Topic 3: the voice of the genome

Phylogeny: The study of the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines
of descent and relationships among broad groups of organism
Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities

Feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

DNA, RNA, ribosomes Yes Yes Yes

Nucleus No No Yes

Membrane-bound No No Yes
organelles

Cell wall Yes- made of Yes- no peptidoglycan Some yes but no

peptidoglycan however *Phospholipids in peptidoglycan (i.e., plants
membrane have and fungi), some no (i.e.,
branched hydrocarbon animals)
tails and ether bonds

Antibiotics Not resistant to Resistant to antibiotics Same as Archaea

antibiotics that affect bacteria
*Also live in harsh
environments

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells:

Eukaryotic cells:
➔ found in Eukaryotes; Animals, plants, Protoctista (i.e., Algae), many fungi
➔ Contain membrane-bounded organelles; A nucleus, Mitochondria, chloroplasts etc…
Prokaryotic cells:
➔ Found in Prokaryotes; most bacteria, green-blue algae
➔ Do not contain membrane-bounded organelles (no mitochondria, ER, Golgi body and chloroplasts)
➔ do not have a nucleus. They have a single strand of DNA coiled to form a loop in the centre- the
nucleoid
➔ Cytoplasm contains enzymes, ribosomes, and food storage granules
➔ will sometimes have additional genetic material in rings called plasmids
➔ Respiration takes place in a special part of the cell membrane; a Mesosome
➔ Photosynthesizing prokaryotes will have a form of chlorophyll. *Not in chloroplasts

Eukaryotic cell ultrastructure:

Membranes
 The cell membrane surrounds a cell acting as a boundary which holds the cell together and controls
what goes in and out. *Partially permeable
 Intracellular membranes make up/surround organelles and serve many functions.
The protoplasm
- Cytoplasm
o jelly-like liquid containing organelles
The nucleus
 ● Largest organelle, between 10 and 20 micrometres
● Controls events in cytoplasm because contains genetic material of cell; Nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA). Also contains proteins. *when cell is not dividing DNA bonds with a protein to form
chromatin- tiny granules
● surrounded by a double nuclear membrane or, envelope, which has many nuclear pores allowing
for the movement of chemicals
● Contains at least one nucleolus; dense area of almost pure nucleic acids and proteins

Mitochondria
● Surrounded by inner and outer membranes. Inner membrane folded to make cristae which is
surrounded by a fluid matrix
● contain their own genetic material; to replicate themselves during cell division
● Function: Releases energy from food in the form of ATP using Oxygen in a series of biochemical
reactions → aerobic respiration
● More found in cells requiring more energy, i.e; muscle cells

Centrioles
● Two found in each cell. Each a bundle of nine tubules.
● Function: Pull apart to form a spindle of microtubules in mitosis

Cytoskeleton
 Dynamic, 3D, web-like structure made of microfilaments (protein fibres) and microtubules (protein
tubes)
 Function: gives cytoplasm structure and keeps organelles in place

Vacuoles
 Mostly found in plant cells. Formed and lost as needed in some animal cells. i.e; white blood cells

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

- Rough ER:
o Network of sac-like cavities (cisternae) covered with ribosomes
o Function: Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes- rER isolates and transports these proteins
as transfer vesicles pinch of the cisternae and travel to the Golgi body
o Large SA for synthesis of many proteins
- Smooth ER:
o Tubular cisternae- no ribosomes
o Function: Synthesis and transport of steroids and lipids (i.e; oestrogen)
Golgi body
● Made up of stacks of flattened, parallel, membrane pockets called cisternae, found near the
nucleus. Transfer vesicles from the sER fuse to form these
● Function: Modify, store and transport proteins received at the cis Golgi from the rER.
Carbohydrates can be added to proteins to form glycoproteins.
● Secretory vesicles containing proteins bud off the cisternae at the trans Golgi
● some fuse with the outer cell membrane to release proteins, i.e., extracellular enzymes
● Involved in formation + secretion of lysosome
Lysosome
 Vesicles containing a powerful mix of digestive enzymes. Used in phagocytosis.
 Can rupture to destroy damaged cell- known as apoptosis.

