CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents a review of related literature and related studies in relation
to the present study. This chapter introduces the different related studies relevant to the
effectiveness of Euphorbia hirta (Tawa-tawa) as mosquito oil lamp repellent from both
local and foreign studies.

Euphorbia hirta (Tawa-Tawa)

An annual herb in the Euphorbiaceae family, Euphorbia hirta. It has been

discovered in warm, tropical places all throughout the world, mostly on highways and in
waste areas, where it is employed in traditional medicine. In addition to flavonoids like
quercetin and its derivatives, Tawa-tawa also contains terpenoids, tannin, phorbic acid,
fatty acids, and sterols. The presence or absence of these chemical components changes
depending on the soil and weather conditions as well as the area of the Tawa-tawa plant
(Ijaz et al., 2017).

According to North Carolina Extension Gardener, Euphorbia hirta are annual

weeds that grow in warm regions and may survive into the late fall in the same climates.
From the summer to the beginning of the fall, plants produce greenish-white blooms
before dying from cold. One of the most frequent warm-season weeds in container
nurseries is spurge. Euphorbia hirta, often known as Dove Milk or Spurges, releases a
milky sap when stems or leaves are torn. Euphorbia hirta can spread quickly because
they blossom early, have little or no seed dormancy, and have high germination rates.
The leaves of this particular type of Euphorbia hirta are noticeably uneven and have a
huge seed head. They are prostrate to ascending. There are two types: one has little,
light green leaves, while the other has bigger leaves that are frequently maroon in color.

Euphorbia hirta is found all over the world and is also known as asthma weed and
milkweed. "Boro Keruie" is its regional name in West Bengal and Bangladesh. It is
common in lowland areas, paddy fields, gardens, waste areas, and by the sides of
highways in temperate or tropical regions of India, Asia, Australia, and Africa. They love
dry and humid environments, from sea level to 2200 m above sea level. It comes from
Central America. It is a weed that is valued for its variety of uses in the conventional
medical system (Ghosh et al., 2019). Furthermore, Ghosh et al. (2019) stated that the
bioactive components such as polyphenols, antioxidants, ascorbic acids, anthocyanins,
flavonoids, terpenoids, volatile oils, and others are present in Euphorbia hirta. Numerous
scientists have researched the plant, and some of its bioactive elements have been
extracted and described. Anthroquinones, coumarin, glycoside, saponin, terpenoids,
alkaloids, steroids, tannins, proteins, lipids, oils, mucilages, chlorophyll, and carotenoids
were all found in the leaf extract after a phytochemical examination. Euphorbia hirta
contains a variety of flavonoid chemicals, including quercetin, quercitrin, quercitol, and its
derivatives, including rhamnose, quercetin rhamnoside, chlorophenolic acid, rutin,
leucocyanidin, myricitrin, cyaniding 3,5-diglucoside, camphol, flavonol, inositol, tetraxerol,
β-sitosterol, and kaempferol.

Mosquito Oil Lamp Repellent

Since a decade ago, the creation and assessment of plant-based repellents have
posed challenges to researchers in terms of dispensing plant-based volatile that suggest
the practicality of plant-based repellents and the longevity of repellents in the future
(Santos J. et al., 2018). Chemical-based mosquito repellents have a very safe design, but
even so, they are harmful to the skin and nervous system and frequently cause rashes,
swelling, and even eye discomfort. As a result, chemical repellents are not favored over
natural ones (Shukla, Wijayapala, and Vankar, 2018).

In many of the poorest communities on the Asian subcontinent, especially in India

and Sri Lanka, plant-based repellents are still widely used in this traditional manner to
prevent mosquito bites. Natural-smelling repellents are preferred because plants are seen
as a reliable and secure form of prevention (Shukla, Wijayapala, and Vankar, 2018).
Public awareness of health issues has increased due to the unchecked rise of the
mosquito population nowadays. Infection and aggravation pests, mosquitoes play a
crucial role. By biting them, it annoys them. A spreader of dangerous and well-known
diseases including West Nile virus, yellow fever, arboviral encephalitis, dengue fever, and
the chikungunya virus. Climate, light, and temperature all had an impact on their activities
(Govindarajan and Sivakumar, 2015).

