Electrical Voltage

Electrical voltage is defined as electric potential difference between two points of an electric field.
Unit is volts.
Voltage is a source always applied across two points.

Voltage in series
The total voltage of several voltage sources or voltage drops in series is their sum.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 +...
VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).
V1 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).
V2 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).
V3 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

Voltage in parallel
Voltage sources or voltage drops in parallel have equal voltage.

VT = V1 = V2 = V3 =...
VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).
V1 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).
V2 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).
V3 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

Voltage divider
For electrical circuit with resistors (or other impedance) in series, the voltage drop V i on resistor Riis:

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

The sum of voltage drops at a current loop is zero.

∑ Vk = 0
DC circuit
Direct current (DC) is generated by a constant voltage source like a battery or DC voltage source.
The voltage drop on a resistor can be calculated from the resistor's resistance and the resistor's current, using
Ohm's law:
Voltage calculation with Ohm's law

VR = IR × R
VR - voltage drop on the resistor measured in volts (V)
IR - current flow through the resistor measured in amperes (A)
R - resistance of the resistor measured in ohms (Ω)
AC circuit
Alternating current is generated by a sinusoidal voltage source.
Ohm's law

VZ = IZ × Z
VZ - voltage drop on the load measured in volts (V)
IZ - current flow through the load measured in amperes (A)
Z - impedance of the load measured in ohms (Ω)
Momentary voltage

v(t) = Vmax × sin(ωt+θ)
v(t) - voltage at time t, measured in volts (V).
Vmax - maximal voltage (=amplitude of sine), measured in volts (V).
ω      - angular frequency measured in radians per second (rad/s).
t        - time, measured in seconds (s).
θ       - phase of sine wave in radians (rad).
RMS (effective) voltage

Vrms = Veff  =  Vmax / √2 ≈ 0.707 Vmax

Vrms -  RMS voltage, measured in volts (V).
Vmax - maximal voltage (=amplitude of sine), measured in volts (V).
Peak-to-peak voltage

Vp-p = 2Vmax
Voltage drop
Voltage drop is the drop of electrical potential or potential difference on the load in an electrical circuit.

Voltage Measurement
Electrical voltage is measured with Voltmeter. The Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the measured
component or circuit.
The voltmeter has very high resistance, so it almost does not affect the measured circuit.

Voltage Divider
Voltage divider rule finds the voltage over a load in electrical circuit, when the loads are connected in series.

Voltage divider rule for DC circuit

For a DC circuit with constant voltage source VT and resistors in series, the voltage drop Vi in resistor Ri is
given by the formula:

 
Vi - voltage drop in resistor Ri in volts [V].
VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts [V].
Ri - resistance of resistor Ri in ohms [Ω].
R1 - resistance of resistor R1 in ohms [Ω].
R2 - resistance of resistor R2 in ohms [Ω].
R3 - resistance of resistor R3 in ohms [Ω].
Example
Voltage source of VT=30V is connected to resistors in series, R1=30Ω, R2=40Ω.
Find the voltage drop on resistor R2.
V2 = VT × R2 / (R1+R2) = 30V × 40Ω / (30Ω+40Ω) = 17.14V

Voltage divider for AC circuit

For an AC circuit with voltage source VT and loads in series, the voltage drop Vi in load Zi is given by the
formula:

 
Vi - voltage drop in load Zi in volts [V].
VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts [V].
Zi - impedance of load Zi in ohms [Ω].
Z1 - impedance of load Z1 in ohms [Ω].
Z2 - impedance of load Z2 in ohms [Ω].
Z3 - impedance of load Z3 in ohms [Ω]

Ohm's Law
Ohm's law defines a linear relationship between the voltage and the current in an electrical circuit.
The resistor's voltage drop and resistance set the DC current flow through the resistor.

