ACTIVITY 3

three bulbs,
To assemble a household circuit comprising
source.
three (ON/OFF) switches, a fuse and a power

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED a fuse

switches, a fuse of 1 A,
Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three bulb holders, three ON/OFF switch.
holder, three pin plug, flexible two coloured insulating copper wire, main

THEORY/PRINCIPLE

Household Circuit
household circuit, all
to us for domestic purposes. In
The electricity of 220 Vand 50 Hz is supplied be the power
with the mains. Consider P, P2, Pa. Pa, Pg..
appliances are connected in parallel the total power consumed
electrical appliances in a circuit. Then
consumed by different domestic
P at any instant is given by
PP +P +Pa +Pa +Pst
[: P =VI]
current / drawn from the mains
is given by / =

At a potential V, the
and V is in volt.
where, P is in watt, I is in ampere current is
Sometimes the terminals of electric appliances
get accidentally connected so a high
A fuse of
burn the appliances, hence, they may get damaged.
drawn from the circuit which may
current
than the is connected in series with the appliances.
drawn
rating little higher
Earth wire (green coloured)

Live wire (red

coloured)

S S2 $3 Fuse

mains

B1 B2 B3 Neutral wire
Socket
(black colour)
Circuit diagram for wiring of three bulbs
 Whenever high current flows in the circuit the fuse gets burnt which saves the appliances from
damage. A fuse is a short piece of wire made up of material of high resistivity and low melting point
so it gets easily melt due to overheating when excessive current passes through the
that circuit
and hence, the current flowing in the circuit is
stopped.
PROCEDURE
. Take
three bulbs B,, B2 and Ba and connect them in series with switches S, S2 and S,
respectively.
2.
B,-S.B-S2 and Bg-S, connections should be parallel with each other as shown in the
circuit diagram. Hence, each bulb can be OFF and ON individually by using its switch
connected in series with it.
3. Connect a fuse in series with the set up.
4. Connect a plug and socket at the end of two leads. Aiso connect a wire from the earth pin of
the
plug.
5. Insert the plug in socket provided in the main electric board.
6. Put the switches S,,S2 and Sa ON one by one and obseive the bulb glowing independently of
the other bulb.
7. Press all the switches ON simultaneously and observe the bulbs
glowing together
8. Put the switches S,. S2 and OFF
S3 one by one and observe the bulbs not glowing.
RESULT
The circuit for the connection of three bulbs is
completely installed with safety.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Always make the connections of the switches and fuse with the live wire.
2. Be careful while working with the mains.

3 3.

4.
Make all the connections
away from shock.
tight. While doing

Carefully determine the rating of the fuse.

so, use an insulating cover on your hand to keep

5. Fuse is a safety device. Never use fuse of much

higher rating than the recommended value.
Because if the fuse will be of higher rating, the high current flows to the
electrical appliances
and damage them.
6. Always use that supply which is connected to the distribution board which
divides the power
into different circuits.

Viva-Voce
Q1 Why we use earthing in electrical network?
A. Earthing means connecting the
appliance with ground or earth by means of metallic conductor
buried deep into the earth. For safety
purpose, we use earthing in electrical network.
Q2 What do you mean by fuse wire?
A. A fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as a
protection for either of load or short circuit.
sacrificial device to provide overcurrent

104
3 Why three pin sockets and plugs are preferred over two pin ones
sockets and pluya
A. The two pin connection have live wire and neutral wire, whereas the three pin
have earth connections for safety purpose.

Which is better the ring main system or the parallel circuit system:
Q4 A. The ring main system.

The electric cable have wires of three different colours. Why?

Q5 the red coloured wire is for live line ana
ne
A. Ihe green coloured wire is used for earth connection,
black coloured wire is for neutral line.

06 Write the formula for electric power.

A. P-=Vi =PR =

R
where, W = work done or electric energy
= time taken
V = voltage
l= Current
R resistance.

Q7 How much is the resistance of a closed plug key?

A. Negligibly small

Q8 How much is the resistance of air gap?

A. Infnity (o).

Q9 Give two advantages of ring main system. distribution

installed without putting long leads all
the way to the
A. (0 A new power point can be
box. the other
i) A separate fuse can be connected with each plug. In case if one fuse is not working,
appliances can work without any affect
combination?
connect household appliances in parallel
Q 10 Why do we one ppliance is not working the other appliance may
A. With parallel connections of appliances, if
not get affected.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
connections in an office. The necessary
1. Perform an activity
for electrical appliance
are 4 bulbs, 7 tubelights, 6 ceiling fans, 2 computers. Draw a circuit diagram
requirements
for their connection with main power supply.
switches. Connect any two of these four in series
2. Perform the same activity with 4 bulbs and 4
and two in parallel. Observe the changes.