The use of repellents can assist individuals to stay away from mosquito bites.
Repellents are particularly useful for anyone working or having fun in mosquito-infested
places. Repellents are designed to be applied to exposed skin. They can be purchased
as liquids, aerosols, creams, sticks, solids, and pump sprays (Santos J. et al., 2018).

The use of repellents reduces mosquito contact. Since ancient times, people have
employed plant-based repellents to defend themselves against mosquitoes that are
looking for hosts. Local to the tropics, where they were used for a wide range of medicinal
purposes, are several plants that have bug-repelling characteristics. Because certain
plant volatiles have increased vapor toxicity when compared to insects, they are both
deterrent and repellent (Santos J. et.al., 2018).

Foreign Related Literatures

According to Keerselvam et al. (2013), it is reported that plant extracts or essential

oils have shown effectiveness against mosquito larvae. Euphorbia hirta belongs to the
family Euphorbiaceae. It is a little annual herb that is widespread in tropical regions. The
plant has been reported to contain quercitrin and polyphenols. The extracts were
described as anthelmintic, deterrent, antifeedant, regulating Rotylenchulus reniformis and
Plutella xylostella, antimicrobial, and against worms (Panneerselvam et al., 2013).

Moreover, Ijaz et al. (2017) stated that the tea of Tawa-tawa helps people that have
been afflicted by either malaria or dengue or both, it has also been used to remediate
respiratory and female diseases.
Furthermore, it is indicated in the study that Euphorbia hirta's alcoholic extracts have
strong antifeedant and mosquito-repellent properties. Tawa-tawa contains quercitrin and
polyphenols which are responsible for its antifeedant effect and repellent activity. A
lycosidal substance, terpenoids, tannin, phorbic acid, fatty acids and sterols, as well as
flavonoids like quercetin and its derivatives, are all present in tawa-tawa.
 On top of that, to treat Dengue Fever, E. hirta is utilized (Kadir, Yaakob, and Zulkifli,
2013). E. hirta is composed of flavonoids and other compounds that are used in
insecticides and repellents. According to an article from Kausar et al. (2016), compounds
found in the plant are attributed to its anti-bacterial activities and are proven by using
methanol extract. The plant is also rich in caffeic acid, which is considered to be a natural
insect repellent, especially for mosquitoes.

In addition, the insecticidal and repellent qualities of several plant-based products

are commonly utilized to manage mosquito populations. In this work, a bioactive saponin
that is effective against mosquito larvae has been isolated from a native plant. By
subjecting II and IV instar larvae to four different concentrations of the substance,
bioactive saponin derived from Euphorbia hirta was examined for its larvicidal activity
against Culex quinquefasciatus. Lymphatic filariasis caused by Wucheria is one of these
mosquito-borne diseases. Culex spp is the carrier of bancrofti. The insecticidal and
repellent qualities of several plant-based products are commonly utilized to manage
mosquito populations. Examining the literature, plants have served as reliable sources of
secondary metabolites that can be employed to treat malaria likewise, filarial vectors
(Arya et al., 2011).

