ie., the multimeter is not
to very low, it indicates continuity
affected by the cartiridge fuse, it indicates discontinuity.

OBSERVATIONS
Table for Resistance Measurement
Name of Colour of rings Resistance Resistance
Resistance
II IV from colour measured Difference
used I
by multimeter
A C D coding
(Q) (Q)

PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XIl 95

 Activities

Table for Voltage Measurement

Natue of Observation Value of voltage Value of voltage Difference

measured by
source of S.No. between the
Voltage,
emf terminal of the multimeter, V- V
sourcem, V, (volt) V (volt) (volt)
DC source

AC source

RESULT
1. Within the experimental error limits, the value of the carbon resistor calculated colour
by coding and
measured with the help of multimeter is same.
2. Voltage (AC/DC) measured by the multimeter is the value of
same as
voltage marked on
(AC/DC)
source.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Read the instructions before using multimeter so that it may not get damaged.
2. Pass the alternating current for minimum possible time.
3. In measuring DC voltage/current, polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper
polarity in
the circuit.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. When resistance
we measure
using analog multimeter, zero adjustment may not be accurate.
2. Selection of function switch
may be inappropriate.
3. The scale/range used in
reading of voltage/current may not be proper.

Viva-Voce
Q.1. What is meant by resistance? Ans. Multimeter is a device which is used
Ans. It is the of
conductor by virtue of
property a to measure resistance, DC/AC current and
which it or opposes the flow of current in it. AC/DC voltage.
Q.2. What is the SI unit of resistance? Q.5. What is the other name of multimeter?
Ans. ohm(2). Ans. AVO meter because it measures current in
Q.3. Which type of resistors are used in electrical ampere (A), voltage in volt (V) and resistance
and electronic circuits? in ohm (2).
Ans. Carbon resistors are used in electrical and Q.6. Give one main difference between DC
electronic circuits. voltage and AC voltage.
Q.4. What is multimeter? Ans The magnitude of dc voltage is always
96 | PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XI
 ant
periodically.
but the
magnitude ot ac
votage varies
Activities
Ans. Yellow, violet
Q.7. A arbon resistor of 47 ka and
with rings of
is to be
mark
rked
Q.8. A carbon resistor orang.
different has
colours for its
identification. Write the sequence sequence yellow, violet,coloured tips the
of colours. What is its brown and gold.
Ans. 470Q resistance?

Activity o. A3
ATM
To assemble household
a
circuit
fuse and a power source. comprising three bulbs, three (ON/OF) swtiches, a

APPARATus REQUIRED
Tester
Three electric bulbs of 40W, 60OW
and 100W.
Three bulb holders
Three switches (ON/OFF)
Red and black insulated flexible
wires
Fuse wire
Tools

Main plug
Insulating tape
THEORY/PRINCIPLE
Household circuit fuctions on main
supply of 220 V ac at 50 Hz and current
rating is 5A for domestic
bulbs, fluorescent tubes, fans, etc. and 15 A for use tor

hot plates, etc.

load heavy appliances like retrigerator, air-conditioner, geyse
Total power
consumption P at any time, P =
Pi +
P2 + Pg+
where P P2 and P, are
powers drawn by various appliances at a
potential V, from the mains,

PV
Here, P is in watt, V in volt and I in
ampere. Electric fuse in a safety device which is used to limit the
current. It is a short
piece of wire made up of a material of high resistivity and of low melting point so that it
may easily melt due to overheating, when excessive current the circuit. It is always
n
passes through connected
series with a
supply source on phase wire. Remember that in household circuits, all appliances are con-
ected in parallel while a switch is connected in series with each appliance on phase wire ot the supply
line.

97
 Activities
Q.9. How is ammeter connected to the battery in Q.10. Can alternating current be measured by. an
ed by
the circuit? ammeter?

Ans. Its positive terminal should be towards the Ans. No; ammeter can measture oniy direct
positive terminal of the battery and negative
current.
Q.11. What is a voltmeter?
towards the negative terminal of the battery.
Ans. It is a
moving coil
galvanometer having a
high resistance.

Activity No. A5

AIM
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Potentiometer
One-way key
Ammeter
Rheostat
Battery
Voltmeter
Connecting wire
Sandpaper
Graph paper
THEORY/PRINCIPLE/FORMULA
Let V be the potential difference across a portion of wire whose resistance is R.
According to Ohm's law potential difference across wire, V = IR
Where I is the current passing through the wire of resistance R.

