SUPPORT AND PROTECTION

A. Frog External Anatomy

The body of an animal has a definite form and is composed if various structural parts.
These enable the animal to carry out the activities necessary for life, the physiological
processes within the body and the external relation with its environment. The frog is a
convenient representative animal for an introductory subject because of its cheap and
abundant supply, size, frog’s life cycle can be easily observed and it shows resemblance in
form and structures to higher vertebrates and man. The details of its structures readily
demonstrated and its life habits are easily observed.

Classification of field frog

Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Ranidae
Genus: Rana
 Field frog: Rana vittegera
Bullfrog: Rana catesbeina

The body of the frog is divided into two major parts- the axial region composed of the head and
the trunk and the apendicular region composed of the appendages or the limbs.

The following are the important parts of the external anatomy of the frog.

 Snout is a triangular protruding region of the head.

 Mouth is a large anterior opening of the head of the frog with teeth and tongue.
 The two eyes are found on the sides of the head. The eyes have upper eyelid, lower eyelid
and the 3rd eyelid called nictitating membrane.
 The nostrils or external nares are two small opening near the tip of the snout.
 The tympanic membrane is a small round arc of thickened membrane behind each eye.
 The brow spot is lightly colored spot at the median dorsal part of the head in front of the
eyes.
 The hump is a marked elevation on the mid-dorsal surface of the trunk near the posterior
end.
 The anus is a small opening at the dorsal end of the trunk, which serve for the exit of
reproductive cells, excretory products and undigested food matter.
 There are two forelimbs on the anterior end of the trunk consisting of the upper arm,
forearm, wrist, manus or hand with four digits or finger.
 The two hindlimbs on the posterior end of the trunk consist of thigh, shank or middle
portion, ankles, with webbed toes, a sixth toe, the prehallux is felt on the inner side of the
foot near the most proximal toe, the hallux.

B. Skeletal System of the Frog

The skeleton is an essential a part of the body machine of every vertebrate animal. It has at
least three important functions- serves as a framework or support for the softer parts of the
body, provide a firm surface for the attachment of the muscle used in movements and
locomotion and protects soft parts. It also supplies calcium to the blood cells.

Based on the location in the body, the endoskeleton of the vertebrates is divided into axial
and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton supports the head and the trunk. It is made up of
the skull, the visceral skeleton, the vertebral column, ribs (absent in frogs) and the sternum.
The appendicular skeleton is made up of pectoral and pelvic girdles and the bones of the
forelimbs and the hindlimbs.
Skull (Dorsal Side)
 The premaxillae are the most anterior pair of teeth bearing bones which form the tip of the
upper jaw.  The maxillae are pair of teeth bearing bones posterior to the premaxillae. They
form the largest and middle segment of the upper jaw.
 The quadratojugals are a pair of slender bones forming most of the roof of the skull and
united at the median line by the sagittal suture.
 The fronto-parietal is a pair of slender bones forming most of the roof of the skull and united
at the median line by the sagittal suture.
 The spenethmoid is a small squarish bone anterior to the fronto-parietals.
 The nasals are a pair of triangular bones anterior to the spenethmoid covering the nasal
capsules.
 The prootics are a pair of ring-like projection on each side of the skull posterior to the fronto-
parietals forming the auditory capsule enclosing the inner ear. The anterior wall has perforation
for the passage of the cranial nerves.
 The squamosals are a pair of T-shaped bones lateral to the prootic, whose longer ends extend
outward and backward to the lower jaw.
 The occipitals are short bones surrounding a large opening, the foramen magnum at the
posterior boundary of the skull.
 The occipital condyles are round prominence on each exoccipital bones.
Skull (Ventral Side)
 The parashenoid is a dagger-shaped bone that forms the floor of the skull.
 The spenethmoid is a bone at the anterior end of the parasphemoid as seen in the dorsal side.
 The vomerine are two flat wing-shaped and teeth-bearing bones just posterior to the
premaxillae.
 The palatine is a pair of slender, rod-like bone extending laterally from the anterior end of the
spenethmoid to the maxillae.
 The pterygoid are pair of three rayed bones joined to the prootics, squamosals and maxillae.