105
 ACTIVITY 4
To assemble the components of a given electrical
circuit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

A voltmeter REQUIRED
(0-5 V),
an ammeter (0-1.5 A), a resistor, a rheostat,
connecting wires and sand paper.
a battery, a
one-way key,

PROCEDURE
1. First of all, draw
a neat circuit
diagram showing the various components of the
arrangement as shown in figure. experimental
2. Before connecting the
wires, clean their ends by using a sand paper to remove the
insulation.
3. Open the key K by taking out the
4.
plug from it.
Connect the components
tightly according to the circuit diagram.

4
Rh
E WM
K

Assembling of electrical components for

Ohm's law
5. To measure the current in the
circuit, connect the ammeter in series with
measure the potential difference the circuit and to
across the resistance,
connect a voltmeter in
resistance. It should be ensured that the
positive terminals
parallel to the
of voltmeter and ammeter
connected with the positive terminal of the must be
battery E.
 6 Close the key K by inserting the
sho deflections on the right handplug into it and
side or not.
check whether nmeter
uit
The circuit has been
7 assembled
using a multimeter. completely. Check the continuity
Completely. continu of assembled Ciru
help ofthis
With the assembled circuit, one can
Note current and potential difference. measure
CS u r e the unknown resistance by knowing the valuesO
unknown

RESULT
components of the electrical circuit have been assembled
correctly
PRECAUTIONS

All connections should be neat, clean

and tight.
2. The positive terminais of voltmeter and ammeter must be cornnected with the posinVe nal
of the battery.
3. Take care that the ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and tne voiu
should be connected in parallel with the resistor.
4. Grease/oil or oxide layer on the surface of connecting ends of wire creates Insulauo
insulation with a piece of sand paper to clean the connecting ends.
However, do not rub the plugs and keys with sand paper to clean them. Excessive use of santd

paper will make the plug unfit to be used with the socket or key.
5. Before connecting the element, the key should be opened.

What do you mean by emf of a cell? NCERT

cen
A. The electromotive force (emf) of a cell is the potential difference across the terminals of the

Q2
when no current is drawn from the cell

Does the current drawn from the cell remain constant? If not, why?
terminal
[NCERT] 4
A. No, due of a cell there is a potential drop in the cell and the
to internal resistance
decrease slowly.
potential difference decreases. Thus, the current will

3 Why is an ammeter always connected in series with the circuit? INCERT

an ammeter in series with the circuit, it
A. An ammeter has very low resistance. So, by connecting
a circuit without changing the magnitude of current.
measures the current through

connected in with the component across which

voltmeter always parallel
Q4 Why is a
NCERT
measured?
voltage is to be
across two points withoOut changing its magnitude when it is
A. A voltmeter measures potential drop with the across
Connected in parallel component
parallel. So, the voltmeter always
is
connected in
measured.
which voltage is to be
change in temperature?
5Define the term resistance. How it aftected due to
is
electric current through any cross-section of a conductor is called the
A. The opposition to the flow of increases with rise in temperature of conductor.
conductor
resistance. The resistance of a

107
ACTIVITY 6
at least
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising
a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark

the components that are not connected in proper order and

Correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A battery eliminator or a battery, rheostat, resistor, ammeter, voltmeter, plug key, connecting wires
and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of circuit are connected in proper order
and the components and devices are in working condition when the key is closed.
An open circuit means a break in some part of a circuit due to open key or broken wire or bumt
out components or loose connections. The examples of open circuit are shown in the figures
given below.

E K

H()wwwww Rh

ww
Rh ww

H E K
A
(a) Open key (b) Incorrect connection as ammeter in parallel
and voltmeter in series with the resistor
 w-
Rh

Rh
A
H ww
E
(C) Incorrect connection as rheostat is
connected tô negative terminal of (d) Incorrect connection as voltmeter
in series with the resistor
ammeter and ammeter and voltmeter
both are in series with the resistor

PROCEDURE
Making Correction in the Circuit Diagram
1. Draw the circuit diagram in your notebook as given by your teacher or from any of the above

figures.
2. In the observation table, mark the various components which are not connected in proper

order by (X) and by () which are in correct order.

3. Next, do the correction in the circuit diagram.

Verification of Corrected Circuit Diagram

(or How the Components Should be Connected in a Circuit)
clean their ends with the help of sand paper to remove the
4. Before using the connecting wire,
5.
insulation.
Connect all the electrical components according to the corrected circuit diagram.

i) Here, ammeter should be connected in series with the battery

6
with resistor.
(i) A voltrmeter should be connected in parallel
series with the battery.
(ii) A rheostat should be connected in
corrected circuit is functioning or not.
6. Finally close the key and check whether the

W
Rh

A proper arrangement of components in a circuit

115
 USES OF RHEOSTAT
A rheostat in circuit is connected for two purposes.
a

1. Rheostat as a variable resistor Connect the terminals of rheostat

using one end terminal
and other variable terminal. To vary,the value of the resistance and hence to
vary tha
currenta rheostat is provided in an electric circuit.
As the sliding contact of the rheostat moves over the
cylinder, the resistance between the
base terminal, which one is connected with the circuit and the slider varies and
hence tha
Current in the circuit varies.