But R = , where p is the resistivity of material of the wire, I is the length of the portion of the wire and

A is the area of cross-section of wire.

Therefore, V= 1

or
constant (say k)
1.e. V=kl, where k is called
potential gradient
Potential gradient is defined as the fall of potential per unit length of a wire of uniform cross-section. It
remains same for the entire length of the given wire.

102 PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS Xl-

 Activities
DIAGRAM

Bettery (E)
H °} ostat
K
Ammeter (A)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
J
Jockey

Volumeter
PROCEDURE

DraW a circuit diagram for

experimental arrangement
and connect all the
E a rheostat, a voltmeter, an
ammeter and components like a battery
potentiometer wire as shown in figure.
one-way key to the terminals P and
Q of a
a Ohserve that the positive terminal of voltmeter is
connected to the
potentiometer.
zero cm terminal of

Press the jockey at pont

P, 1.e., at the zero cm mark of wire
where the positive terminal of
reading. This reading must be zero but if it is not so thenbattery
is
connected. Recored the voltmeter
correction to the voltmeter reading must be noted. the zero

A Now press jockey at different lengths of wire

away from its zero cm end P and recored the
corresponding readings of voltmeter.
5. Calculate potential gradient every time.
6. Plot a graph between V and i.

OBSERVATIONS
Reading of constant current flowing through the potentiometer wire =
A.

CABLE

S.No. Length of wire through Potential difterence Potential gradient,

which potential difference
is measured, I (cm)"
measured by volotmeter,
k
V (V) (Vlcm)
1.
Vo
20
V k TorV-Y
20 cm
3.
0 V2 V-V
21or 40 cm
60 V
5 80 V

PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII 103

 Activities

CALCULATE
Plot between V and 1. This will be a
straight line as shown. The
a
graph
slope of the line gives potential gradient.

RESULT
1. Within the experimental error, it is observed that the potential
for the wire of uniform area of cros-section
gradient given
carrying a steady current is nearly constant throughout the wire.
2. The V vs I graph is a straight line showing that potential drop (cm)
increases with increase in length of the wire.
3. Mean value of potential gradient (k) = - V cm'.

PRECAUTIONS

1. All the connections should be clean and tight.

2. The reading of current throug ammeter should be unchanged throughout the experiment.
it should not be pressed hard the wire.
3. The jockey should be touched on the wire gently, on

4. Plug should be inserted in the key only when the observations are being taken.

SOURCES OF ERROR
wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
1. The potentiometer
in the circuit.
2. Voltmeter/ammeter may not be connected correctly

Viva-Voce
What is the aim of the activity being| Q.5. What is the unit of potential gradient?
Q.1.
Ans. volt per metre or V/m.
performed?
of galvanometer?
the variation in potential drop with What is the use
Ans. To study Q.6.
a wire for a steady
current. Galvanometer is used to detect the flow of
length of Ans
this electric current in the circuit.
Q.2. Name the device which is used for
activity. Q.7. Name the quantity defined
as potential drop
Ans. Potentiometer.
per unit length.

does it work? Ans. Potential gradient.

Q.3. On what principle
value of potential
Ans. The working of a potentiometer
is based upon Q.8. On what factor does the
gradient along a wire depend?
the principle that the potential drop across any
cross-section is
portion of the wire of uniform Ans. It depends on:
length
to the of the wire resistance per unit length of the wire.
directly proportional (i)
provided a steady current is passed through current flowing through it.
(ii)
it.
difference?
Q.4. What is the unit of potential
Ans. volt

104PPATICAL PHYSIC
 Activities
PRECAUTIONS

shou be neat, clean and

All
connections

tight.
1.
insulated wires should be used for connections.

given
circuit should
sh not be checked by
inserting plug into the
3. A of the circuit.
key. This may damage any
components

Viva-Oce

What is an open circuit? Q.4. How isvoltmeter connected in the circuit?

Q.1.
f some electrical components are connected Ans. It is always connected in parallel to the
in such a way that no current flows through resistor across which the voltage has to be
the circuit then circuit is called an open circuit. measured.
is an ammeter connected in the circuit? Q.5. List two main
0.2. How precautions in this activity.
ammeter 1S always connected in series. Ans. 1. To provide variable resistance.
Ans. An
is it connected in series? 2. Terminals of all electrical components
Q.3. Why
Ans. Since
ammeter has low resistance and
it will should be connected tightly and neatly.
not affect the current. So'it is connected in
series.