The Lower Jaw

The lower jaw may be divided into the left and right halve. Each half contains the following
lobes seen from the dorsal side.

 The meto-meckelian is the anterior bone that unites the right and left halves of the
jaw.
 The dentary is the middle bone.
 The angulo-splenial is the posterior bone.

The Hyoid Cartilage

The hyoid cartilage is a thin, flat hyaline cartilage embedded beneath the tongue.
 The body is the large central portion of the hyoid.
 The alary processes are pair of expanded plates at the anterior end of the body.
 The anterior cornua are the anterior pair of horns extending to the prootics.
 The thyroid processes is a pair of ossified extension of the body which help support
the larynx.  The posterior cornua are a pair of shorter horns lateral to the hyroids
process.

The Vertebral Column

The vertebral column consists of ten bones, the vertebrae.

 The atlas is the first vertebra. It is the most anterior bone of the vertebral column without
transverse process. It articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull.
 The typical vertebras are the second to the eight vertebrae. The parts of the typical vertebra
are as follows:
o The centrum is a ventral spoon-like base or body, which is concave anteriorly and
convex posteriorly.
o The neural arch is a pair of dorso-lateral projections on the centrum and is fused mid-
dorsally. The small openings between adjacent neural arches through which spinal nerves
connect with the spinal cord are called intervertebral foramina.
o The neural canal is the cavity enclosed by the neural arch.
 o The neural spine is caudally directed projection on the mid-dorsal part of the neural
arch.
o The transverse processes are a pair of elongated processes which extend at the right
angles of the centrum.
o The prezygapophysis is a pair of articulating processes at the anterior end of the
neural arch.
o The postzygapophysis is a pair of articulating processes at the posterior end of the
neural arch.

 The sacral vertebra is the ninth vertebra with two long transverse processes extending
backward and articulating with the pelvic girdle.
 The urostyle is the tenth terminal vertebra and is slender with dorsal keel articulating
anteriorly with the sacral vertebra.

The Sternum
 The sternum is the breast bone and is divided by the pectoral girdle into anterior and
posterior portions.
 The omosternum is a tapered bone attached anteriorly to the epicoracoid.
 The episternum is a flat, slightly circular cartilage at the anterior part of omosternum.
 The mesosternum is a bony rod. It is the posterior counterpart of the omosternum
correspondingly connected to the epicoracoid.

The Pectoral Girdle

 The pectoral girdle together with the sternum forms an arch of bones and cartilage around
the anterior portion of the trunk. It is divided into right and left half.
 The suprascapula is a distal, flat, expanded cartilage forming the dorsal portion of the girdle.
 The scapula is a smaller piece of bone articulating with the suprascapula. The clavicle or collar
bone is a slender bone anteromedial to scapula.
 The coracoid is bone flared at the median end, posteromedial to the scapula. The opening
that separates the clavicle and the coracoid is the fenestra. The posterior cup-shaped cavity
between the coracoid and scapula which receives the head of the humerus is the glenoid fossa.
 The epicoracoid is a cartilage at the proximal end of the clavicle and the coracoid and joins the
halves of the pectoral girdle ventrally.

The Pelvic Girdle

 The pelvic girdle is a V-shaped bone, which articulates with the sacral vertebra and supports
the posterior limbs. It has a left and right half and each half consists of the following bones:
o The ilium is an anterior, slender bone articulating with transverse process of the sacral
vertebra.
o The ischium is a short posterior bone of the dorsal side of the girdle. 97
 o The pubis is a triangular cartilage on the ventral side of the girdle.
o The cup-like depression formed by the union of the three pairs of bone and which
receives the head of the femur is called acetabulum. The areas of union to ach pair of these
boxes are known as iliac, ischium and pubic symphysis.