Variable resistance

WM
Rh

End terminal End terminal

Rheostat as a variable resistor

2. Rheostat as a potential divider Rheostat potential divider gives variable voltage.

as a
Connect the terminals of rheostat using one end terminal with
input battery and other end
terminal with variable terminal giving variable
voltage.
When the two terminals and
B, B, of the rheostat are connected with the source of
emf, then
it provides a uniform
potential drop across the length of the wire of rheostat. But when
either of two terminals is connected with the one end of circuit
and the top terminal (T)
with the other end.of the circuit, then the
potential difference proportional to the length
of wire between the terminals connected with the one
end of circuit and top terminal T
provides current in the circuit. This is known as potential divider
rheostat.
arrangement of the

Variable voltage

Rh

B
End
terminal
B2End
terminal

E
Rheostat as a potential divider

116
 OBSERVATIONS

Table for Mark a (/) or (X) in Appropriate Column

S. No. Circuit component Correct connection Incorrect connection

Battery/cell
2 Resistor
3 Rheostat
4 Ammeter

Voltmeter
6 Key

RESULT
The electrical components assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.

PRECAUTIONS (A WAY OF MAKING CONNECTIONS IN THE CIRCUIT)

1. Ends of connecting wires should be cleaned by using sand paper before connecting them witn

the components
2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminals of the
voltmeter and ammeter. Also, the negative terminal of the battery should be connected with
rheostat.
3. As a voltmeter is a high resistance device used to measure the potential difference across the
resistor and an ammeter is a low resistance device used to measure the current flowing
resistor and the
through the circuit. Hence, the ammeter should be connected in series with the
voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the resistor.
4. Always plug the key after making all the connections.
6
Q1 What is the function of sand paper in setting up the electric circuit? INCERT]
A. The ends of connecting wires are rubbed with the sand paper in order to remove the insulation
from their surfaces.

Q2 Arheostat and a resistance box can change the resistance in a circuit, yet their
functions are different. Explain it. NCERT O
A. Resistance box will provide resistance of discrete values such as 1, 2, 3 ohm. So, interim values are
not possible. On the other hand, rheostat gives a chance to Vary the resistance continuously. It
to fix current for specified value such as 1.5 A, resistance box is not
may be 52 or 5.7692. Sojust
Suitable but rheostat is most suitable.

What do you by open circuit?

Q3 mean
A. Combination of primary components of electrical circuit in such a way that rno current is drawn
circuit.
from the cell is called open

117
ACTIVITY 1
To identify a diode, an LED, a
and a capacitor from a mixed transistor, an IC, a resistor
collection of such items.
DPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
Amultimeter, an n-p-n and p-n-p transistor, an LED, an IC, a junction diode, a resistor and a
capacitor.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
Diode
t is a two-terminal device which conducts only when it is forward biased and does not conduct
when it is reverse biased. The diode shown in figure is cylindrical in shape with two flat ends
through which two leads are projected out to make electrical connections. The body of the diode
is solid black in colour and has a silver ring on one end. The silver ring represents the n-section
and the black body represents the p-section of the diode. The diode does not emit light while
conducting.

Diode
D 1
LED (Light Emitting Diode) S
Itis a special type of diode having two terminals. The LED conducts when it is forward biased and
does not conduct when it is reverse biased. But there is a difference between LED and an ordinary
dode that LED emits light while conducting. The LED has transparent body having one end is
cylindrical in shape while the other is flat through which two leads are projected out for making 8
electrical connections. The LEDs are of different colours like red, green, white, etc.

An LED
 Transistor
t s a three-terminal device. Transistor means transfer of resistor from one value to another value
depending on the biasing voltage applied to the transistor. The transistor iS prepared by
Sandwiching of two junction diodes. The terminals of transistor are emitter (E), base (B) and
collector (C).

n244

Collector
Emitter

Base

Different types of transistor

IC (Integrated Circuit)
t is a single chip (or silicon chip) having many terminals. The chip incorporates a large number of
electronic circuits instead of a single electronic component. Thus, in a very smal space, it alone
works as a number of circuits. Generally ICs have 8 terminals, 14 terminals, 32 terminals. 44
terminals, etc.

ICs (having 14 terminals)

Some of the ICs like 7805, 7806, 7809, 7912 have three terminals only.

Resistor
It is a two-terminal device used to control the current flow by offering the opposition in its path. A
resistor conducts equally in both the directions. Thus, the resistance offered by a resistor does not
change whether the polarity of the battery gets reversed

Resistor
Capacitor
t is a two-terminal device which does not conduct but stores some charge when DC voltage is
applied. A capacitor offers an infinite resistance when it is connected to DC and very low value of
resistance when it is connected to AC.