The organisation of cells:

1. Tissues: Groups of similar cells carrying out a specific function- They do not operate on their own
Four main tissue types:
➔ Epithelial: form the lining of surfaces, inside and outside the body. i.e; squamous epithelium
➔ Connective: Main supporting tissue in the body mostly made up of collagen. i.e; bone tissue, blood
➔ Muscle tissue
➔ Nervous tissue
2. organs: Different tissues, grouped into a structure so that they can work effectively together
3. Organ systems: Organs working together as a system to carry out large-scale functions

Cell cycle and mitosis:

Stage 1:
Interphase.
➔ G1: cell synthesizes mRNA and proteins
➔ S (Synthesis): DNA replication and cell growth + centrosomes replicate
➔ G2 (gap 2): final cell growth takes place. *At checkpoints, small proteins called cyclins build up and
attach to CDKs to allow the cell to move on to the next stage
Mitosis:
A form of cell division which results in two identical daughter cells being formed.
*Allows for growth, asexual reproduction in some organisms and for damaged tissue to be replenished
after injury by replacing damaged cells.
Prophase:
❖ Chromosomes coil and condense by winding around positively charged histone proteins and each
appear as two chromatids joined by a centromere. (X shape)
❖ Nucleolus breaks down
❖ Centrioles move apart and begin to form the spindle
Metaphase:
❖ Nuclear membrane breaks down
❖ Spindles made of microtubules have been formed (by the centrioles) and chromosomes line up at
the equator of the cell where each is attached to a spindle fibre by its centromere
Anaphase:
❖ The centromeres separate as the sister chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles, shortening
spindle tubules
Telophase:
❖ Spindle fibres break down and nuclear membranes form around two sets of chromosomes
❖ Nucleoli and centrioles also re-form. The chromosomes unravel, becoming less dense
Cytokinesis: Final stage; division of cytoplasm to form two individual cells.

Gametogenesis: (meiosis)
Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells (sex cells or gametes) containing
the haploid number of chromosomes.
It consists of two stages;
➔ Meiosis l
◆ Same process as mitosis; two diploid cells produced
◆ Crossing over occurs during prophase (during synapsis); homologous chromosomes1 wind
around each other at the chiasmata and sections of each chromosome switch places;
genetic information is shared between the two → genetic variation even between siblings
◆ independent assortment occurs as a result of the alignment of homologs during metaphase
I, determining which maternal and paternal chromosomes assort to each daughter cell. Each
pair of alleles separates independently of every other pair of unlinked alleles leading to a
new combination of chromosomes.
➔ Meiosis ll
◆ Same process as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) but DNA is not
replicated
◆ Only one of the four cells produced becomes an ovum; the others are polar bodies

Structural adaptations of mammalian gametes:

Sperm

Spermatogenesis (in testes) → spermatids → differentiate into mature sperm within about two months.
*occurs from onset of puberty throughout a man’s lifetime.

Secondary oocyte Cortical granules contain enzymes which are

released once a sperm has penetrated the egg,
known as the cortical reaction → Zona pellucida
forms hard barrier preventing polyspermy (the
fertilisation membrane)
Oogenesis: Primary oocytes are formed from
oogonia (female germ cells) following repeated
mitotic divisions. At puberty meiosis resumes
from prophase l and eggs at metaphase ll are
released. The second division of secondary
oocytes to produce mature ova is only
completed during fertilisation.