Foreign Related Studies

According to a study by Diaz et al. (2019), cotton clothes that were thoroughly
submerged in crude extracts from E. hirta can repel mosquitoes more than non-treated
cotton fabrics. Although this study's observations and experiments indicate that Carica
papaya repels mosquitoes more effectively, essential oils from E. hirta can be used for its
repelling qualities as well. Moreover, many countries in the Asian continent have already
been using E. hirta as a traditional way of healing dengue. The plant is considered a
natural medicine for diseases made prevalent by mosquitoes. The study shows the
effectiveness of E. hirta against dengue since it has important antiviral activities (Ahmad
et al., 2019). Additionally, this kind of medicinal plant has long been used to cure a number
of diseases, including diabetes, malaria, cancer, hemorrhoids, diarrhea, thrombosis, and
helminthiasis (Mohammad et al., 2017). However, due to the risk of miscarriage, it has
not been advised for pregnant women. Terpenoids, tannin, and lycosidal substances are
all present in Tawa-tawa. These are compounds that can serve as deterrents to
mosquitoes. Reported findings from recent publications also indicated that E. hirta
possesses anti-malaria and anti-infective and can be used not only for dengue (Panzu et
al., 2020).

Moreover, this study by Panneerselvam et al. (2013), was conducted to evaluate

the adulticidal, repellent, and ovicidal potential of the crude solvent extracts from the
medicinal plants Andrographis paniculata, Cassia occidentalis, and Euphorbia hirta
against the medically significant mosquito vector, Anopheles stephensi. This was done
considering the recently increased interest in developing plant-origin insecticides as an
alternative to chemical insecticides (Diptera: Culicidae). These findings imply that A.
sabdariffa, C. paniculata westernis, and E. hirta leaf extracts may be utilized as the best
environmentally acceptable method for controlling the A. stephensi. To find the extracts'
active ingredient and put an efficient mosquito management plan in place, a further
thorough investigation is required. Moreover, according to Panneerselvam et al. (2013),
it is reported that plant extracts or essential oils have shown effectiveness against
mosquito larvae. The extracts were described as anthelmintic, deterrent, antifeedant,
regulating Rotylenchulus reniformis and Plutella xylostella, antimicrobial, and against
worms.

In addition, the study of Diaz et al. (2019), stated that Euphorbia hirta (Tawa-Tawa)
leaf crude extracts were microencapsulated with Î2-cyclodextrin. Î2-Cyclodextrin and
crude extracts were produced in various ratios. In a pH-contained solution containing Î2-
CD-Euphorbia hirta crude extract microcapsules and BTCA, cotton cloths were soaked
for an hour. The findings unmistakably demonstrated that essential oil microencapsulation
was a successful technique for extending mosquito repellency. The Euphorbia hirta
fabrics without washings had the fewest mosquitoes landing on them during an hour of
the experiment, according to the results of the mosquito repellency test. The greatest
number of mosquitoes, however, settled on untreated cotton fabric. The findings show
that extracts could be microencapsulated on cotton fabric to repel mosquitoes. Papaya
fabric has the fewest insects, and the Tawa-tawa fabric has the most mosquitoes that
settle on the fabric for the durability test on treated cotton textiles under 10 washes,
between EHF2 and CPF3. Papaya fabric continues to have the fewest mosquitoes on it
among treated fabrics with fewer than 20 washes, whereas Tawa-tawa fabric has the
most.

Mosquitoes are the number one enemy in the fight against infectious diseases that
affect the entire world since they are the carriers of some of humanity's deadliest
diseases. The majority of plant-based repellents are quickly biodegradable and pose no
toxicity risks to people or domestic animals. Natural products are thought to be safer for
humans than manufactured ones. A study by Prabasheela (2018) has made an effort to
highlight the plants that are allegedly used to repel mosquitoes. According to the current
study, the leaves of papaya, tawa-tawa, guava, and neem act as mosquito repellents.
Using plant leaf extract, a safe and effective mosquito repellent lotion was created, and a
cage test validated its effectiveness. More research is required to determine the
effectiveness of mosquito repellent formulations against a variety of mosquito species as
well as to pinpoint the active ingredients responsible for their activity so that, if necessary,
a commercial mosquito repellent product can be made using those ingredients. Additional
research is required to determine the effectiveness of mosquito repellent formulations
against a variety of mosquito species as well as to identify the active ingredients
responsible for their repellent activity so that, if necessary, a commercial mosquito
repellent product can be made using those ingredients.