The Anterior Limb

The different bones of the forelimb or anterior limbs are the following:
 The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. Head fits glenoid fossa of the pectoral girdle.
 The radio-ulna is the bone of the forearm.
 The carpals are the bone of the wrist consisting of two rows of the six small bones.
 The metacarpals are bones of the palm consisting of four slender bones and a rudiment of the
thumb.
 The phalanges are the bones of the fingers consisting of small pieces of bones arranged
linearly.

The Posterior Limb

The following are the bones of the posterior limbs or hindlimbs.
 The femur is the bone of the thigh and the largest bone in the body. Its head fits into the
acetabulum of the pelvic girdle.
 The tibio-fibula is the bone of the shank posterior to the femur.
 The tarsals are the bones of the ankle consisting of two rows of bones posterior to the tibio-
fibula. The outer calcaneum and the inner astragalus with an oval space between them
compromise the proximal row. The small bones comprise the distal row.
 The metatarsals are five long cylindrical bones of the sole articulating with the posterior limb
to the tarsals.
 The phalanges are bones of the foot consisting of small pieces that are arranged linearly
posterior to the metatarsal.
 The calcar is a rudimentary bone that supports the prehallux.

MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT

Muscular System

Muscles constitute the flesh of the body. Muscle tissue are highly specialized for
contractility. Practically all movements of animal results from contraction of the muscles. A
large proportion of the body musculature is composed of the skeletal muscles. These are chiefly
concerned with the movements of the bones and locomotion.
Each skeletal muscle has two point of attachment, the more fixed part is the origin and
the more movable part is the insertion. Generally, the origin is near the spinal axis of the body
while the insertion is peripheral. The two ends of the muscle area are attached to different
bones so that contraction would be effective in producing movements, the bones act as levers
and fulcrums and the muscle provide then power for action.
The muscle maybe directly attached to a bone, to another muscle ir to a tendon. A
tendon is a continuation of the fascia or connective tissue which covers the muscle. The thick
part of the muscle between the origin and the muscle insertion is known as the body or belly.
Contraction is the only action produced by a muscle. Flexor bend a part, extensors
straighten a part, adductors cause apart to be brought closer to the medial line of the body,

1. Muscles on the Dorsal Side of the Head and Trunk

 Temporalis is a pair of stout muscles at the back of the skull originating from the mid-dorsal
line and inserted into the posterior region of the mandible.
 Depressor mandibulae is a fan shaped muscle located posterior to the temporalis.
 Dorsalis scapulae is attached to the suprascapula and underneath the depressor mandibulae.
 Latissimus dorsi is a broad muscle whose fibers run horizontally meeting the mid-dorsal line.
 Longissimus dorsi is a muscle located posterior to latissimus dorsi and runs along the vertebral
column.
 Coccygeo-iliacus is a muscle posterior to longissimus dorsi attached to urostyle and the iliac
bones.
 Gluteus is a small muscle on the postero-lateral side of the coccygeo-iliacus.
 Pyriformis is a thin transverse muscle near the angle between two thighs.
 External oblique is a large thin sheet of muscle covering most of the sides of the body.

2. Muscles on the Ventral Side of the Head and Trunk

 Mylohyoid is a very thin sheet of muscle at the ventral surface of the lower jaw.
 Deltoid is the muscle of the upper arm.
 Pectoralis is the large muscle on the anterior part of the trunk which is divided into anterior,
middle and posterior portion.
 Rectus abdominis is a thin flat muscle forming the ventral abdominal wall. This muscle is
divided into left and rights side of the vertical linea alba.
 Inscriptiones tendinae are segmentally arranged connective tissue septa on the rectus
abdominis.