1 Carry the same genes but not necessarily the same alleles
Fertilisation:
Animals
1. Sperm move through the female
reproductive tract and the
acrosome region matures
2. Sperm cluster around ovum
(secondary oocyte)
3. Heads of sperms touch surface of
ovum → acrosome reaction2
4. One sperm3 eventually wriggles
through the weakened barriers
and touches the surface
membrane of the secondary
oocyte
5. The oocyte undergoes second
meiotic division to provide a
haploid egg nucleus
6. A tough fertilisation membrane is formed to prevent polyspermy following the cortical reaction
7. The head of the sperm enters the oocyte and the tail is left behind; the male and female
chromosomes fuse and a diploid4 zygote is produced
Plants
1. If the molecules on the surface of the pollen grain and the stigma recognise each other as being
from a different plant5 from the same species the pollen grain begins to grow or germinate
2. Pollen tube grows through stigma into the hollow style
3. Nucleus of pollen tube divides to form two male nuclei and the tip of the tube eventually passes
through the micropyle of the ovule *growth of pollen tube is very fast due to rapid elongation of
cell
4. Two male nuclei pass into the ovule
5. Double fertilisation occurs → one male nucleus fuses with the nuclei of the two polar bodies to
form the triploid endosperm nucleus and the other fuses with the egg cell to form the diploid
zygote

Stem cells
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells (Totipotent, Pluripotent, or multipotent) which have the potential to
differentiate and give rise to different specialised cells such as muscle cells. These cells are present in some
organs where they will divide to replace and replenish damaged tissue.

Stem cells are either:

 Totipotent: can give rise to any type of specialized cell.

2 Enzymes are released from the acrosome which digest the follicle cells and the zona pellucida as the sperm
approach the egg
3 One sperm alone does not produce sufficient enzymes to penetrate the protective layers around the ovum; reason
for large number of sperm released in ejaculation
4 Containing two complete sets of chromosomes one from each parent
5 For more variation
  Pluripotent: Can give rise to any type of specialised cell other than placental cells. i.e; embryonic
stem cells, taken from the blastocyst
 Multipotent: Can give rise to more than one type of specialised cell- more limited than pluripotent
stem cells. i.e; adult stem cells
Uses of stem cells:

 The main two types of stem cells are embryonic cells, which are derived from the blactocyst (a ball
of cells which developes 3-5 days after fertilisation) produced under IVF or fetal tissue, and adult
stem cells which are taken from adult tissues such as the bone marrow.
 Due to their unique regenerative abilities (They are capable of continuous cell division and
technically have no hayflick limit), stem cells can be used to treat several diseases including type 1
diabetes- where they can be induced to become insulin producing beta cells.
Problems with using stem cells from donors:
➔ You need to find a suitable match which can be difficult
➔ Risk of rejection
➔ Risk of transmission of disease
➔ The recipient would have to take immunosuppressant drugs to prevent their body from rejecting
the stem cells making them vulnerable to opportunistic diseases
➔ Can cause cancer to develop
Stem cell ethics:
❖ Is it okay to create and destroy life for scientific purposes? Sometimes extra embryos from IVF are
used, they would be thrown away anyway
❖ Is it okay to ‘alter’ humans?
❖ What if stem cell therapy heralds damaging effects on humans in the future?
❖ Embryos should have the same human rights as a fully grown adult
❖ Stem cell research offers the hope of curing millions of hopeless people suffering from illnesses like
Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s
❖ Use of adult stem cells is ethically less sensitive
Cell differentiation/differential gene expression
● external/internal stimulus (i.e; hormones, chemicals) triggers diff. Genes to be activated
● Diff. sections of dna are transcribed; active mRNA produced + translated into proteins
● Proteins are made→ control cell processes and determine cell structure and function
Genetic variation
❖ Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that occupy the same location (gene locus)
A phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment (e.g. animal hair
colour, human height, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and cancers). For example, about 400 genes
contribute to human height, however, environmental factors which determine a child’s nutrition and
overall health also affect it. The data on the relative contributions of genes and environment is often
difficult to interpret.
Gene locus
 A locus (plural loci), in genetics, is the specific location or position of a gene, DNA sequence, on a
chromosome.
Phenotype and gene interactions
  Some phenotypes are affected by many genes at different loci (polygenic inheritance) as well as the
environment (e.g. height) and this can give rise to phenotypes that show continuous variation.
Polygenic inheritance occurs when one visible characteristic (phenotype) is controlled by two or
more genes at different loci. Often the genes are large in quantity but small in effect. Examples of
human polygenic inheritance are height, skin color, eye color and weight. These characteristics do
not seem to follow mendelian rules in their inheritance patterns.
 When there are large numbers of genes involved, it becomes hard to distinguish the effect of each
individual gene