Different types of capacitor

208
PROCEDURE

IC (A Multiterminal Compone
an
dentifying

1.
rom the given collection ofitems, pick the component
Fron having four or more terminals on a
black rectangular block (chip). Confirm that it is an IC.
up
Before lookingu the mixed collection of items, you may ask teacher to ensure that you are not givern win
terminals.
an IC having three

Transistor (A Three Terminal Component)

dentifying a it may
2. Now from
a given mixed collection of items, pick the component having three terminals,
be a transistor. To confirm, set up the multimeter in resistance mode.
both terminals
3. Before using the multimeter, set its pointer to the zero mark by touching its
knob, set it
together. If the pointer does not stay at zero position, then with the help adjusting
of
at zero position.
the red
4. Connect its black or
common terminal to one of the extreme legs of component and
terminal to the central leg.
the muitimeer
If deflection is observed, interchange
5. Check the multimeter deflection.
a
transistor.
terminals. If no deflection is observed, then the component is a
central leg of the
terminal of the multimeter to the
6. Repeat the test by connecting the red of the
multimeter to the other extreme leg
component and black or common terminal of the without any
the component is a transistor
component. If a similar behaviour is observed, then
doubt.
Two Terminal Component)
ldentifying the Diode, Resistor and LED (A mixed collection of items.
It could
terminals from the given
7. Now pick a component having two
an LED.
be a resistor, a capacitor, a diode or
followd by a silver
having colour bands of three set of colours
) Look for the component the component iuy using
is a resistor. One can verify
or gold band. This component

multimeter only.
that the multimeter is set up in the
resistance mode of highest range.
Connect
1
(i) Ensure for multimeter
terminals and watch
multimeter terminals to the component
or touch the
the component terminals.
deflection. Also repeat it by reversing
then the
is shown in the multimeter scale,
In both the cases, if equal deflection
(i)
resistor.
component is a
deflection in the multimeter scale is
observed
connecting the terminals, the large
(iv) If on
back to zero, then the component
is a capacitor of large value
which gradually returns
of capacitance.
then there is no deflection in the multimeter
small value of capacitance is given,
Note If a capacitor having
remains at zero position.
scale rather the pointer
some deflection in one direction
with the emission of light from
(If multimeter shows
the an unequal
the componentand much less or zero deflection in other direction (or
deflection with emission of light), then the component is LED.
shows some deflection in one direction but with no emission of light
(vi) If the multimeter
deflection in other direction, then the
from the component and much less or zero
component is a diode.

209
 8. Record your observations by writing the name of the device having two, three and mOra
e
three terminals and label each component by a different alphabet e.g. A, B, C, D, than E.
write the name of the device or component which conducts in one direction,
on, in two
in two cirSo
and which does not conduct. One can take an idea by observing the deflection directions
multimeter on reversing the terminals of multimeter touching the terminals of compone of the
Note You must analog multimeter instead of digital multimeter. If digital multimeter is being
use
ent
used
d
deflection can be observed from the reading. then
OBSERVATIONS
Table for Checking the Number of Terminals
S. No. Number of terminalsS Alphabet marked on the device Name ot device
Two
2 Three
More than three

Table for Checking the State of Conduction

S. No. State of conduction Emission of light Device code Name of the
Conducts in one direction only device
No
2 Conducts in one direction only Yes
3 Three-terminal device conducts in
one direction only between
terminal and either of the central No
terminals.
remaining
Conducts in both directions. No
Does not conduct, gives an initial No
deflection which decays to zero.

RESULT

1 A diode, an LED, a
given mixed collection of such items.

PRECAUTIONS
transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor are identified one by one from a

In addition to general precautions which are necessany while using a multimeter, some are
discussed below
1. Try to avoid an IC with three terminals.
2. Preferably use analog multimeter and not the digital multimeter so that the deflection shown
the pointer can be observed. by
3. While checking out any component clean its leads
properly by using sand paper so that the
insulation can be removed.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The resistance measurement may be affected if one is
touching the ends of leads of multimeter
during measurement.
2. On touching the leads of multimeter, the zero resistance may not be shown. Yet, the pointer
may not be adjusted to zero by using its adjustable knob.

210
 Draw the symbol for n-p-n and p-n-p transistor.
Q1
A

E E
n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor

Q2 Define LED
A. LED means light emitting diode. This diode emits light when an electric current is passea throug

it.

Q3 Why we use ICs in electronic circuits?

circuit.
A. ICs are used in electronic circuit for the purpose of miniaturisation of

Q4 How an LED emits light?

electrons and noles
A. When an LED is connected in forward biasing mode then recombination of
takes place at junction and energy is released in the form of light.

Q5 What do you mean by a transistor?

A. A transistor means transfer of resistor. It is a three terminal device and is prepared by sandwching
two junction diodes.