3. Muscles of the Thigh

 Rectus internus minor or gracilis minor is a thin strip of flat muscle covering the innermost
side of the thigh visible on the ventral and dorsal side.
 Rectus internus major or gracilis major is a large muscle on the ventral side of the thigh
immediately after the gracilis minor.
 Adductor magnus is next to gracilis major partially covered by the sartorius.
 Sartorius is a narrow ribbon-like muscle which traverses the thigh obliquely and covers the
lower portion of the adductor magnus and the adductor longus.
 Adductor longus is a very thin flat muscle beneath the sartorius.
 Tricep femoris is a large muscle covering the outer surface of the thigh extending to the dorsal
side. It arises from three origins or heads- the vastus internus (ventral), the rectus femoris
anticus (middle) and the vastus externus (dorsal).
 Semimembranosus is a large, broad muscle seen on the dorsal side covering the inner surface
of the thigh.
 Bicep femoris is a narrow muscle lying between the semimembranosus and tricep femoris.
 Semitendinosus is a slender muscle visible from the ventral side beneath the gracilis major.

4. Muscles of the Shank

 Gastrocnemius is a large muscle covering the entire inner side of the shank that maybe seen
in the ventral and dorsal side. Take note of the large tendon that passes over the ankle joint
and spreads out over the ventral surface of the foor. This is the tendon of Achilles, which is the
insertion of the gastrocnemius.
 Tibialis posticus is a long slender muscle on the ventral side between the gastrocnemius and
the tibio-fibula. This extends and twists the ankle.
 Extensor cruris is a small muscle crowded against and almost fused to the upper two thirds of
the outer side of the tibio-fibula.
 Tibialis anticus lies along the entire surface of the shank. A big portion of it is visible in the
lower ventral side.
 Flexor tarsi anterior is the small muscle below the extensor cruris.
 Peroneus is the only other muscle beside the gastrocnemius on the dorsal side of the shank
 DIGESTION AND NUTRITION

A.Digestion of Food
The digestive system of the frog is similar in most respect so that of other vertebrates.
The large mouth or buccal cavity secretes mucus for lubricating the food because frogs do not
have salivary glands.
The frog is carnivorous animal that preys on insects, worms, crustaceans or anything
small enough to catch and swallow whole. A large extensible tongue can flip out rapidly to
capture prey. The maxillary and vomerine teeth in the upper mouth help keep the prey from
escaping.
Swallowing I achieved by a combination of muscular movements, mucus secretion,
ciliated lining, the mouth cavity and the lowering the eyes into their sockets that depresses the
roof of the mouth. The back part of the mouth cavity is the pharynx, which opens into the short
but very muscular esophagus leading to the stomach. The stomach leads to the small intestine,
where bile and pancreatic secretions act on food.
Absorption of food takes place in small intestine. Undigested food proceeds to the large
intestine and finally empties into the cloaca and passing through the anus.
Digestion of food is both by chemical and physical means. Food is physically torn into
small piece by the contraction of muscles and the digestive enzymes mediate the chemical
breakdown of food. These enzymes are secreted by specialized cells pf the digestive organs and
the accessory glands like the liver and pancreas.
Human Digestive System

The human digestive system is a complex series of organs

and glands that processes food. In order to use the food
we eat, our body has to break the food down into
smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to
excrete waste. Most of the digestive organs (like the
stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the
food as it makes its way through the body. The digestive
system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from
the mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the
liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive
chemicals.

A.Digestive Tract

 Mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth.

Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing
and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary
glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).
 Swallowing, which is accomplished by muscle movements in the tongue and mouth, moves
the food into the throat, or pharynx. The pharynx, a passageway for food and air, is about 5
inches (12.7 centimeters) long. A flexible flap of tissue called the epiglottis reflexively closes
over the windpipe when we swallow to prevent choking.
 Esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The
esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like
muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This
muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down.
 Stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very
strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach
acids is called chyme.
 Small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the
small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small
intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder),
pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small
intestine help in the breakdown of food.
 Large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine.
In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed
from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia
coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large
intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels
upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon,
goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the
sigmoid colon.
 Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.