Topic 4: Biodiversity and natural resources

All living organisms are divided into three domains (established by Woese in 1990); bacteria, Archaea,
Eukarya which stem from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA).
*Bacteria and Archaea are both single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms with no nucleus. Despite this,
Archaea are known to be more closely related to Eukarya.
feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

DNA, RNA, ribosomes Yes Yes Yes

Nucleus No No Yes

Membrane-bound No No Yes
organelles

Cell wall Yes- made of Yes- no peptidoglycan Some yes but no

peptidoglycan however *Phospholipids in peptidoglycan (i.e.;
membrane have plants and fungi), some
branched hydrocarbon no (i.e.; animals)
tails and ether bonds

Antibiotics Not resistant to Resistant to antibiotics Same as Archaea

antibiotics that affect bacteria
*Also live in harsh
environments

Initially, scientists used morphology, or the physical appearance of organisms to identify the degree of
similarity or difference between them and in turn, grouping them into species, genus and so on. A species
is a group of closely related organisms which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Some organisms may look similar while they are actually very different. The new science of
molecular phylogeny uses the analysis of the structures of many different chemicals 6 and genes to identify
how closely related organisms are and in turn back up or even disprove the relationships based on
morphology. This is done with the evidence from DNA profiling and analysis of the sequence of bases in
DNA and RNA as well as amino acid sequences.
The theory that there are three domains; two prokaryotes (Archea and bacteria) and the
eukaryotes developed as a result of analysis of ribosomes, enzymes and chemicals such as DNA and RNA
under molecular phylogeny. The three-domain system, remains a source of debate and uncertainty,
however, as some scientists argue that archaea are not more closely linked to eukarya and that the
evolution of organisms would be better represented by a complex web of life rather than a simple tree.

6 I.e; DNA, RNA and proteins

Plant cell structure: Because plant cells are bounded by cell walls, they appear as more rigid and uniform in
shape than animal cells. *Plant cells contain the same features as animal cells (except centrioles) as well as
some distinguishing features

Plant cell walls

Middle lamella:
➔ first layer
➔ Forms after cell division
➔ Made of pectin, calcium pectate
Primary cell wall:
➔ Build up against middle lamella
➔ Made up of cellulose microfibrils, pectin and a matrix of hemicelluloses and other short-chain
carbohydrates which act as a glue
➔ Flexible as cellulose microfibrils oriented in a similar direction (parallel)
Secondary cell wall:
➔ Develops as plant ages
➔ Cellulose microfibrils laid densely at diff. angles to each other → gives cell wall strength
➔ More rigid + hemicelluloses harden it further
➔ Some are lignified, i,e; wood
middle lamella
Holds cell walls of neighbouring plant cells together, acting as a glue. Made mainly of calcium pectate and
hemicelluloses which hold the cellulose matrices in place.
Plasmodesmata
a narrow thread of cytoplasm7 that passes through the cell walls of adjacent plant cells and allows
communication between them.
Pits
Pits are cavities in plant cell walls that allow water to be transported more easily.

