A Level Biology- Unit 5 notes:

Topic 7: Run for your life

Smooth muscle
Involuntary
Not striated
Controlled by the
Autonomic nervous
system
Types of muscle Found in gut, blood
vessels...

Skeletal muscle: Cardiac muscle:

Voluntary Muscle tissue in
Striated heart
Attached to bone by Involuntary
tendons striated
Enable movement

*Ligaments attach bone to bone *they contain collagen which makes them inelastic
Antagonostic pairs consist of two muscles, one extensor and one flexor. As one contracts, the
other relaxes. This enables movement at a hinge joint such as the knee.
Muscle fibre structure
 Muscle
cells, or fibres,
are

multinuclear cells surrounded by the sarcolemma, a specialised cell membrane.

They consists of myofibrils which are in turn, composed of myofilaments, namely,
actin and myosin. Each myofibril is divided into Sarcomeres which are separated by
the Z lines. Myosin is the thick filament which has myosin heads that stick out. Actin is
much thinner, with tropomyosin which is wraped around and troponin. When a muscle
is relaxed, tropomyosin blocks the crossridge (or myosin) binding sites on actin.
The sliding filament model
➔ As an impulse arrives at a neuromuscular junction, calcium ions stored in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum are released. These bind to Troponin which displaces
Tropomyosin on the actin filament. Binding sites to the myosin heads are
exposed. 1

Fast and slow twitch muscle fibres:

Slow twitch Fast twitch

Contract more slowly but tire less easily Contract more quickly but also tire quickly

Mainly carry out aerobic respiration Mainly carry out anaerobic respiration

1 ATPase catalyses the decomposition of ATP into ADP and an inorganic phosphate ion. This
dephosphorylation releases energy
 Have high concentrations of Myoglobin Have a low concentration of Myoglobin
(specialized form of hemoglobin with
higher affinity for oxygen) within fibers

Have a higher density of mitochondria Have a lower density of mitochondria

Have smaller glycogen stores (there is Have large glycogen stores

already a steady supply of oxygen and
glucose from capillaries)

Have a high capillary density Have a low capillary density

Aerobic respiration

Mitochondria structure

ATP (Adenosine tri-phosiphate): *molecule of stored energy

● Adenine (nitrogenous base)
● Ribose sugar
● Three phosphates
NADH is a high energy molecule which is made when NAD+ (an electron carrier)
combines with electrons and energized protons (H+)
*In theory one molecule of glucose can produce 38 molecules of ATP

Stages of Aerobic respiration:

 1. Glycolysis: The spliting of one glucose molecule into two 3 carbon
pyruvates(pyruvic acid). Two net molecules of ATP2 and NADH are also
released per molecule of glucose. occurs in cytoplasm
a. Hexose sugar is phospholyrated by ATP
b. It then splits into two molecules of a 3-carbon compound; glyceralgehyde
3-phosphate (GALP)
c. Each GALP molecule is then converted to a molecule of pyruvic acid
i. Two hydrogens are removed and taken up by NAD to form reduced NAD
→ NADH
ii. Phosphate groups are released and used to convert ADP to ATP

2. The link reaction: The pyruvates cross the membrane of the mitochondira and
are converted to Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl coA)
a. Each pyruvate is immediately converted to a 2 carbon compound; Acetyl
coenzyme A (acetyl coA)
b. 2C02 and a hydrogen molecule are removed from the compound 3
i. The hydrogen molecule is used to reduce NAD which is later used
in the ETC
Occurs in the matrix

3. The Krebs cycle: for each molecule of Pyruvic acid that enters, 1 ATP, 3
molecules of reduced NAD and 1 of reduced FAD are released. 4
a. A 4 carbon acid (oxaloacetate) combines with Acetyl coA to form the 6
carbon compound citric acid.
b. The citric acid then goes through a cyclical series of reactions; 2CO2
molecules are released as a waste product
c. It is broken down to the original 4 carbon acid which combines with Acetyl
coA and the cycle turns again
Occurs in the matrix

4. The electron transport chain: Also known as Oxidative phosporylation;

phosphorylation (of ADP) in the presence of Oxygen
a. A series of electron carriers in the inner mitochondrial membrane carry
electrons from NADH and FADH across
b. The energy from electrons is used to pump H+ ions into the
intermembrane space