B.Digestive Glands
Associated with the digestive tract are accessory glands that’s secretes digestive juices that help
in the digestion of food. These are:
 Liver is a large dark gland and is the largest gland in the body. The position of which is
posterior and somewhat dorsal to the heart. It consists of lobes, the right and left lobe. The left
lobe is larger and is subdivided. Between the lobes of the liver is a thin walled greenish sac
containing the bile, this is the gall bladder. The bile acids dissolve fat into the watery contents
of the intestine.
 Pancreas is an irregular glandular mass in the mesentery, which is situated between the
duodenum and the stomach. It is both an endocrine gland producing several important
hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as an exocrine gland, secreting
pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes
help in the further breakdown of the carbohydrates, protein, and fat in the chyme.
 GAS EXCHANGE

A.Gas Exchange
Respiration is the process by which animals take in oxygen and gives of carbon dioxide.
There are two types of respiration that can be observed among animals, direct and indirect.
Direct respiration is when the cell exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide directly with the
surrounding environment and usually no respiratory system is necessary and this is true for
lower form of animals. Indirect respiration takes place in higher forms of animal and used
specialized respiratory organs like gills, lungs and skin.
External respiration is the exchange of gases between the external environment and the
blood through the respiratory organs. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the
blood and the cells of the body where oxygen will be used for cellular respiration.
Respiration is based on the principle that gases pass through moist permeable
membranes from the area of greater pressure to lesser pressure.

Human Respiratory System

 The primary function of the
respiratory system is to supply the blood
with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver
oxygen to all parts of the body. The
respiratory system does this through
breathing. When we breathe, we inhale
oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. This
exchange of gases is the respiratory
system's means of getting oxygen to the
blood.
Respiration is achieved through the
mouth, nose, trachea, lungs, and
diaphragm. Oxygen enters the respiratory
system through the mouth and the nose.
The oxygen then passes through the larynx
(where speech sounds are produced) and
the trachea which is a tube that enters the
chest cavity. In the chest cavity, the trachea
splits into two smaller tubes called the bronchi. Each bronchus then divides again forming the
bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes lead directly into the lungs where they divide into many
smaller tubes which connect to tiny sacs called alveoli. The average adult's lungs contain about
600 million of these spongy, air-filled sacs that are surrounded by capillaries. The inhaled
oxygen passes into the alveoli and then diffuses through the capillaries into the arterial blood.
Meanwhile, the waste-rich blood from the veins releases its carbon dioxide into the alveoli. The
carbon dioxide follows the same path out of the lungs when you exhale. The diaphragm's job is
to help pump the carbon dioxide out of the lungs and pull the oxygen into the lungs.
The diaphragm is a sheet of muscles that lies across the bottom of the chest cavity. As
the diaphragm contracts and relaxes, breathing takes place. When the diaphragm contracts,
oxygen is pulled into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, carbon dioxide is pumped out of
the lungs.

Frog Respiratory System

Frogs have three respiratory surfaces that aid in gas exchange. A frog’s respiratory
surfaces are its skin, lungs, and the thin membranes lining its mouth and pharynx.
 External and internal nares are the opening on the head region commonly called nostrils and
are guarded by valves. The external nares are continuous with the internal nares inside the
cavity.
 Buccal cavity is the space that lies posterior to the mouth. It consists of the following parts:
o Upper lip fold borders the margin of the upper jaw.
 o Lower lip folds borders the margin of the lower jaw.
o Maxillary teeth are the conical teeth along the edges of the upper jaw.
o Sulcus marginalis is the deep grove at the inner margin of the two rows of maxillary
teeth.
o Median subrostal fossa is the tiny, shallow depression at the tip of the upper jaw
which is immediately posterior to the premaxillary teeth.
o Pulvinar rostale are low elevations
situated on the sides of the median
subrostal fossa. o Lateral subrostal fossa is
another depression lateral to the pulvinar
rostale.
o Vomerine teeth are small clusters
of teeth at the antero-median portion of the
root of the mouth.
o Internal nares are small opening
which are antero-laterally located to the
vomerine teeth.
o Eyeball prominence is two
rounded bulges at the posteriori half of the
roof of the mouth.
o Opening of the Eustachian tubes
are opening just laterally below the eyeball
prominence and the median angles of the
jaw.
o Tongue is a structure that greatly
occupies the floor of the buccal cavity.
o Tuberculum prelinguale is an elevation at the tip of the lower jaw which is
immediately enteior to the tongue.
o Laryngeal prominence is a small, hardened oval elevation at the medial portion of the
floor of the buccal cavity and posterior at the tongue at its centre I a short vertical slits, the
glottis.