Organelles unique to plant cells:

Large central vacuole
Space inside cytoplasm filled with cell sap (substances dissolved in water), surrounded by membrane called
the tonoplast.
Functions: Allows water to enter the cell by osmosis → key in maintaining turgor pressure and, in turn, cell
structure. Storage of different substances. i.e; Betacyanin in beetroot cells
Chloroplasts
➔ large organelles, biconvex shape
➔ Contain granum made of thylakoid membranes suspended in a liquid called stroma
➔ contain their own DNA and have a double membrane8, like mitochondria, giving a large SA for
reactions to take place
➔ function: site of photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll- green pigment that traps energy from light
Amyloplasts
colourless, like chloroplasts, develop from a plant stem cell known as a leucoplast.
function: store amylopectin. Found in large amounts in starch-storing areas; potato tubers

7 The cytoplasm is not completely separated at cell division

8 Inner membrane is folded
Cellulose:
● Cellulose is made up of long chains of beta
glucose joined by 1,4- glycosidic bonds-cellulose
chains9.
○ One of the monomer units has to be
inverted so bonding can take place.
Hydroxyl groups stick out on both sides
of the molecule → cross-linking can
occur between parallel chains. These
hydrogen bonds make cellulose and
plant fibres very strong.
○ They have a high tensile strength
meaning they cannot be easily broken
by pulling.
B-glucose → cellulose molecules →cellulose microfibrils arranged at 90 degrees to each other → matrix
strengthened by hemicelluloses and in some cases, lignin

How is it different from starch?

● Starch is made up of alpha glucose joined by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds, not b glucose joined by 1,
4 glycosidic bonds
● Cellulose is used for structure and support whereas starch is used for energy storage
● Cellulose is made from straight, parallel chains which form cellulose microfibrils whereas starch is
made up of spiralled amylose and branched amylopectin

The tissues that make up the stem:

❖ Epidermis: outer layer of the stem is the epidermis, protects the cells beneath it. A waxy substance
called cutin is secreted to reduce water loss
❖ Parenchyma: Made up of parenchyma cells- unspecialised cells. Can serve many functions, i.e;
storage and photosynthesis, some can be modified into collenchyma and sclerenchyma
❖ Sclerenchyma: Type of modified parenchyma- for support. Develop around vascular bundles in
older stems, to support bigger upper weight of plant. Sclerenchyma cells have strong secondary
walls made of cellulose microfibrils laid out perpendicularly to each other. Some form fibers; very
long cells found in bundles/cylinders. Lignin is deposited on the cell walls of fibres. Position: outside
phloem
❖ Vascular bundle:
Xylem:
Main functional units; hollow, lignified, xylem vessels
made of dead cells with no end
Function: transport water and dissolved mineral ions up
the stem
Phloem: Living tissue made up of phloem cells which
transport sucrose (the product of photosynthesis) to
where it is needed for growth or to be stored as starch.

9 10-100,000 cellulose molecules (straight chains) joined by hydrogen bonds make up microfibrils.
Cambium: a layer of unspecialised cells between xylem and phloem.

Importance of water and inorganic ions to plants:

Mineral ion Function Deficiency symptoms

Nitrate Needed to make DNA and amino Stunted growth

acids and, in turn, proteins. Yellow older leaves
Essential to growth and
reproduction

Phosphate Needed for phosphate groups in Very dark green leaves

ATP and ADP and nucleic acids; Purple veins
essential to energy transfers and Stunted growth
growth

Calcium Combine with pectin to form Growing points die back

calcium pectate found in middle Yellow and crinkly younger leaves
lamella of plant cells + important
to permeability of membranes

Magnesium Part of chlorophyll molecule + Yellow areas on older leaves

essential for activation of plant Growth slowed down
enzymes needed for
photosynthesis + synthesis of
nucleic acids

Uses of plant fibres

Plant fibres have a high tensile strength- a lot of mass has to be applied to them to break them/pull them
apart. This makes them very suitable for making cloth, paper, ropes etc…

Plant fibres and starch are renewable resources unlike oil which is limited and becomes increasingly
expensive. They are also biodegradable and are of better quality in some cases 10. Plant resources can be
carbon neutral; they take in carbon as they grow and release it as they are burnt or used. Thus, these
contribute to sustainability.

cotton:
Short, single fibres found around cotton seeds are spun to form long, continuous threads with are then
woven together to make fabrics.