Ohm's Law Formula / Equation

When we know the voltage and resistance, we can calculate the current.
Ohm's law definition
The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the resistor's voltage V R=V in volts (V) divided by the resistance
R in ohms (Ω):
 

 
V is the voltage drop of the resistor, measured in Volts (V). In some cases Ohm's law uses the letterE to
represent voltage. E denotes electromotive force.
I is the electrical current flowing through the resistor, measured in  Amperes (A)
R is the resistance of the resistor, measured in Ohms (Ω)
 
Voltage calculation
When we know the current and resistance, we can calculate the voltage.
The voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the to the current I in amps (A) times the resistance R in ohms (Ω):
 

 
Resistance calculation
When we know the voltage and the current, we can calculate the resistance.
The resistance R in ohms (Ω) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) divided by the current I in amps (A):
 

 
Since the current is set by the values of the voltage and resistance, the Ohm's law formula can show that:
 If we increase the voltage, the current will increase.
 If we increase the resistance, the current will reduce.

Ohm's Law for AC Circuit

The load's current I in amps (A) is equal to the load's voltage V Z=V in volts (V) divided by the impedance Z in
ohms (Ω):
 

V is the voltage drop on the load, measured in Volts (V)

I is the electrical current, measured in Amps (A)
Z is the impedance of the load, measured in Ohms (Ω)

Electric current definition

Electrical current is the flow rate of electric charge in electric field, usually in electrical circuit.
Using water pipe analogy, we can visualize the electrical current as water current that flows in a pipe.
The electrical current is measured in ampere (amp) unit.

Current in series circuits

Current that flows through resistors in series is equal in all resistors - just like water flow through a single pipe.

ITotal = I1 = I2 = I3 =...
ITotal - the equivalent current in amps (A).
I1 - current of load #1 in amps (A).
I2 - current of load #2 in amps (A).
I3 - current of load #3 in amps (A).
Current in parallel circuits
Current that flows through loads in parallel - just like water flow through parallel pipes.
The total current ITotal is the sum of the parallel currents of each load:

ITotal = I1 + I2 + I3 +...
ITotal - the equivalent current in amps (A).
I1 - current of load #1 in amps (A).
I2 - current of load #2 in amps (A).
I3 - current of load #3 in amps (A).

Current divider
The current division of resistors in parallel is

RT = 1 / (1/R2 + 1/R3)

or

I1 = IT × RT / (R1+RT)
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)
The junction of several electrical components is called a node.
The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.

∑ Ik = 0
Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating current is generated by a sinusoidal voltage source.
Ohm's law

IZ = VZ / Z
IZ  - current flow through the load measured in amperes (A)
VZ - voltage drop on the load measured in volts (V)
Z  - impedance of the load measured in ohms (Ω)
Angular frequency

ω = 2π f
ω - angular velocity measured in radians per second (rad/s)
f  - frequency measured in hertz (Hz).
Momentary current

i(t) = Ipeak sin(ωt+θ)
i(t)      - momentary current at time t, measured in amps (A).
Ipeak - maximal current (=amplitude of sine), measured in amps (A).
ω      - angular frequency measured in radians per second (rad/s).
t        - time, measured in seconds (s).
θ       - phase of sine wave in radians (rad).
RMS (effective) current

Irms =  Ieff =  Ipeak / √2 ≈ 0.707 Ipeak

Peak-to-peak current

Ip-p = 2Ipeak
Current measurement
Current measurement is done by connecting the ammeter in series to the measured object, so all the
measured current will flow through the ammeter.
The ammeter has very low resistance, so it almost does not affect the measured circuit.

Electric Power Efficiency

Power efficiency
Power efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output power divided by the input power:

η = 100% · Pout / Pin

η is the efficiency in percent (%).
Pin is the input power consumption in watts (W).
Pout is the output power or actual work in watts (W).

Energy efficiency
Energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output energy divided by the input energy:

η = 100% · Eout / Ein

η is the efficiency in percent (%).
Ein is the input energy consumed in joule (J).
Eout is the output energy or actual work in joule (J).

Power Factor
In AC circuits, the power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work and theapparent power that
is supplied to the circuit.
The power factor can get values in the range from 0 to 1.
When all the power is reactive power with no real power (usually inductive load) - the power factor is 0.
When all the power is real power with no reactive power (resistive load) - the power factor is 1.