 The opening of the esophagus is a transverse wide slit which is posterior to the laryngeal
prominence.
 Pharynx is the most posterior part of the buccal cavity leading to the stomach. The opening of
the vocal sacs is found only in male frogs. These are slit-like opening located at the postero-
medial sides of the lower jaw, lateral to the posterior portion of the tongue.
 The larynx, commonly called voice box is located below the pharyngeal cavity which is
supported by the hyoid cartilage a flat structure cord by the mylohyoid.
 The lungs are pair of thin walled sacs situated dorsally to the lover. The bubble-shaped
chambers of the inner surface are called alveoli or air sacs.

Frogs can breathe through their skin while they are in wet places. They can also
exchange gases between the blood vessels in it, and with its outer environment. There are
mucus glands in the skin that keep the skin moist. Their skin absorbs a lot of dissolved oxygen
from the surrounding atmosphere. The second respiratory surface is the thin membranes lining
its mouth and pharynx. The third respiratory surface is the lungs which are thin, elastic,
lightweight organs that inflate and deflate rhythmically, while the frog is at rest. Adult frogs
have poorly developed lungs and are used on dry land while the frogs are active.
Frogs breathe very similarly to humans. The frog inhales. When the frog breathes, the
air enters the mouth. The floor of the mouth drops, and the external nares open. When a frog
breathes, the floor of the mouth rises and falls in rhythmic pattern. These movements are
interrupted by a rapid expansion and contraction of the sides of the body wall at less frequent
intervals. For each breath taken, the floor of the mouth will fall twice and rise twice. The body
wall will only contract once. At rest, frogs usually breathe through the lining of the mouth. This
process only fills the lung occasionally. This is because the lungs, which only adults have, are
poorly developed.

TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION

Transport of Materials in Animals

All cells in a multicellular organism must be nourished and get rid of its waste materials.
For these to be accomplished, there is a mechanism of transport of materials to the different
parts of the organism. In animals, the circulatory system is the main mechanism of transport.
The principal functions of the circulatory system are to transport food materials,
hormones and oxygen in the body and remove carbon dioxide and other waste materials from
the tissues to the organs where they are eliminated. In addition, it maintains wastes, salt, pH
and osmotic equilibrium in a steady state of homeostasis at all times. It also serves to maintain
body temperature within certain limits; it also enables the body to combat the effect of disease
as defense mechanism against foreign bodies.
Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms (phylum
Platyhelminthes). Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx
leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to
all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any
cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the
surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently every cell is
able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.
The main components of the human circulatory system are the heart, the blood, and the
blood vessels. The circulatory system includes: the pulmonary circulation, a "loop" through the
lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop" through the rest of the
body to provide oxygenated blood. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to
5.7 liters) of blood, which consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the
system needs to keep the heart pumping.
Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system: blood and lymph. The blood,
heart, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph
vessels form the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system
collectively make up the circulatory system.
The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In
the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a
systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle,
right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium, which is the upper chamber of the right side.
The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into
the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for reoxygenation
and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs
as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped
through the aorta to the tissues of the body.
The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout
the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood
away from the heart, the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals
between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back
towards the heart.

THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM

Urinogenital System
The urinogenital system of the frog is the combination of the excretory and reproductive
systems. These two systems are closely associated in embryonic origin and functions. Excretion
is the removal of end products of metabolism. Frogs, in common with other vertebrates, have a
number of organs for the disposal of wastes, such as skin, lungs, bile of the liver and the
excretory system.
A.Excretory System
The excretory system is made up of two kidneys, certain ducts and a urinary bladder.
Kidneys are made up of renal corpuscles and uriniferous tubules surrounded by capillaries. The
role of the nephron is to separate the waste and other products from the blood through the
process of filtration and selective reabsoprtion. The uriniferous tubules of the kidney join to
form collecting tubules that empty into the ureter. The liquid waste, urine passes down the
ureter to the cloaca where it may pass to the outside through the anus or temporarily stored in
the urinary bladder.