Wood:
A composite material made of lignified cellulose fibres embedded in hemicelluloses 11. Wood has a very
high tensile strength at is quite flexible making it suitable for weight-bearing in buildings, making furniture
and making boats.
To make paper:
10 For instance, clothing made from cotton are more absorbent and therefore more comfortable to wear than those
made from synthetic fibres
11 Polysaccharides found in cell walls which are less complicated in structure than cellulose.
 ➔ Soak in a strong alkali such as caustic soda
➔ Pulp consisting of cellulose and lignified cellulose left in water
➔ Thin layers of pulp pressed onto frames
➔ Layers of pulp dry to form paper

Bioplastics vs oil-based plastics:

Oil based plastics are non-biodegradable; they cannot be degraded by naturally occurring microorganisms
such as bacteria and fungi. They accumulate in the environment, particularly aquatic environments, and
can cause marine life to die through intoxication 12, following ingestion of the plastic, or entanglement in
the plastic fragments.
These conventional plastics are also non-sustainable as they are produced from non-renewable resources;
petroleum and natural gas.
Bioplastics are made from renewable biological resources that at the end of their useful life rapidly
biodegrade and return nutrients back into the system.

Historic drug testing Vs contemporary drug testing

William Withering's digitalis soup
➔ discovered that an extract of foxgloves could be used to treat dropsy (extract contained the drug
digitalis.)
➔ CHANCE OBSERVATION: a patient suffering from dropsy recovered after being treated by a
traditional remedy containing foxgloves.
➔ Tested different versions of the remedy with different concentrations of digitalis.
➔ TRIAL & ERROR; too much digitalis poisoned his patient, whilst too little had no effect.
Contemporary drug testing
PRE-CLINICAL TESTING
Animal studies and laboratory studies on isolated cells and tissue cultures assesses safety and determines
whether the compound is effective against the target disease.
CLINICAL TRIALS:
PHASE 1
A small group of (usually healthy) volunteers are told about the drug and given doses. The trial confirms
whether or not the compound is being absorbed, distributed, metabolised, and excreted by the body in the
way predicted by the laboratory tests.
*They must be of the same age/gender, and they must have the same general health levels and lifestyles
PHASE 2
Small groups of volunteer patients e.g., 100-300 people with the disease, are treated to determine the
drug’s effectiveness.
PHASE 3
Large group of patients (1000-3000 people) are selected and divided into two groups. One is given the
compound being investigated; the second is given a placebo (in some cases an existing treatment is used
rather than a placebo). A placebo is an inactive substance that looks exactly like the drug but doesn't do
anything.
If the results show significant improvements in the patients receiving the treatment compared to those
with the placebo or standard treatment, then compound being investigated is effective.

12 Oily nature of plastics allow them to concentrate oily toxins

Often a DOUBLE-BLIND TRIAL is used which is when neither the patients nor the doctors know who is
having the compound under investigation and who is having the placebo.

Biodiversity
The variety of organisms present in a given habitat
➔ Species richness: The number of species present in a habitat in a given time.
➔ Species evenness: How close in numbers each species in an environment is.
➔ Genetic diversity (within a species): The variety of alleles in a gene pool of a species; the more
genetic variation the better bc. Higher chances of survival

How to measure biodiversity:

❖ Using quadrats: *quantitative sampling, simplest way
➢ Place a quadrat of a suitable size (i.e; 1m by 1m) at random co-ordinates from a number
generator
➢ Identify plants or animals (useful for organisms that don’t move much)
➢ Count how many species present
➢ Repeat at different locations; obtain mean number of species and multiply out to give total
number of species in a particular habitat (the more areas included the more reliable the
results)
❖ Using transects
The Galapagos
tortoises are endemic
to the Galapagos
islands

Endemism
The ecological state of a species being unique to a defined geographic area (in the wild) where they are not
found anywhere else.