Q6 Name the terminals of transistor.

A. Emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C) are the terminals of transistor.
directions?
that conducts in both
Q How can you say that the resistor is a component gets
even when the polarity of battery
A. As the resistance offered by a resistor does not change
reversed and the adeflection in the multimeter is shown equally
that the resistance is a component that conducts in both
both directions so we can say
in
directions.
1
Q8 What do you mean by a capacitor?
conduct either in forward biasing mode or in reverse biasing
A. A two-terminal device which does not
mode is called a capacitor.
either capacitor or an inductor?
29 Which allow AC current to pass through it, a

A. Capacitor.

Q 10 Is there any application of transistor? switch.

as an oscillator and as a
A. Yes, a transistor can be used as an amplifier,

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. In a big box, a collection of electronic components is kept randomly. Identify LEDs, resistors,
capacitors, diodes, ICs and transistors without using multimeter and keep them separately.
2. Using multimeter, identify the unidirectional components from the given mixed collection of
some items and distinguish between them.

211
 ACTIVITY 2
Use of multimeter to
(a) identify the base of transistor.
(b) distinguish between -p-n and p-n-p transIstors.
(c) see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an LED
(d) check whether a given electronic component (e.g. diode, transistor or IC)
is in working order.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIREDD

Amultimeter, a diode, a transistor, an LED, plug key, a battery, a resistance box, connecting wires
and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
Analog Multimeter Used in Resistance Mode
Multimeter is an instrument used for measuring current in amperes, voltage in volts and resistance
in ohm. Therefore, it is also known as AVO meter. The circuit for multimeter usedto
figure shows a

2 measure the resistance.

Black
lead
Red
lead
A B

3V
T

E
wwwM
Zero adjust
Multimeter in resistance mode
The circuit consists of 3 V battery with a resistor in series, a galvanometer (G) provided in a
multimeter. The multimeter pointer is adjusted to full scale deflection using a rheostat by
shorting the red and black leads. Any resistance which has to be tested or evaluated is placea
between Á and B.
 In the figure shown, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the black lead and negative
terminal to the red lead. While measuring the value of resistance, the connections ofthelea0
the terminals of the battery do not make any sense that means they can also be reversed but the

connections play an important role while using the diode or transistor as the battery provides Dias
voltage to them.

To Check the Unidirectional Flow of Current in Junction Diode and LED

Adiode and LED conduct only when they are connected in forward biasing mode by offeringtne
low resistance. In reverse biasing, there is no flow of current because they offer high resistance
Thus. the current flows through the diode or LED in one direction only and one can examinethe
functioning of diode by measuring its resistances in forward bias and reverse bias condiio
The functioning of the diode can also be examined by checking the unidirectional flow of current
in a circuit.

When the diode is in forward bias mode, a substantial current in order of mA will flow in the circuit,
But when the diode is in reverse bias mode, almost negligible current in the order of A Will 1OW in

the circuit.

(A

Circuit diagram to check the unidirectional flow of

Current in diode and LED

Identification of Emitter, Base and Collector of Transistor

2
As we know that the transistor is a three terminal device. The three terminals emitter, base and
collector are projected out from the body of the transistor in the form of pins or leads through -
which the electrical connections are made. Figure below shows a transistor having a black dot
mark on its metallic cylindrical casing. The lead or the pin in front of the dot mark is collector and

theopposite lead is an emitter while the middle lead is a base.

Black dot

Identification of terminals
of transistor

213
 dentifying Whether the Transistor is n-p-n or p-n-p
In an n-p-n transistor, the base B is a p-type material and collector and emitter are n-tvne
type
materials. In contrast to this, in a p-n-p transistor, the base is an n-1ype material and collector
and emitter are p-type materials. By using multimeter, the resistances between
base-emitter and base-collector are measured thereby, one can decide whether the aiver
the
transistor is p-n-p or n-p-n. For a transistor in proper working order, the resistance values foll
the results as

Resistance Value between Different Terminals of n-p-n and p-n-p Transistors

-
Transistor terminal connected Transistor terminal connected Bias
S. No. Resistance
to negative lead to multimeter to positive lead of multimeter

For n-p-n transistor

E B Forward Low
B Forward Low
B C Reverse Very high
B E Reverse Very high
For p-n-p transistor
B E Forward Low
B C Forward Low
3
Reverse Very high
C B
Very high Reverse
If there is any
deviation in the result from the above table, this would indicate that
the given
transistor is not in working order.

Checking the Working Order of Given Electronic Component

A diode or LED is in working order, if it allows the current to flow when
it is in forward biased.
A transistor conducts only when base-emitter junction is forward biased
and does not conduct
when the junction is reverse biased. If the current flows or

2 transistor is damaged. An IC has minimum of

function can be tested out by an IC tester
does not flow in both biasing, then the
eight legs on a single silicon chip but its working
only, instead of multimeter.