Local Related Literature

Notably in the Philippines with its tropical and subtropical environment, mosquito-
borne illnesses can have a negative economic impact. Numerous bioactive substances
can be employed to control mosquitoes in the Philippines and eventually disintegrate into
harmless chemicals. In addition to being a substitute for artificial mosquito repellents,
plant extracts can also be used to supplement naturally existing pesticides and prevent
the emergence of insect resistance. As a result of these problems, the need for creative
mosquito larvae management solutions has increased significantly. An alternate way for
controlling mosquitoes is to employ plant extracts or essential oils, which are rich sources
of bioactive components that may be transformed into safe solutions that may be effective
against mosquito larvae (Ijaz and Bazgha, 2017).

For instance, Euphorbia hirta is commonly used in the Philippines to cure and
prevent dengue. Three indigenous communities in Pangasinan were reportedly hit by
dengue outbreaks over the course of two months in 2015, with escalating patients with
dengue being treated with Euphorbia hirta. According to De Guzman (2017), 82 persons
have been found to have dengue and other illnesses in the three indigenous settlements.
The number of people affected by the ailment and the dosage utilized to treat them was
determined by a variety of Euphorbia hirta. The medicine Euphorbia hirta was most used
for therapy. The Matigsalug tribe of Davao-Bukidnon lives close to the river Salug, which
originates in the mountains of Arakan-Cotabato, Bukidnon, and Davao. The influx of
diseases like dengue and malaria is one of the most pressing issues the tribe is facing.
These coconut oil-based therapeutic herbal combinations containing Euphorbia hirta
(Tawa-tawa) are one of the most effective treatments for the tribe. The following
conclusions may be taken from these observations: Elders' testimony on a particular
herbal plant's efficacy typically results from their experiences utilizing it and exhibiting its
"therapeutic marvels." Dengue and malaria have been the two ailments that have affected
Marilog the most frequently throughout the preceding five years.

Additionally, Davao City District in 2010. There were several morbidity cases linked
to dengue in 2005 and 2009 in 2007. In Marilog, Paquibato, Tala-ingod, and Calinan, the
Matigsalug tribe of Davao City may be found. They have traditional ecological wisdom in
limiting diseases spread by mosquitoes that can have a variety of adverse impacts.
People employ local herbal or medicinal plants to treat infections spread by mosquitoes.
Infections spread by mosquitoes can have a range of harmful repercussions, according
to Matigsalug’s traditional ecological knowledge. Most of the time, indigenous medicinal
or herbal plants are used to treat malaria and dengue. In some ailments, the indications
and symptoms are identical. They usually employ Euphorbia hirta (Tawa-tawa) (Gacson,
2014).
Local Related Studies

Several plant-based products include insecticidal and repellent properties that are
frequently used to control mosquito populations. Filipinos are interested in learning how
to cure and limit the spread of the dengue virus, therefore researchers have established
one of the major clinical trials on Tawa-tawa, which was conducted in the Philippines. It
was possible to show that 70% of patients (out of a population of 125 patients) recovered
following therapy. Euphorbia hirta, popularly known as Tawa-tawa, is a plant used to repel
mosquitoes. It is rich in bioactive compounds such as phenolics and flavonoids, which
may be the reason for its anti-dengue benefits. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the
entire plant or its portions for the treatment of various diseases and disorders is the
subject of several research, which are now being done. This project aims to promote
environmentally advantageous outcomes. Researchers hope to use this data to develop
an organic mosquito repellent that can successfully prevent dengue now that people are
aware of the best one (Gascon, 2018).