2 Enzymes that remove carbon dioxide: decarboylases. Enzymes that remove hydrogen;
dehydrogenases.
3 For each molecule of Glucose the cycle turns twice
4 Final electron acceptor
 c. The electrons gradually lose energy and every 4 electrons are finally
accepted by an oxygen atom5 which combines with 4 protons (H+) to form
water (2H2O)
d. A electrochemical gradient is formed due to the concentration of H+ ions
in the intermembrane space
e. Via ATP synthase6, the H + ions move into the matrix by chemiosmosis
which provides energy for the phosporylation of ADP

*1 NADH molecule → 3 ATP

*1 FADH2 molecule → 1 ATP

Net gain of ATP in very efficient cell:

Total; 38
Glycolysis; 2
Krebs cycle; 2
ETC; 34

Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down

their electrochemical gradient. More specifically, it relates to the generation of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane
during cellular respiration or photosynthesis.

Anaerobic respiration and “the fate of lactate”

Without Oxygen, the final electron acceptor, NADH no longer releases its Hydrogen at
the ETC.
➔ NADH must be re-oxidized to regenerate NAD in order for glycosis to continue
➔ 2 Pyruvates are converted to 2 Lactates as 2 Hydrogens from NADH are added
➔ So 2 lactates7 and 2 NAD are generated
➔ Cells convert it back to pyruvate by oxidizing it (using NAD) and the pyruvate
then re-enters aerobic respiration at the Krebs cycle OR liver cells convert it to
glucose

The heart and the ECG diagram

Cardiac muscle is myogenic; the electrical activity originates within muscle tissue,
setting off a wave of depolarization.

5 Allows for a delay between atrial and ventricular depolarization and in turn, contraction
6 Anterior cruciate ligament; attaches femur to tibia, located toward the front of the knee
7 Yeast cells produce ethanol and carbon dioxide instead
The Sino atrial node, located in the right atrium acts as a natural pacemaker as it initiates the
heart beat by sending an action potential signal. The signal spreads to both atria which causes the
muscle cells in the atria to depolarize and contract → Atrial systole.
The impulse then passes thorugh the Antrioventricular node8, located in the AV valve
into the bundle of His in the septum through the purkinje fibres. Thus a period of
ventricular systole is induced as muscle cells contract forcing blood up and out of the
ventricles.

The Electro cardiogram shows waves which represent the electrical activity of the heart.
● P wave: Atrial depolarization → Atrial systole
● QRS: Spread of impulse through bundle of his and purkinje fibres → rapid
depolarization of Ventricles; ventricular systole
● T wave; Ventricular repolarization → Ventricular diastole

The ECG can

be used in the diagnosis of CVD and other heart conditions including heart attacks and
arythmia (irregular heart beat).

The cardiac output is simply the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
(Stroke volume x HR in BPM)

8 The enzyme rotates and changes shape as H+ ions move through it

Air in the lungs

➔ Total lung capacity: the total volume of air in the lungs after a maximal
inspiration.
➔ Tidal volume: The volume of air that enters the lungs after normal inspiration at
rest.
➔ Vital capacity: The greatest volume of air that can be expelled after taking the
deepest possible breath. (total capacity - residual volume)
➔ Residual volume: The volume of air left in the lungs after expelling as much air
as possible. This prevents the lungs from collapsing and inner surfaces from
sticking together.

Spirometer
Allows us to study breathing, including breathing rate, and respiration.
The spirometer itself is a tank of water with an air-filled chamber suspended in it.
Carbondioxide is absorbed by soda lime. Adding air to the chamber by exhaling makes
the lid of the chamber rise in the water --removing the air makes it fall. These
movements are recorded using a kymograph (a pen writing on rotating drum). The trace
recorded by the kymograph moves upward as the lid of the chamber rises and vice-
versa. *over time the volume of the air in the chamber decreases as oxygen is used up
(in the body) and carbon dioxide is absorbered by soda lime.
Homeostasis and negative feedback
Homeostasis is the maintenance of an optimal internal envirnoment within narrow limits
using negative feedback to allow cells to function properly.
Key vocab:
★ Receptors: Detect changes away from the norm value
★ Control mechanism: Responds to the information and uses the nervous or
edocrin systems to switch effectors on or off.
★ Effectors: Bring about the response. I.e; muscles and glands.