Section-B

Activity No. B1)

AIM
lo identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed
collection of these items.
ew

APPARATuS REQUIRED
Collection of
a diode LED
.Transistor IC
Resistoor .Capacitor
Multimeter
PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII|107
TT Activities

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
For identification of different items from a collection, we have to consider both, their appearance- and
working.
1. A diode: A diode is a semiconducting device which has two terminals. It conducts
forward biased and it does not conduct when reverse biased. only when it ie

2. A light emitting diode (LED): It is a two terminals device, which

gives out light when electrie
current passes through it. A diode and a LED both allow the flow of current in
one direction onl
3. A resistor: It is also a two terminals device. It conducts direct current and
resistor can conduct equally even when the terminals of
alternating current both. A
battery connected across it are reversed.
4. A capacitor: It is also a two terminal device but it does not allow
direct current (dc) to flow
its self. It stores some charge when dc through
voltage is applied. It conducts alternating current.
5. A transistor: It is a three terminals device
(emitter, base and collector). It has three terminals and it
may be identified by appearance only.
6. An IC circuit): In
(intergrated integrated circuits many circuits are intergrated in one chip. ICs are
obtained by complex procedure involving diffusion, oxidation, photolitho-graphy, metallisation,
a
etc. It isa multiterminal component. Most of IC packages have flat back. The
thinner than the
tips of its legs are
tops.
IC is the component which has flat back, number of
a a
large legs/terminals, made of flat metal strips.
DIAGRAM

Silver rin9
Silver
Red Green
Orange
Junction Diode LED Resistor
) (in)
Chip
Plastic case

Black
Anode Cathode dot
TT notch small
E BC
Electrolytic Mica capacitor Transistor
dot pin 1

capacio(v) (V) Integrated circuit (IC)

(V)

PROCEDURE
1. From the given collection, separate all items with four or more terminals. All these items are ICS
(integrated circuits).
2. Separate the items having three terminals. These items are transistors.
3. Set the multimeter to measure resistance in the range of a few kilo-ohms. Take a two-terminal item
and measure its resistance in both the directions by connecting the +ve and the -ve leads to either of
its terminals. If it offers equal resistance in both directions, it is a resistor.
4. Repeat step (3) with other two terminal items. If it offers very high resistance in both he directions
and does not conduct, it is a
capacitor.
5. The two-terminal device with high resistance in one direction and low resistance in the other is a
diode. It does not emit light when it conducts.
6. Identify the two-terminal device with high resistance in one direction (reverse bias) and low
resistance in the opposite direction (forward bias). If it emits ight as it conducts and offers low
resistance, it is an LED

108 | PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLAS5 X!!

 Activities
ONS/RESULTS

itemsin
s the
in the mixed collection have been identified and the result may be summed
All tthe
I up as in the table
given below

etifjication of Components with the Help of Terminals

Identif

No. of terminals/legs
S. No. Devices
More than three IC
1.
Three Transistor
2.
Two Diode, LED, resistor and capacitor
3.

tification of Components with the Help of Current Flow

B.

S. No. No. of terminals/legs (02) Devices

1 Unidirectional with no light emission Diode

2. Unidirectional with light emission LED
3. Current in both direction (steady) Resistor
No flow of direct current in any direction
-
Capacitor
PRECAUTIONS

1. Connections should be neat and tight.

2. Strong current should not be passed through the components.
3. Polarity should be reversed for identifying the items, eg, diode, LED, etc.
4. Students must handle the multimeter careftully since it is very sensitive.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Multimeter shows zero resistance on touching its metal leads. If it does not show zero resistance,
bring the pointer to zero using zero adjustment knob on the multimeter. If zero adjustnment is not
done, the resistance measurement will not be true.
2. While checking resistance, if metal ends of multimeter leads are touched by hands, body resistance in
parallel with the component resistance affects the value of the resistance.