Parts:
1. Kidneys are a pair of dark red, elongated bodies on the dorsal wall of either side of the
vertebral column. They lie outside of the peritoneum in a sac called the cisterna magna. They
are not suspended by any mesentery, a periotines condition. Each has an adrenal gland on its
ventral side which appears as an irregular, light colored band.
2. Mesonephric ducts are a pair of whitish ducts which serve for the passage of urine and
sperm.
3. Urinary bladder is a bi-lobed sac on the ventral wall of the cloaca, which stores urine and
maybe discharged through the anus at intervals.
4. Cloaca is a much dilated portion of the large intestine which serves to conduct water
products and sex cells to the anus.

The Human Excretory System

 All vertebrates have paired kidneys. Excretion is not the primary function of kidneys.
Kidneys regulate body fluid levels as a primary duty, and remove wastes as a secondary one.
The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The nephron, an
evolutionary modification of the nephridium, is the kidney's functional unit. Waste is filtered
from the blood and collected as urine in each kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys by ureters, and
collects in the urinary bladder. The bladder can distend to store urine that eventually leaves
through the urethra.

The nephron has three functions:

1. Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.
2. Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved molecules back into the blood.
3. Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from surrounding capillaries into the
distal tubule.

Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per minute; filtering the entire body fluid component 16
times each day. In a 24 hour period nephrons produce 180 liters of filtrate, of which 178.5 liters
are reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters forms urine.

Urine Production
1. Filtration in the glomerulus and nephron capsule.
2. Reabsorption in the proximal tubule.
3. Tubular secretion in the Loop of Henle.

B.Reproductive System

Reproduction is a function of life that assures the presence of specie through

generation. In frogs, the male reproductive system is separated from that of the female. The
male reproductive system consists of the two testes and a series of tubules for carrying the
sperm from the testes.
The testes are made up of coiled mass of seminiferous tubules in which sperm cells are
produced. A number of delicate tubules, the vas efferentia, pass through the mesorchium,
penetrate the inner margins of the kidney and connect to the anterior uriniferous tubules. The
posterior end of the ureter is enlarged as seminal vesicle in which the sperm maybe stored
temporarily. The ureter in the male then serves double purpose, for carrying the urine from the
kidney and the sperm from the testis.

 Testes are two whitish oval shaped or bean shaped bodies suspended from the ventral
surface of each kidney by a short mesentery known as mesorchium.
 Vasa efferentia are numerous minute while slender ducts which serve as passageway
of the sperm from each testis to the inner margins of the kidneys.
  Vestigial oviducts are two slender white wavy tubes, along each side of the
mesonephric duct which join posteriorly.

The female reproductive system of the frog is made up of the two ovaries and oviducts
for carrying the eggs to the cloaca, an ovary is lobed hollow sac made up of double wall,
wherein between lie the eggs enclosed in oviducts do not connect directly to the ovaries. The
oviducts are much convulated and are provided with glands which secret gelatinous coats
around the eggs. Just before entering the cloaca, the oviducts are enlarged were eggs are
collected before being discharged to the external environment through the cloaca.
 Ovaries are a pair of lobulated sacs containing eggs, each suspended from the body
wall by a short mesentery, the mesovarium. When the ovaries are matured, they contain
numerous black and white structures, the eggs.
 Oviducts are coiled whitish tubes with fleshy walls suspended by a mesentery, the
mesotavarium, close to the lateral side of each ovary. Each oviduct opens anteriorly into the
body cavity by a funnel like ostium serves as entrance for the eggs in the body cavity and it
often enlarges posteriorly into a sac, uterine enlargement, which opens into dorsal wall of the
cloaca.
 The corpora adipose or fat bodies are yellowish finger like organs attached to the
anterior end of the ovary.