Concept of Niche
A niche is the specific role or function of an organism in its habitat which is a result of its physical,
anatomical, and physiological adaptations.
Adaptations:
➔ Behavioral; The ways an organism acts
◆ I.e.: bird calls, migration
➔ Physiological: processes that take place inside an organism’s body
◆ I.e.: Making venom, secreting slime
➔ Anatomical: Structural features of an organism
◆ I.e.: long beaks, sharp claws

Natural selection:
The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.
This is a type of directional selection which shows a change from one phenotypic property to a new one
more advantageous in the circumstances.
*This often begins with geographical isolation which changes the selection pressures on a species
1. There are genetic differences13 between organisms within the same species which results in
different phenotypic traits.
2. Some traits are favourable; they make organisms fitter as these adaptations make them better
suited to their environments14
3. Many favourable traits are heritable, meaning they can be passed onto offspring
4. The fitter15 animals are more likely to survive and pass16 on their advantageous phenotypic traits to
their offspring
Mechanisms of evolutionary change:
★ Natural selection: *cannot operate unless there is genetic variation
★ Genetic drift: *Cannot operate unless there is genetic variation - The chance disappearance of
individuals who die or do not reproduce
★ Mutation; a source of genetic variation
★ Migration; As genetically different organisms join a population; their alleles become more frequent
in that population
Charles Darwin Identified this as a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a
population over time. Under the idea of the survival of the fittest, organisms 17 with favourable traits are
most likely to reproduce and pass on the alleles that code for these traits as they give them an advantage
in a particular niche. Over generations, the alleles that mark their variation become more frequent and
eventually whole populations change. This can also lead to speciation whereby new and distinct species
are formed in the course of evolution.
Conservation refers to the maintainance and protection of a living and changing environment in order to
maintain biodiversity.
Animal species at risk of extinction can be saved in different ways:
❖ Regions can be established as national parks or protected areas to prevent the further destruction
of habitats by human activity
❖ Zoos can use captive breeding programmes.
➢ Individuals of a species are bred in zoos and parks *stud books and DNA profiles are kept
➢ Genetic diversity is maintained as sperm can be swapped with other zoos (for artificial
insemination)
❖ Reintroduction programmes:
➢ Captive-bred animals can be reintroduced to their natural habitats in the wild to restore the
original populations
➢ Reintroduction is most successful in national parks or other protected areas. The Californian
condors have been saved in this way.
Problems with captive breeding and reintroduction:

13 Often caused by random mutations

14 Also, changes in selection pressures (environmental factors) may reduce reproductive success thus contributing to
evolutionary change or extinction through the process of natural selection
15 Have adaptations which give them the upper hand in terms of their chances of survival and reproduction
16 The environment cannot support unlimited growth; not all individuals reproduce to their full potential
17 All organism face the struggle for survival and different selection pressures can
 ● There isn’t enough space or resources in zoos for all endangered species
● Reintroduction programmes are very expensive and time consuming and they may fail
● Unless the reason for animals being pushed to the brink of extinction is removed, reintroduction to
the wild will be unsuccessful
● It is difficult to provide the right conditions for
animals to breed, some are reluctant
Przewalski’s horses have been successfully
● The gene pool of animals held may be reduced reintroduced to a national park in Mongolia following
● Animals that have been bred in captivity may a captive breeding programme in the UK
struggle to adapt to living unsupported in the
wild18
Seed banks can preserve many plants by storing live seeds:
1. These seeds are collected from the wild, removed from fruits and cleaned.
2. They are screened using x-rays to ensure that they contain fully developed embryos.
3. Then they are stored in jars at very low temperatures19 and at low humidity to prevent them from
germinating and to prevent microbial growth.
4. Most plant seeds store well and are capable of germinating for up to 200 years.
Scientific research is carried out by zoos and botanic gardens which work closely with university
departments. Education regarding the impacts of falling biodiversity and the principles of conservation can
help to raise awareness of conservation issues including the need for conservation and the available
opportunities for it.

*Core practical; tensile strength, plant mineral deficiencies, antimicrobial properties of plants

18 I.e., they may not know how to interact with other animals
19 Between -20 and -40 degrees celsius