In the Philippines, Euphorbia hirta is the plant that is most frequently used to cure
dengue. The anecdotal uses of Tawa-tawa were recorded in this study between April and
June of 2015. In three Pangasinan indigenous groups, Euphorbia hirta is used to cure
dengue. Euphorbia hirta, commonly known as Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp., is a shrub
that causes asthma. Hairy herbs with a pantropical range can be found growing in open
meadows, by the sides of highways, and along footpaths under the common name "Tawa-
tawa." In the Philippines, this native herb is said to be the most well-liked dengue folk
remedy. In thrombocytopenic rats, the researchers discovered that an E. hirta lyophilized
leaf decoction increased platelet count. According to traditional medicine practitioners, a
"Tawa-tawa" leaf decoction can cure a viral infection and prevent fever from reaching the
critical stage. Researchers also discussed how "Tawa-tawa" water helped dengue
patients by boosting platelet count and alleviating symptoms. The presence of Euphorbia
hirta is determined by the degree of platelet level variations in dengue patients, according
to researchers. The traditional uses of E. hirta against dengue have been documented,
indicating the plants' relative folkloric relevance among the three indigenous communities
in Pangasinan, where dengue is still an epidemic. Supportive care for hospitalized dengue
patients currently comprises hydration, blood transfusions, and medication with
acetaminophen because the range of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is not fully
developed yet because of their anti-platelet-promoting properties. Dengue vaccines and
antiviral medications are still being developed. The results support the development of
the plant into dosage forms that can be used in clinical trials aimed at ensuring the efficacy
and safety of E. hirta in the supportive therapy of dengue because it was found in this
study to be effective against the majority of dengue symptoms in the initial, febrile, and
recovery stages (De Guzman et al., 2016).

There is a growing interest in E. hirta in the Philippines, particularly its alleged

effect on increasing the platelet count of dengue patients. This study's primary objective
was to compile information on the traditional medical use of E. hirta in a number of
communities across the nation. The leaves, roots, and stem of the plant are its most often
utilized components. Topical or oral administration are the two options. Depending on the
ailment it is used for, the preparation may involve boiling the leaves, stems, and/or roots,
crushing or macerating the leaves to acquire the latex, or squeezing the leaves to obtain
the latex. The sole known drawback of this plant is an increase in urine frequency or
diuresis; there are no known advantages to using it. This cross-sectional descriptive study
used the convenience sample design and snowball approach to find key informants in
areas where Tawa-tawa is known to be used as a natural remedy. Convenience selection
of respondents from the following neighborhoods where it is known that inhabitants utilize
E. hirta: an urban neighborhood in Cebu City, an urban community in Quezon City, a
farming community in Pangasinan, a farming village in Agusan del Norte, and a coastal
and farming Aeta community in the province of Quezon. Two inclusion criteria were used
to choose the respondents: they had to be adults from the Philippines' chosen
communities and aware of the usage of E. hirta as a medicine. This study demonstrates
that the plant was first reported to have been used medicinally by study participants in
1948 when it was used to treat fever. The 1940s were the first time E. hirta was used,
followed by the 1980s (for dengue fever, various fevers, and conjunctivitis), and
subsequently the 2000s (for diabetes and typhoid fever). It wasn't until the 1980s that it
was used especially in treating dengue. It is likely a result of dengue as a disease not
being well known until the 1980s. According to research participants, this investigation
can identify at least four different E. hirta preparations. These treatments include (1)
decoction for treating dengue, malaria, and typhoid fever; (2) sap applied directly to the
eye for treating conjunctivitis; (3) decoction combined with other herbs (such as banaba
and balete) for treating diabetes; and (4) fresh macerated plant juice extracted for treating
gastritis and diarrhea. In the Philippines, Euphorbia hirta has been utilized as a fever
remedy since 1948. Since the 1980s, it has also been used to treat diarrhea, gastritis,
coughs, dengue fever, and diabetes. The only known negative effect is an increase in
urine frequency, and there are no known use contraindications. However, this study could
not find evidence of traditional usage for conjunctivitis, cough, diabetes, dengue, malaria,
gastritis, or diarrhea for a substantial amount of time (Lam et al., 2018).