Negative feedback: Co-ordinated responses that cancel the effect of a

stimulus to maintain systems within narrow limits
Thermoregulation:
Thermoregulatory centre in the brain → hypothalamus
*Thermoreceptors in the skin detect changes in temperature
Also, thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect changes in the core blood
temperature. This process is controlled by negative feedback.
Heating and cooling mechanisms:

Control of ventilation and heart rate:

Cardiovascular and ventilation centre → Medulla oblongata
Responses depend on chemical and pressure changes in the blood
➔ Increased C02 due to increased rate of respiration due to exercise
➔ pH of blood drops (build up of carbonic acid)
➔ Lactic acid build up
➔ Chemorecepters detect these changes and stimulate the SAN via the
sympathetic nerve
 ➔ Heart rate is increase → increased supply of oxygen + carbondioxide can be removed
more rapidly
➔ Reverse: Parasympathetic nerve slows heart rate
*this also leads to increased breathing rate triggered by impulses from the respiratory
centre in the medulla oblongata via the phrenic nerve
-vagus nerve goes from lungs to ventilation centre in medulla oblongata

Effects of exercising too much// no rest:

❖ Too much intense exercise can suppress the immune system
❖ Over exertion/ wear and tear of joints (can lead to osteoarthritis)
❖ Cramps and lactic acid build up

Effects of too little exercise:

❖ Coupled with a diet high in saturated fats and sugars → obesity
❖ Increased risk of CHD/CVD and Diabetes
❖ Can negatively impact psychological well-being

Medical technology
Developments in medical technology is enabling people with injuries to participate in
sports
➔ Prostheses; an artificial replacement for a missing or defective body part.
◆ Reduce pain and increase functionality
● Artificial limbs- i.e; sprint-specific leg prosthetics allow people who
suffered from amputations to participate races
● The diseased portions of the patella are removed and the
remaining bone is shaped to accommodate the knee implant.
During the procedure, the surgeon builds the artificial knee inside
your leg, one component at a time, to create a highly realistic
artificial joint.
➔ Keyhole surgery; aka laparascopy/athroscopy --less invasive surgical procedure
that minimizes tissue scarring
◆ Only two small punctures are made; less invasive
● Less scarring
● Faster recovery
● Less pain experienced after surgery
● Less risk of infection during surgery
 ◆ i.e; treament of tear in ACL9 can be done through keyhole surgery
● Small incisions are made and athroscope and other specific
instruments are introduced. Torn ligaments are trimmed and
replaced with graft from another part of the body or from another
person.

PEDs
Performance enhancing drugs are chemical substances that have physiological effects,
when ingested, to improve people’s performance in sport.
❖ Beta Blockers
❖ Diuretics
❖ Anabolic steroids; stimulate muscle production
➢ Similar in shape and composition to testosterone
➢ Can cause infertility in women
➢ Liver and kidney disease
➢ Increased irritability and aggression
➢ Increased blood pressure
❖ EPOs
❖ HGH

9 Two used up and four released

The use of these drugs gives sportsmen an advantage over others. This
makes competition unfair and unenjoyable. Also, most of these drugs pose
health risks to people.

Transcription factors; how genes are switched on and off

A cell can stop the expression of some genes by supercoiling at specific sections of
DNA or to increase the expression of others by binding a promoter to the DNA.

Transcription factors are proteins that regulate the transcription of genes. These include
hormones and enzymes. They cause genes to be swtiched on or off.

Activators are transcription factors that activate transcription.

Repressors are transcription factors that repress transcription.

1. Transcription factor binds to a receptor molecule on the cell surface membrane

2. Transcription factor is taken to the nucleus
3. The transcription factor helps RNA polymerase bind to a promoter at a start
codon on a gene
4. The gene is switched on and, in turn, transcribed into mRNA
5. The specific amino acids coded for by mRNA then bind to make a specific protein
Topic 8: Grey matter

Plant responses
Tropism: Plant growth in response to environmental cues.
Phytochromes are pigments which react with different types of light (red and far red in
the visible spectrum) affecting the responses of the plant. They can have a stimulating
effect on plant growth by stimulating production of other growth regulators or have an
inhibitory affect.

Phytochromes cause plants grown in the dark to become etiolated. They grow tall and
thin to attempt to reach the light, a survival mechanism.

Phototopism:
1. Sunlight shines on shoot at
an angle
2. IAA (auxin; plant hormone)
diffuse to far side
3. Elongation of cells on far
side is induced
4. Shoot bends towards light

Structure of neurones
Neurones are specialsed cells
which carry electrical impulses.
➔ Cell body (soma): contains cytoplasm and organelles
➔ Axon: long fibre adapted to the conduction of electrical impulses
➔ Myelin: layers of plasma membrane produced by shwann cells
● Provides insulation → faster travel of impulse
➔ Dendrites: Recieve impulses from other neurones
➔ Nodes of ranvier: Non-myelinated points on the axon
● Where impulse “jumps”
*Electrical impulses carryied by neurones can only travel one way (Dendtrites to axon)

How an action potential is conducted:

Voltage: The measure of potential energy generated by seperated charges

Refered to as membrane potential in the cell.