PROCEDURE
1. If the diodes, transistors and connecting wires are not used for a long time, then
some insulating layers on their Surface. In order to
they may have
remove insulation, clean their ends with the
help of a sand paper till they shine.

Adjustment of the Multimeter

2.Touch the two metal ends or probes of multimeter with each other.
3. Observe that mutimeter shows zero resistance. If it is
not so, adjust the
bring the pointer on zero reading.
zero adjust knob to

4. Now set the multimeter to the high range of resistance by using selector switch.
ldentification of Base of a Transistor
5. Observe the black dot mark on the body of the transistor. The lead in
front of the dot mark is
collector and the opposite lead is an emitter while the middle lead is
base. One can verify this
by using a multimeter.

214
 6. Touch the two probes of multimeter to the two extreme legs of the transistor. Observe tne
resistance between these two legs whether it is low or high. Interchange the probes touching
these two legs and again observe the resistance whether it is low or high. On the basis of this,
either of following two conclusions can be made
(0) If the high value of resistance is observed in both the cases, then the two extreme
offers
legs are collector and emitter because the collector-emitter junction of transistor
high value of resistance.
f in either of two cases, the low value of resistance is observed, then one of two
()
extreme legs is base.
to the left
7. Now in order to identify the base in two legs, touch the one probe of the multimeter
or low.
leg and other probe to the right leg and observe whether the value of resistance high
is
whether the values
8. Now interchange the probes touching these left and right legs and observe
two conclusions
of resistance is high or low. Moreover, on the basis of this, either of following
can be made
observed,
) If in both the cases, i.e. in steps and (8), the high value of resistance is
(7)
then the right leg is the base terminal of the transistor.
then the left leg is
() If in either of the two cases, the low value of resistance is observed,
the base terminal of the transistor.
ldentification of Type of Transistor and Checking its Working Condition
B and collector C.
9. Identify all the three terminals of transistor, i.e. emitter E, base
the base and negative (black)
10. Connect or touch the positive (red) lead of the multimeter to two
lead to the emitter (or collector) terminal. Note the value
of resistance between these
terminals.
measure the resistance between base and
11. Reverse the connection of multimeter and again
resistance.
emitter (or collector) terminals. Note this value of
observed and opposite to this in step (11), high
12. In case, in step (10), if low value of resistance is
transistor is n-p-n.
value of resistance is observed then the given
13. In case, in step (10), if high value of
resistance is observed and in step (11),
resistance is observed then the given transistor is p-n-p.
low value of
2
14. If in both the cases steps (10) and (11), either high
discussed in or low values of resistances are
observed, then the transistor is damaged

Identification of Diode to Check its Working Order and

Unidirectional Flow of Current
to the one terminal (say 1) of diode and the
15. Touch the positive lead or probe of the multimeter
of diode. Obsenve the value of resistance whether it
negative probe to the other terminal (say 2) O
is high or low.
that the diode is in reverse bias mode and the
16. If high value of resistance is observed, it shows
multimeter is p-type of diode and the other
terminal connected to the negative probe of the
condition.
terminal is n-type. In this way, the diode is in proper working
17. Interchange of probe touching the terminals 1 and
2 of diode indicates that it is in forward bias
a low value of resistance. Observe the low
value of resistance. This shows the
offering
unidirectional flow of current.
then the
18 If in both the cases of steps (15) and (17), the low value of resistances is observed
this
diode is damaged. On the other hand, if the high value of resistances is observed,
indicates the diode is discontinuous or open.

215
 NOW replace the diode by an LED and repeat the steps (15) to (18) to know
know whether i# whether it is in
for the unidirectional flow af
proper working condition or not and further check
Here, you find that an LED also allows ard biased
the flow of current when it is forward biased and
and
emits
light as well.
CO Amultimeter is not used to check an IC. An IC tester is used for this purpose.

RESULT
1 The p and n-sides of given diode have been identified using multimeter.

2. The given diode's working order has been checked using multimeter
3. The unidirectional flow of current in a junction diode and LED has been realised

4. The type of transistor has been identified using multimeter

5. The working order of transistor has been checked using multimeter.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Before using an electronic component, clean its leads by using sand paper thereby, the
insulation can be removed.
2. Set the rmultimeter using selector switch for appropriate range
3. Since, the multimeter is very sensitive device so it must be handled carefully.
4. Allow a suitable range of electric current through the electronic component otherwise they may
get damaged.
5. Before using the multimeter, its zero adjust knob should be adjusted to give zero reading.
6. While checking the resistance of a component, avoid touching both the metal ends of
multimeter leads. There may be some error in the measurement of resistance due to presence
of body resistance in parallel with component resistance.

sOURCES OF ERROR
2 1. The zero reading ofthe multimeter may not have been set before usingit.
2. The selector switch may not be set to high resistance value.