Viva-Voce
Q.1. What is meant by a transistor? two comparatively thicker layers of n-
Ans. type semicondutors, it forms a n-p-u
() If a thin layer of 1-type
very
transistor.
semiconductor is sandwiched between
two relatively thicker layers of p-type Q.2. What is an LED?
semicondutors, it forms a transistor Ans. LED is a light emitting diode which emits light
called p-n-p transistor. when a current passes through it.
() Tf a very thin layer of p-type
semiconductor is sandwiched between

PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS X { 109

 Activities
Q.3. Why does an LED emit light? Q.9. Name the three types of
configuration in transistors?
possible
Ans. When LED is forward biased, energy is
released in the form of light at the junction due Ans. () common emitter,
to recombination of holes and electrons.
() common base and
Q.4. Name some other types of diodes.
(ii) common collector conifiguration.
Ans. Other types of diodes are Zener diode, solar
Q.10. Which of the cireuit is commonly used?
cells, etc.
Ans. The common emitter circuit is
Q.5. Draw the symbols of two ypes of transistors
used.
commonly
commonly used.
Q.11. What is an IC?
Ans. Yes.
Ans. IC means an
intergrated circuit, in which
E C circuit
(emiter /(Collector) (emitter)/ (Collector) components like diodes, transistors,
resistors and capacitors are put together in
a
B miniatured from on a silicon wafer.
(base (base) Q.12. What are applications of IC's?
p-n-p transistor p-n transistor
Ans. IC's are used in electronic
)
instruments
wherever miniaturisation of circuits
is
Q.6. What are the applications of a transistor? needed.

Ans Transistor can be used as an amplifier, as an Q.13. Define capacitor.

oscillator and as a switch in switching circuits. Ans. It is also a two terminal device which
does
Q.7. How many terminals are there in a transistor? not conduct DC when it is biased in either
direction. But it allows alternating current to
Ans. Three.
pass through it.
Q.8. Name the three terminals of a transistor.
Ans. The terminals of a transistor are called emitter,
base and collector

Activity No. B2
AIM
Use of multimeter to ()identifybase of transistor, (i) distinguish between n-p-n andp-n-p type
transistors, (ii) see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an LED, (iv) check
whether a given electronic component (e.g, diode, transistor or IC) is in working order.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
.Multimeter
npn and pnp transistors
IC

.Junction diode
LED

110 PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII-

 Activities
THEORY/PUNCIPLE
It is three terminal der
aa three
terminaldevice which consists of two
p-n junctions fused back to back. A transistor
Transistor:andwiching a thin layer of extrinesIC semiconductor (n-type or p-type) between the two com-

s formed
layers of the opposite type (p-type or n-type) as shown in Figs. a and b
parativ
o t two types:
are
Transistors
(i)p--p transistor

(i) n-p-n transistor

1own
know as base (B) and the left and right layers are called emitter (E) and collector (C)
fiddle
thin layer is
r e s p e c t i v e l y

EmiterpnP
(E)
Collector Emitter
(E)
Collector
(C) (C)
Base (B) Base (B)

B B

Fig. a p-n-p transistor symbol Fig. a n-p-n Iransistor syrmbol

For Identifications,
we have the following:
1. Jdentification of the base of a transistor: There are three terminals of a transistor say, a, b and c. If
conduction of current takes place when multimeter is connected between a and b as well as between
b and c. Then common terminal b is the base of the given transistor.
It may also be noticed that collector lead (or terminal) lies on the other side of the base terminal and
is far from the other two leads (emitter and base) which are situated close to each other.
2. Identification of type of a transistor: As in the above case, if the common (base) terminal of
transistor is connected to +ve terminal of the battery and conduction takes place then transistor is of
n-p-n type. On the other hand if conduction takes place when the common (base) terminal of
transistor is connected to -ve terminal then transistor is of p-p type.
3. Conduction of a diode and an LED: An LED and a diode, both conduct only when they are
connected in forward biased mode. There will be no flow of electric current if they are connected in
reverse biased mode.
IC is a multiterminal device with a flat back. Normally, it consists of minimum 8 legs.
4. Working order of given component: In case of a diode and an LED, hey will allow current to pass
through them in forward biased mode only.
A transistor conducts only when the base-emitter is forward biased and does not conduct in reverse
biased mode. If it allows the flow of current in both biasing or does not allow the flow of current in
both biasing then, it is damaged.

PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XIl | 111

 Activities

DIAGRAM

Emitter n Collector Emitter n P n

(E) (C) E) Collector

(C)
Base (B) Base (B)

E C E C

B B

Fig. a p-n-p transistor symbol Fig. a n-p-n transistor symbol

Low
Pe Resistance pa

Black Red lead Black Red lead

lead lead
cD Forward biased c DForward biased Multimeter Battery Multimeter

CISp bis p P
Battery
a is n P
a is n
p-n-p Transistors)
Fig. f. p-n junction in ig 9. p-n junction in
Fig. e. ldentification of p-n-p Transistors foward biasing reverse biasing

PROCEDURE
1. Identification of Base and Type of Transistor
) Look at the leads of the given transistor. The lead that lies on the outer side and is far from the
other two leads situated close to each other, is collector.
Therefore, we have to identify the base from the leads placed closely
(in) The ternminal marked common or negative (to which black lead is connected) on the multimeter, is to
be treated as positive and other terminal marked as positive (P) is to be treated as negative (red lead
is connected to terminal P). This is because the positive terminal of the multimeter battery s
connected to the common terminal and the negative terminal of multimeter battery is connected to
the terminal marked as positive P.
(in) Choose appropriate range of resistance.
1) Connect one end of the black lead to the common terminal of the multimeter and that of the red lead
to the positive marked terminal (P) on the multimeter.
(o) Connect the other free ends of the black and red leads to the legs marked a and b respectively
(i) Now interchange the connection of leads that is connect free end of red lead to the leg a and the
black lead to the leg b and observe again whether their resistance measured is low or high.
(vii) This possibility may occur that if the resistance measured in both the cases above is high then the
third leg or left out leg c is the base.
(vin) Now, we have to proceed whether transistor is n-p-n or p-n-p. For this, connect the leg a to +ve and
the leg c to the -ve terminal of the multimeter. Observe whether the resistance is high or low.

112 PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XII-

 Activities
) the
Connect the leg b to *ve and the
leg c to -ve and observe again whether the resistance
high o r low.
measured is

It may
laa
be concluded
concluded that if
if the
#
resistance is high in both
(r) hias and the transiIstor is n-p-n type. case above (viii) and (ix) they are in reverse

If the resistance measured

resi is low n both the cases
(in (vii) and (ix). Then
(xi) and the transistor is p-n-p type.
they are forward biased
If the measured resistance is high in step (v) and low
terminal and the leg 'C to the +ve. in step (vi), then connect the leg 'a to -ve

rsistance obtained is high then, the

remaining (third) leg b the base and the transistor is
type.
On the other hand, if
resistance obtained is n-p-
low, b is the base and the
Unidirectional Flow of Current transistor is p-n-p type.
2. For
In case of the junction diode:
[A]
mtheselector switch and set the multimeter to
measure the dc current of
Make electrical connections as given in circuit diagram
10 mA
diode conducts due
figures (f) and (g).
(ii) Thep-n junction to forward
deflecion in multimeter. biasing. The forward current is indicated by the
N o w reverse the terminals of the
battery battery eliminator and record the value
or

multimeter. No electric current is observed in the multimeter which of current in the

unidirectional. proves that the jucntion diode is

IRI In case of LED:

Replace p-n juncion diode with LED and
oted that the flow of current is also
repeat the steps (i) to (iv). It will be
noted unidirectional in the LED and emits
When the connection of LED is reversed then multimeter
light in forward biased mode.
shows no deflection and no
LED. It means LED does not conduct when reversed biased. light is emitted from
3. Checking a Diode/Transistor
(Working Mode)
() The p-n diode allows the flow of current in
junction forward biased but does not allow the flow of
current in the
reverse biased. If it allows the
flow of current in both
flow of current in both biasing then biasing or does not allow the
junction diode is damaged.
(i) For working of a transistor. By trial method, find two
no conduction in
legs of the transistor between which there is
forward as well as reverse
in forward biasing, these legs will be emitter and higher resistance
biasing between base and collector.
Identification of terminals of an
The
integrating circuit (i.e., IC)
terminals of an IC are commonly known as
legs. The leg
Terminals/legs of IC cannot be identified by a multimeter.configuration
choice. is according to manufacturer's
An IC tester is required for this purpose.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The multimeter should be set for
Students must handle the
appropriate range
3.
multimeter carefully since it is a
very sensitive device
First check the base of the
transistor.
A
Suitable current should be
allowed to pass through an electronic conmponent otherwise the
component may be damaged.

PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS X!! | 113

H Activities

Viva-Voce
Q.1. What are the advantage of using intergrated (i1) 1f it does not pass a dircct current
at all
circuits? it is a capacitor.
Ans. (i) They contain a complete electronic circuit (iii) 1f it passes electric current in
one
having transistors, diodes, resistors and direction only without emitting an
capacitors, and occupy a small space. light, it is a diode.
Hence, size of instruments and appliances (iv) If it passes curTent in one
direction only
lange extent.
may be reduced to a very and gives light also, it is an LED.
(ii) IC's may be produced in large number Q.4. What is meant by diode?
but
easily, which not only reduces the cost
Ans. It is a two terminals device which
also the time of production of equipment. conducts
when it is forward biased and does not
( ) IC's for special purposes may be prepared conduct when it is reversed biased. It does
easily not emit light while electric current is
passed
Q.2. What is the difference bettween an IC and a through it.
chip? Q.5. What is a resistor?
Ans. There is no difference. Both are the names of Ans. It is a two terminals device which conducts
the same component. whether it is in forward biased or reverse
Q.3. How will you identify an electronic biased. Alternating current can also be passed
component if it has two pins? through it.
Ans.() If it passes current in both the directions,
it is a resistor.

Activity No. B3
AIM
To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the source) on an LDR.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Muitimeter
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
Light source (A 100 W lamp)
Metre scale
metallic which slide into each other.
Pair of plastic or pipes can

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
resistor (LDR) prepared from cadmium sulphide. Its working is based on fact na
the
A light dependent is
of the light lan b
such cadmium sulphide decreases as the intensity
the resistance of certain semiconductors as

114!PRACTICAL PHYSICSAS5
 Activities
increases.
xample, the value ot resistance of a LDR varies from
(ka) in several mega ohrn (M 2) in the full
on n
few kiloo
a
ohm daylight.
to
dark
that
found
also
the resistance of light dependent resistor
increases with increase
Itis a n d the source due to reduced in the distance be-
tween
the LDR intensity of light
D I A G R A M

A pair of
Lamp
metallic or plastic
Plug in DIpes
to mains
Multinete

TO 2030 40 50 60 7O BO 90 100
Switch Metre scale LDR

PROCEDURE

1. Set the multimeter for measurement of resistance.

Adjust the zero of the multimeter by zero

adjuster in an
appropriate range
Cover the LDR such that no light falls on it. This
a
corresponds to infinite distance between the
source
and the LDR.

4, Connect the two leads ot multimeter to the ends of the resistor and note the
reading.
5. Adjust the distance between the source and LDR as 5 cm. Now allow the light from the
on the LDR for about one minute and record the value of resistance. source to fal
6. Gradually increase the distance between the source and the LDR. Record the value of resistance each
time in the table given below.
7. Repeat the experiment with another LDR.

DBSERVATIONS
Resistance of LDR in full dark = kQ or M12

TABLE
S. No. Distance (cm) Resistance, R (Q)
LDR 1 LDR 2
1.
cm

10 cm
3.
15 cm
4.
20 cm
.

100 cm.

RAT1P1Y -CLASS N115

 Activities
RESULT
The resistance of LDR increases with increase in distance
(or reduced intensity) from the source.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Ensure that the multimeter is set to
appropriate range to measure the resistance.
2. The source of light be
must adjusted is such a way that light falls normally on LDR.
3. The activity should preferably be performed in a dark room.
4. The LDR should be kept fixed while
moving the light source (i.e., bulb).
5. The zero of the multimeter should be
carefully adjusted.

Viva-Voce
Q.1. What is meant by an LDR?
same and resistance of the LDR is
Ans. LDR means measured
light dependent resistor whose again.
resistance depends upon the light falling on
The bulb for which the resistance of the
it. LDR
is lower has a higher
Q.2. What will be the effect on the resistance of
illuminating power.
Q.6. What is the S unit of luminous
an LDR when light falls on it? intensity?
Ans. Yes, candela (cd).
Ans. The resistance of an LDR decreases.
Q.7. What precautions will you take while
Q.3. How will the resistance be affected if the
performing this activity?
source of light is gradually moved away from
Ans. (i) Ensure that the multimeter is set to
the LDR?
appropriate range to measure the
Ans. The resistance of the LDR increases.
resistance.
Q.4. Can you use an LDR for comparing the| (i) The source of light must be
illuminating power (or luminous in tensity)
adjusted
in such way that the light falls
of two bulbs?
normally on LDR.
Ans. Yes. (ii) The activity should be performed in a
Q.5. How will you use an LDR for comparing the dark room.
illuminating power of two bulbs? (io) The LDR should be kept fixed while
Ans The resistance of the LDR is measured moving the light source (i.e., bulb).
by
placing one of the electric bulbs at a certain () The zero of the multimeter should be
distance from the LDR. The bulb is then
carefully adjusted.
replaced by the other one keeping the distance

16 PRACTICAL PHYSICS-CLASS XIl-