Action potentials all have the same strength regardless of the strength of the stimulus,
what changes depending on the stimulus is the frequency of the impulses.

➔ An action potential is a brief

depolarization caused by
changes in current.

At resting potential, the inside of the

membrane is more negative than the
outside as there are comparitively less
positively charged sodium ions inside.
 1. Resting potential: -70 mili volts (mV) *Membrane is polarized.
2. Membrane potential must rise above -55 mV in order for an action potential or an
electrical impulse to be stimulated. This is the intial threshold.
3. Peak depolarization10: +40 mV
4. Repolarization11
5. Hyperpolarization: potential falls below -70 mV

The sodium potassium pump: for every two potassium ions it pumps into the cell, it pumps three
Sodium ions out → electrochemical gradient; more positive outside.

Other ion channels, i.e; voltage gated channels, open in response to changes, i.e;
change in voltage. This causes sodium ions to rush in leading to depolarization.

Refractory period: Delay between action potentials as voltage gated ion channels are
closed. Ensures impulses only travel in one direction.

Structure and function of synapses

A synapse is a junction between two neurones.

The transmission of electrical impulses is by neurotransmitters, chemicals made in the
golgi body and stored in vesicles in the synaptic bulb.

Neurtotransmitters release:
1. Electrical impulse transmitted through axon.
2. Calcium ions enter the synaptic bulb.
3. Vesicles containing neurotransmitters fuse with the membrane.
4. Neurotransmitters released by exocytosis diffuse across the synapse.
5. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the post synaptic neurone.

10 Voltage gated sodium ion channels open when an impulse arrives (neurotransmitter)
11 Voltage gated channels close, stops inward flow of sodium while sodium potassium pump remains open; 3
positive sodiums out for every negative potassium in → back to resting potential
*Summation: More than one synaptic bulb releases neurotransmitters to trigger an electrical
impulse in one neurone. This is why neurones branch out into many dendrites.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter which enables muscle contraction and is particularly

important in the peripheral and autonomous nervous system. Nerves using this neurotransmitter
are known as cholinergic nerves, remaining acetylcholine in the synapse is rapidly hydrolysed by
cholinesterase → no longer affects the post-synaptic membrane, components are also recycled
and pass back into the synaptic bulb to resynthesise acetylcholine.

Dopamine is important in the sympathetic nervous system and found only in the CNS.

Detecting stimuli: Photoreceptors in mammals

Rods and cones are the two main photoreceptors found in the retina. Rods; used to
provide black and white vision in low light intensities. Cones provide sharp vision in
bright light.

Rods contain the visual pigment rhodopsin which breaks into retinal and opsin when a
photon of light is absorbed as cis retinal changes to trans retinal. This process is known
as bleaching.

This results in sodium ion channels (which are normally open in rod cells) being closed,
they can no longer enter. The sodium potassium pump continues to pump sodium out
and the cell becomes hyperpolarized. If the size of accumulated 12 generator potentials
12 Several rods are connected to a single sensory neurone
reaches the threshold, neurotransmitters13 are released into the synapse with the
bipolar cell and an action potential is stimulated in the sensory neurone.

Rhodopsin → Bipolar cell → Ganglion cell (sensory neurone) → Optic nerve → brain

Pupil dilation and the reflex arc

The iris muscle is an effector with radial and circular muscles that work antagonistically
to control the amount of light that enters the eye through the pupil.

1. Exposure to bright light

2. Impulses travel along the sensory neurones of the retinain the optic nerve to the
brain
3. Brighter light → bigger frequency of action potentials
4. Detected in control center in midbrain
5. Nerve impulses synapse with branches of the parasympathetic cranial nerve
(oculomotor)
6. Impulse transmitted to iris
7. Circular muslces contract and radial muscles relax → pupil constricts

13 As cation channels open and calcium enters

Brain structure

★ Cerebral hemispheres:
○ Frontal lobe: Reasoning, cognition, planning, personality, concentration
○ Temporal lobe: Long term memory, recognition of faces, auditory
○ Parietal lobe: Spacial awareness, taste (gustation), touch
○ Occipital lobe: Vision and sight
★ Hypothalamus: Thermoregulatory centre
★ Medulla Oblongata14: Cardiovascular and ventilation control centre
★ Cerebellum: Balance and coordination

Brain scans

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Uses magnetic fields and radiowaves to produce
a detailed image of the body’s soft tissue and bones as hydrogen atoms respond by
emitting energy. High spatial resolution (better than CT scan).