Viva-Voce
Q1 An electronic component has two pins. How will you identify them?
A. 0 fthe component posses electric current in one direction only without emitting anylight, then
it is a diode.
(id f the component passes electric current in one direction only and emits light also, it is an LED
Cii) f the conmponent passes current in both the directions, it is a resistor.
(iv) f the component does not pass direct current at all, it is a capacitor.

Q2 Why do we use ICs in electronic circuits?

A. A single IC contains complete electronic circuit having diode, transistor, resistor and capacitor and
occupies small space. Thus, the size of instruments reduces to very large extents.

216
ACTIVITY4
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of
light incident obliquely on a glass slab.

APPARATUS AND MATERIÁL REQUIRED

A rectangular glass slab, a drawing board, white sheet of paper, drawing pins, alpins, adhesive
tape or cello-tape, a half metre scale, a protractor, a sharply pointed penc.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE
When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, then the light ray gets refracted. Also the
light ray emerges out of the slab parallel to the direction of incident ray.
The angle which the emergent ray makes with the normal at the point of emergence is called the
angle of emergence (Le). The emergent ray suffers a lateral displacement which is proportional
to the thickness of glass slab.

Lateral Deviation
When a ray of light is incident
obliquely on a glass slab having parallel faces, the perpendicular
distance between the incident ray and the emergent ray which emerges out from the other face is
called lateral deviation.
The lateral deviation produced by the glass slab is given by the following relation:

d=-sini -)
COsr
where,t =thickness of the glass slab
i = angle of incidence

f=angle of refraction
Thus, by measuring the thickness of the glass slab, angle of incidence and angle of
refraction of light ray, one can find its lateral
displacement.
From Eq. (), it is understood that
d oct
. The lateral displacement is directly proportional to the thickness of the glass slab.
PROCEDURE
Drawing the Incident Ray
1. Fix a sheet of white paper on à drawing board with the help of drawing pins r cello-tape.

2.
.
Place the given glass slab nearly in the middle of the sheet
Mark the boundary of glass slab with sharp pencil, then remove the slab and label it as PORS

4. On the line PQ, mark a point E and draw a normal N,EN2 at it.
the incident ray.
5. Draw a line AE making angle AEN,, with the normal. This line AE represents
at
6. Now, place the glass slab again on its boundary PQRS
and fix two alpins A and B vertically

8 to 10 cm distance apart on the line AE you have drawn.

A
Incident
ray Pin A

Pin B Air medium

Ha1.0003

Glass medium

Refracted Hg1.52
ray

N'2 Pin C

PinD Lateral
deviation
4
Emergent
ray
Refraction of light through a glass slab

Drawing the Emergent Ray

the side SR. Close your one eye and
7. Look through the glass slab along the plane of paper from
adjust the position of your head in such a way that the images of pins A and B will be seen by
other eye clearly along the same straightline (practically only one pin is seen and the other pin
will be covered by first one).
8. At the images of pins A and B fix two other pins C and D vertically in such a way that all the four

pins, i.e. pins A, B, C straight line.

and D lie in the same

Remove the glass slab and all the pins (A, B, C and D) from the board and encircle
the
9
pin-pricks on the paper with a sharp pencil.
that it meets
10. Join the pricks made by pins Dand C and extend the line DC towards the slab, so

the boundary line RS at point F. The line FD represents the emergent ray.

223
 Measurement of Lateral Deviation
11, Now, join E and F, so that for incident ray AE, the refracted ray and emergent ray are EF and FD
respectively.
12. On the line AS draw a normal N{ FN; at point F. With the help of protractor, measure LAEN,
LFEN2 and 2DFN labelled as Li, Zr and Ze respectively.
13. Find the thicknesst, of the glass slab by measuring the breadth PR of the glass slab.
14. Find the lateral deviation d by using the following relation:
Lateral deviation, d = sin(i - r)
COS
Here,, is the thickness of the glass slab which you have measured in step (13) andi and r are
angles of incidence and refraction which have been measured in step (12).
15. Now, fix another sheet of paper on the board and repeat all the above steps taking different
angles of incidence. Again measure i , Le and lateral deviation d. Repeat it for more
two times.
16. Repeat the steps (1) to (15) but use another slab of different thickness (say t, this time).
17. Find the lateral deviation d for this glass slab of thickness t
18. Similarly, one can take the glass slab of thickness tg to measure the lateral deviation d.
19. Note your observations in the tabular form with proper units and significant figures.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of protractor ...
(degree) =

Least count of half meter Scale =... mm =... cm

Table for Measurement of Zi, Le and Lateral Deviation d

S. No. Thickness of glass slab, Angle of incidence, Angle of emergence, Lateral deviation,
t(cm) i (degree) Ze (degree) d (cm)

3 1
4
2
T2
6 t2
7

8 3
t

RESULT
1. The ray of light emerging out from a glass slab is parallel to the direction of incident ray, but is
laterally deviated.
2. Within the experimental error, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence,
i.e. i = Le.