Power factor definition

The power factor is equal to the real or true power P in watts (W) divided by the apparent power |S| in volt-
ampere (VA):

PF = P(W) / |S(VA)|
PF - power factor.
P   - real power in watts (W).
|S|   - apparent power - the magnitude of the complex power in volt·amps (VA).
Power factor calculations
For sinusuidal current, the power factor PF is equal to the absolute value of the cosine of the apparent power
phase angle φ (which is also is impedance phase angle):

PF = |cos φ|
PF is the power factor.
φ   is the apprent power phase angle.
 
The real power P in watts (W) is equal to the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) times the power factor PF:

P(W) = |S(VA)| × PF = |S(VA)| × |cos φ|

 
When the circuit has a resistive impedance load, the real power P is equal to the apparent power |S| and the
power factor PF is equal to 1:

PF(resistive load) = P / |S| = 1
 
The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) times
the sine of the phase angle φ:

Q(VAR) = |S(VA)| × |sin φ|
Single phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), voltage V in volts (V) and
current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (V(V) × I(A))

 
Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), line to line voltageVL-L in volts
(V) and current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (√3 × VL-L(V) × I(A))

 
Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), line to line neutralVL-N in volts
(V) and current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (3 × VL-N(V) × I(A))

Power factor correction
Power factor correction is an adjustment of the electrical circuit in order to change the power factor near 1.
Power factor near 1 will reduce the reactive power in the circuit and most of the power in the circuit will be real
power. This will also reduce power lines losses.
The power factor correction is usually done by adding capacitors to the load circuit, when the circuit has
inductive components, like an electric motor.
Power factor correction calculation
The apparent power |S| in volt-amps (VA) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) times the current I in amps (A):

|S(VA)| = V(V) × I(A)
The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the square root of the square of the apparent
power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) minus the square of the real power P in watts (W) (pythagorean theorem):

Q(VAR) = √(|S(VA)|2 - P(W)2)
The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the square of voltage V in volts (V) divided by the
reactance Xc:
Q(VAR) = V(V)2 / XC = V(V)2 / (1 / (2πf(Hz)·C(F))) = 2πf(Hz)·C(F)·V(V)2
So the power factor correction capacitor in Farad (F) that should be added to the circuit in parallel is equal to
the reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) divided by 2π times the frequency f in Hertz (Hz) times the
squared voltage V in volts (V):

C(F) = Q(VAR) / (2πf(Hz)·V(V)2)

Electric power calculation

P = V · I
or

P = I 2 · R
or

P = V 2 / R
P is the electric power in watt (W).
V is the voltage in volts (V).
I is the current in amps (A).
R is the resistance in ohms (Ω).

Power of AC circuits
The formulas are for single phase AC power.
For 3 phase AC power:
 When line to line voltage (VL-L) is used in the formula, multiply the single phase power by square root of 3
(√3=1.73).
When line to zero voltage (VL-0) is used in the formula, multiply the single phase power by 3.
Real power
Real or true power is the power that is used to do the work on the load.

P = Vrms Irms cos φ
 
P      is the real power in watts [W]
Vrms  is the rms voltage = Vpeak/√2 in Volts [V]
Irms   is the rms current = Ipeak/√2 in Amperes [A]
φ      is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current.
 
Reactive power
Reactive power is the power that is wasted and not used to do work on the load.

Q = Vrms Irms sin φ
 
Q      is the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive [VAR]
Vrms  is the rms voltage = Vpeak/√2 in Volts [V]
Irms   is the rms current = Ipeak/√2 in Amperes [A]
φ      is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current.
 
Apparent power
The apparent power is the power that is supplied to the circuit.

S = Vrms Irms
 
S      is the apparent power in Volt-amper [VA]
Vrms  is the rms voltage = Vpeak/√2 in Volts [V]
Irms   is the rms current = Ipeak/√2 in Amperes [A]
 
Real / reactive / apparent powers relation
The real power P and reactive power Q give together the apparent power S:

P2 + Q2 = S2
 
P      is the real power in watts [W]
Q      is the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive [VAR]
S      is the apparent power in Volt-amper [VA]