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI): Uses magnetic fields and

radiowaves like MRI but also uses different responses of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood to detect changes in blood flow providing a functional image which highlights the
most active regions in the brain along with a high resolution structural image.

Computerized tomography (CT) sans: A form of structural neuroimaging that

combines x-ray15 images of the head to construct an overall image. Relatively low
resolution but displays any majore structural problems.

14 Found in lower part of brain stem

15 Thousands of narrow beam x-rays are emitted
Critical ‘window’

Definition: Period of time during which vital neural connections are made in the brain in
response to external stimuli.

By 6 months human vision has completely developed → Axons have grown from the retina to
the thalamus. Axons from the thalamus have grown towards the visual cortex in the occipital
lobe.

For full development of the visual cortex, nerve impulses from both eyes and
neurotransmitter release from all neurones must occur as inactive synapses are
elimnated if there is a lack of visual stimulation in one or both eyes.

Studies on babies with Cataracts16:

When Cataracts was removed early, sight developed normally. When it was left until the
child was older, sight loss was irrepairable. Operating to remove the cataract before 6
weeks of age minimized future sight problems. This supports the notion of a critical
window for visual development.

Hubel and Wiesel’s experiments:

Used Kittens and monkeys which have a similar visual systems to us. Kittens are born
blind and their eyes remain shut for about ten days after birth, however.

Summary:
-One or two eyes of infant monkeys and kittens were stitched shut.
-Kittens who’s eyes were sutured before they opened became blind in those eyes after
they were reopened 1-3 months later.
-Vision with their open eye developed normally even after it was sutured for sometime
1-3 months after birth.
-This proves that there exists a window for visual development in kittens and beyond
that window, deprivation has no impact on vision.
-The same results arose when newborn monkey’s eyes were stitched shut for 6 months.

16 Blurred vision due to increasingly opaque lens

Nature VS Nurture:

Newborn babies: Studies on babies born with cataract have shown that their is a critical
window of visual development during which nurture essentially determines the patterns
laid down by nature.
Other research has suggested that newborns as young as 2 days old can differentiate
between movement by a living biological organism and a non-biological movement as
they preffered to look at the biological movements. Thus, this seems to be genetically
wired into their brains.

Animal experiments: See Hubel and Weisel experiment. Another approach is to study
the effects of damaging or removing certain parts of the brain.

Brain damage: New connections may be made to bypass damaged areas of the brain
suggesting neural connections of the cortex are not fixed.

Twin studies: Because identical or monozygotic twins are genetically identical, their
responses can be studied to investigate the impact of the enviroment on brain
functioning and behaviour.
I.e; analysis of brain activity of identical twins showed more similarity than fraternal
twins when they were looking at faces or places as opposed to words or letters. This
shows that genetics play a major role in facial recognition and a much lesser one on
word recognition relative to “nurture”.

Cross-cultural studies: compairing things like depth perception in different cultural

groups shows their is a strong environmental impact on these abilities.

Habituation:

When animals including human beings learn to simply ignore certain repeated stimuli.

Advantage: prevents energy wastage on unnecessary responses.

How an animal becomes habituated to a stimulus:

1. With repeatd stimulation, calcium channels in the presynaptic (sensory) neuron
become less responsive to changes in voltage associated with action potentials
2. Fewer calcium ions enter the membrane
3. Less neurotransmitter is released
 4. Less depolarization of post-synaptic membrane; no action potential is triggered in
the motor neurone
5. Effector does not carry out response.

*Giant African land snail experiment

Use of animals: Moral and ethical issues

These views are affected by the moral code of a people as well as personal ethics.

Some issues raised regarding animal use is that animals cannot give consent and there
for should not be forced into it. There tends to be more concern over the use of dogs
and cats than sea slugs or squids or animals with less complicated nervous systems.

● Absolutists: Believe animals should never be used in research.

● Relatavists: Believe animals can be used where it is justified. i.e; potential cures
for diseases like Alzheimer’s.

Imbalances in the brain

Imbalances in neurotransmitters can cause mental and physical symptoms.