3 The lateral deviation of emergent ray w.r.t. incident ray is directly proportional to the thickness
of glass slab.

224
PRECAUTIONS
1. The upper surface of drawing board should be sot so that the pins can be penetrated easily.
2. The alpins must be vertically fixed on the board.
3. A sharp pencil should be used to draw
boundary of the glass slab.
4. To locate the incident and emergent rays wilth greater accuracy, the distance between pins
should be 8 to 10 cm.
5. Take care that the feet of all the pins A, B, C and D should lie on the same straight line
6. The glass slab should be of uniform thickness.
7. The angle of incidence and refraction should be measured accurately thereby, the lateral
deviation can be measured with greater accuracy.
8. While viewing the pins, never see with both the eyes. Close one eye and see by another eye s0
that the rays coming to retina should lie on the same straight line. Thus, our view purely
becomes a straight line and the exact position of images of pins can be estimated.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Some error may come in the result due to improper care of viewer
2. If the feet of all the four pins are not exactly matched then some error may come in the lateral
deviation.

3 The pin pricks may be thick.

Viva-Voce
Q1 Define lateral shift.
A. The perpendicular shift in the path of incident ray when it emerges out from denser medium is
called the lateral shift.

Q2 if the thickness of glass slab increases

shift?
then what difference we observe in lateral 4
A. Since, the lateral shift is directly proportional to the thickness of glass slab so, with increasein
thickness, the lateral shift increases.

Q3 Define rarer and denser media.

A. For a pair of media, the medium having large refractive index and low velocity of light is called
denser medium, whereas the medium having small refractive index and large velocity of light is
called rarer medium.

Q4 What do you mean by angle of incidence?

A. The angle made by light ray with the normal is called the angle of incidence (2i).
(U

Q5 Define angle of emergence.

A. The angle which the emergent ray makes with the normal at the point of emergence is called the

angle of emergence (Ze).

Q6 What do you mean by refraction of light?

A. The phenomenon of bending of light when a light ray changes its medium is called refraction of
light.

225
 ACTIVITY 6
To observe the diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

WO razor blades, a source of light (sodium lamp), one adhesive tape, a piece of black paper,

a screen, two glass slides.

THEORYIPRINCIPLE
Diffraction of Light
When a beam of light passes through a small hole then there is certain amount of spreading of
light takes place which can be observed on the screen. Also, when the light passes by an
obstacle, it appears to bend around the edges of obstacle and make a distinct geometrical
shadow which can also be observed on the screen.
Thus, the phenomenon of bending of light around the small hole and spreading into the region of
geometric shadow is called the diffraction of light. Diffraction is an evidence of wave nature of
light. The diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light waves from different points of same
wavefront.

Observing the Diffraction of Light

Take two razor blades and hold them in sucha way that their edges are parallel and form a narrow
slit (separation being of the order of wavelength of light A) in between. Look through the slit on the
glass bulb. With slight adjustment of slit, a diffraction pattern of central bright band having
alternate bright and dark bands of decreasing intensity and fringe width is observed.

Black
Glass
paper
plate

To observe the diffraction of light through

thin slit using two razor blades
PROCEDURE
1. Take a glass plate and fix a black paper on the top surtace of it by using adhesive tape.
2. Cut out slit in the central part of the black paper.
a narrow

3. Place two razor blades side by side quite close to each other over the narrow sit
4. Next, place a sodium lamp with a straight filament at a distance about 2 m behind the fine slit of
the blades.
5. Place a screen nearly 15 cm ahead from the slit and by the adjusting the blades placed
over the slit, observe the light falling on the screen from the narrow slit.The light coming from
the slit wil spread and it bends around the corners and dark and bright fringes will be
observed.
6. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 for a laser pencil. Note the changes observed in the fringes.

RESULT
Light waves incident on very small apertures bend around the corners which indicates the
phenomenon uf diffraction.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The slit should be fixed at a minimum distance of 2 m from the source of light.
2. Always use monochromatic light for difraction patter.
3. The space between the edges of blade should be minimum and the blades should be held
parallel to each other.
4. The paper pasted on the glass plate should be dark black.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The separation between the slits may be comparativoly larger.
2. Amonochromatic source of light may not be used.
3. The paper pasted on the glass plate may not be perfectly dark black.
4. The blades may not be parallel 6
Q1 Define diffraction of light.
A. The phenomenon of bending of lidht around the edges of an obstacle is known as diffraction of
light.
Q2 When a white Iight illuminates a slitthen what do we observe on a screen placed in
front of the slit?
A. On the screen, we observe a central bright fringe having alternate dark and bright fringes.

Q3 The diffraction pattern is observed for slit widths ofthe order of wavelength of
light used. What happens when the slit width is few times the wavelength of light,
N? NCERT
A. If there is slight increase in slit width, light will be diffracted

233