1.Testis is the male gonad a. seminiferous tubules – long and highly coiled tubules that produce
sperm cells b. interstitial cells of leydig – scattered cells between the tubules
2. Epididymis – coiled tubules on the surface of the testes. It is the site for temporary storage of
sperm
3. Vas deferens – long tube for transport of sperm from the epididymis to the urethra
4. Urethra – tube the runs through the penis common passage way of urine and sperm

Accessory Organs
1. Seminal vesicle
– Located at the posterior surface of the urinary bladder
 – Secretes viscous fluid containing fructose, amino acid and mucus
– About 60% of the semen

2. Prostate glands
– lies below the urinary bladder
– Secretes a thin milky alkaline fluid

3. Bubo-urethral or Cowper’s Glands

– Situated below the prostate gland
– Secretes viscous fluid

Female reproductive system

• Production of Egg cells

• Secretion of estrogen and progesterone

1. Ovary
– Located in the abdominal cavity below the digestive organs
– Known as the female gonad

2. Fallopian tube or Oviduct

– Located near the ovaries
– Site of fertilization

3. Uterus
– Hollow inverted pear shaped organ with thick muscular wall
– Support and nourishes developing individual
4. Cervix
– Narrow neck of the uterus which opens to the vagina

COORDINATION AND CONTROL

The survival of the organism largely on its ability to respond to the changes in the
environment. Animals possess specific adaptations that inform them of the changes in the
external and internal environment and their corresponding responses. A reflex action, also
known as a reflex, is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a
stimulus.
The nervous system together with the endocrine system in the animals is responsible for
the functions of control and regulation. The nervous system is an intricate adaptation in
animals. It coordinates and controls the function of all other organs system through the
conduction of impulses while the endocrine system has glands that secret hormone.
The unit structure and function of the nervous system is the neuron or the nerve cell.
This cell is made up of the cell body and the cytoplasmic extensions. The dendrite is short and
most often branched and conducts impulses toward the cell body. The axon is longer and is
sometimes covered by a fatty material, the myelin sheath and conducts impulses away from the
cell body.
The Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath that function for protection and insulation
of the axon, it also speeds up the nerve impulse conduction from the cell body.
The nerve impulse is an electrochemical signal that travels along the neurons, when the
nerve cell is at rest, the internal part of the membrane is negatively charged while the external
environment is positive. This difference in the charges of the neurolemma is cause to active
transport of the sodium ions from the inside of the membrane.
When there is a stimulus, the permeability of the membrane changes allowing the
sodium ions to move inward making the internal part of the membrane turns positive. This
depolarization in one part of the membrane stimulates the adjacent point of the fiber to be
depolarized. As this nerve impulse travels along the fiber, sodium ions are actively transported
out of the membrane, this is the repolarization stage that would allow the conduction of new
impulse.
 The central nervous system of higher forms of animals is made up of the brain and the
spinal cord, the brain is an intricate series mass of nerve of tissues that fills the skull or the
cranial cavity. It is the largest part of the nervous system, and includes the brain and spinal
cord. The spinal cavity holds and protects the spinal cord while the head contains and protects
the brain. The CNS is covered by the meninges, a three layered protective coat. The brain is also
protected by the skull, and the spinal cord is also protected by the vertebrae.
The membranes called meninges protect the brain together with the cerebrospinal fluid
that absorbs shock. The spinal cord is a tubular mass of nerve tissues within the canal of the
spinal column. The bone of the spine and meninges protect the spinal cord, this controls the
reflex reactions of the animals and served to conduct impulses to and from the brain.
The Peripheral Nervous System is a regional
term for the collective nervous structures that
do not lie in the CNS. The bodies of the nerve
cells lie in the CNS, either in the brain or the
spinal cord, and the longer of the cellular
processes of these cells, known as axons, extend
through the limbs and the flesh of the torso. The
large majority of the axons which are commonly
called nerves, are considered to be PNS. The
endocrine system is a system of glands that
involve the release of extracellular signaling
molecules known as hormones.
The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development
and puberty, and tissue function and also plays a part in determining mood. The field of study
that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the wider field of
internal medicine.