Treating imbalances in the brain requires drugs which can penetrate the blood-brain
barrier. This separates circulating blood from direct contact with the brain 17 so that
bacteria cannot enter and cause infections in the brain.

Parkinson’s disease
A degenrative disease of the CNS

Causes:
● Idiopathic (spontaneous) although there is a genetic link 18
● Loss of dopamine producing cells in the substantia nigra in the midbrain
→ motor control is gradually lost
Symptoms include: Tremors, slow movements, stiffening of the muscles and poor
balance.

No cure for the disease. There are treatements which tend to the symptoms however:

17 Endothelial cells that line capillaries in the brain are very tightly joined
18 Especially in early onset Parkinson’s
 ➔ Levodopa (L-dopa): A precursor to Dopamine. Can cross the blood-brain barrier
unlike dopamine. Converted to Dopamine in the brain by dopa decarboxylase.
Only 5-10% of administered levels cross the BBB.
➔ Dopamine agonists: Used before l-dopa. Also, potentially, nicotine.
➔ MAOB inhibitors: Inhibit enzymes that break down dopamine in the brain synapses →
reduces destruction of little dopamine that is made.

Depression
Can be caused by low levels of serotonin.

Serotonin:
● Have widespread influence so low levels means a supression of overall brain activity
● Serotonin pathways are abnormal in people with depression

Treatments:
➔ Psychotherapy
➔ Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Inhibit ruptake of serotonin so that more
remains in the synaptic cleft and more impulses travel along the post-synaptic axon →
mood lifting effect
➔ Tricyclic antidepressants: Increase levels of serotonin and noradrenalin in the
brain
➔ Monoaminoxidase inhibitors: similar to MAOB inhibitors

Illegal drugs: MDMA

Stimulant; increases heart rate + Psychotropic drug; changes how a person percieves
the world. Makes people feel happy, sociable, energetic and empathetic.

Ecstasy works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin by the presynaptic bulb and thus,
flooding the synapse with serotonin and the brain with impulses.

The Human Genome project

Set out to identify all genes in the human chromosomes and to sequence the 3 billion
base pairs which make up the human DNA.

Pharmacogenomics:
The development of drugs can now be linked to knowledge of the human genome.

Drugs that cater to unique individuals or ethnic groups with vulnerabilities to certain
diseases can be developed and administered at lower doses and with fewer side
effects. Access to a patient’s genome can also help doctors prescribe medication which
will work with rather than against their patient’s cells.

Social, moral and ethical issues

● Identifying which genes affect response to drugs and developing drugs to suit
individuals is likely to cost billions of pounds.
● Is it ethical to leave people with certain genetic variations with no suitable
treatment before alternatives are made available?
● There are huge financial implications in training doctors and pharmacists
● Opposition to a DNA database which is vital for pharmacogenomics to work

Genetic modification

Microorganisms:
Used because they are cheap and easy to culture and they reproduce rapidly.

1. Insulin gene in humans is isolated and cut out using restriction endonucleases.
2. Gene is inserted into vector19
3. Join bacterial plasmid and gene using DNA ligase
4. Use a vector to introduce plasmid into host cell
5. The modified bacterium will no produce humulin 20
6. The bacterium is cultured in a bioreactor and humulin is eventually packaged for
use.
Some bacteria are marked as they are made antibiotic resistant. A potential risk
associated with this is the spread of these bacteria into the environment.

Plants:
Transgenic plants can be made using the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens which
causes tumours in plants called crown galls. The tumour cells are then taken and
cultured; whole new transgenic plants grow.
I.e; bananas can be modified to carry vaccines to humans

Animals:

19 Chemical that functions exactly like insulin in humans

20 Can be a plasmid, harmless virus, liposome or through microinjection
Human genes and promoter sequences are introduced into the genetic material of the
egg of another species then placed in a surrogate mother.

DNA can be inserted in diferent ways:

➔ Microinjection: DNA injected using micropipette
➔ Microprojectiles: DNA shot into the cell carried on minute gold or tungsten pellets
➔ Liposome wrapping: Gene to be inserted is wrapped in liposomes which fuse
with the cell membrane allowing it to deliver DNA

Benefits:
● Proteins such as insulin are mass produced.
○ Better and cheaper alternative to insulin from slaughtered animals
● Transgenic bananas can administer vaccinations to people in developing
countries who wouldn’t recieve it otherwise

Risks:
● Concerns about gene transfer to wild species
● Objections to the use of animals and other organisms in this way
● We are unaware of the potential dangers which may arise with GM organisms.