PTER Motion Under Gravity

and Aceleration
6 due to Gravity

GRAVITY
6.01. GRAVITATION AND
acting between two mass bodies of universe
attractive force
Gravitation. It relates to an
(a) two bodies of masses m, and m
attraction between
distance. The force of
separated by a

separated bya distance rdepends upon,

when their centres are

Fcm,m

F- Gm,m

constant= 6.67 x
10 Nm kg.
where, Ggravitational is the earth.
It is special case of gravitation, if one of the attracting bodies Gran
(6) Gravity.
is the torce of attraction between earth and any object lying on or near its surrae

force of gravity is equal to the weight of a body.

or gravity
(C) Acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration produced in a body by the force
called the acceleration due to gravity. It's symbol is 8

Fora body of gravitational mass m,

m
or W-mg
Motion Under Gravity and Acceleration Due to Gravity 85

EXPERIMENT 7
AIM: Using a stnmple penaulum, plot its L-T° graph and use it to find the effective length of second's
pendulum.

APPARATUS8
A clamp wth stand, a split cork, thread, bob, Vernier Callipers, stopclock/watch, metre scale

and a piece of chalk.

THEORY
1. Simple Pendulum. An ideal simple pendulumconsists ofaheavy point mass (called bob) tied to one
end of a perfectly inextensible, flexible and weightless string. There is no ideal simple pendulum.
In practice, we make a simple pendulum by tyingametallic spherical bobto a fine cotton stitching
thread.

2. Length of Simple Pendulum. The distance between the point of suspension ot the pendulum
andits C.G. (whichis C. G.of the bob), is called thelengthof the simple pendulum. It is represented
by the symbol l.

Length of simple pendulum - length of thread + length of hook of bob + mean radius of the

spherical bob

1-T+h+r

3, Time Period of the Simple Pendulum. ime taken by the bob of the simple pendulum to

make one complete vibration, is called the time period ot tlhe siinpie pendulum. It is represented
by the symbol 7.

The time period is given by the formuia,

calculated.
Owing the value of Tandg, I can be
86 Comprche Ptractical Physic
DIAGRAM

Spit Clamp
cork

tand
Inread

Mo 130 cm
Ms 120 cm
M 110 cm
Mg1100 om
90 cm

M80 cm

Hook

Lab Oor
BOb
5 cm 5 om
(a)
b) C)

Fig. (a) Simple

(6) Effective length Pendulum.
of simple pendulum, /=P+h+r
() Marks on
thread
PROCEDURE
1. Find the vernier
constant and zero error of the
Experiment 1). vernier callipers and record it (as u
2. Determine the mean diameter of the spherical bob (as in Experiment 1). Find the mean r a a
o f the bob.
3. Find the
length h of the hook attached to the bob
Take a cotton thread about by metrescale and record it.
2 metres
5. Put ink long and tie its one end with the hook.
marks, Mj, M2, Ma, on the thread
distance of 80 cm, 90 cm,
as cm.
120cm, 130 cm,from the centre of
(0 of the simple gravity the bob. These distances give100 cn,
of
pendulum. etfective
6. the
ass thread through two split
the
of
80 cm mark. parts a cork with the thread coming out

7. Tight the two half cork

pieces between
O
the clamp.
paatand kepton a table
floor. at
suchaheightthat the bobisjust 2 cmabove the laboratosy
9. Mark point A on the foor just below
a

Draw a straight line

the position of bob at rest (mean position).
p
10.
CAB, 10 cm long in rection along which bob will move when oscillating
A is middle
point of CB. direction along which bob wu
n
tion
LUnder Gravity and Acceleration Due to
Gravity 87
Find the least count and the zero error of the stopclock/watch. Bring its hands at zero position.

Move the bob by hand to over position B on the right of A and leave. See that the bob returns
over line BC without spinning.

13. When the bob returns from CtoA and starts moving to right of A, start the stopclock/watch and

count ze

14. The bob g0es towards B to right extreme, returms from right extreme and goes towards C'to
left extreme. When bob crosses A from towards C, count one.

In this way count upto 19. Become alert when bob starts the 20th vibration.

16 Just when 20th vibration is completed, count 20 and at once stop the stopclocK/Watcn
17. Find totaltime noting positions of both the hands of the clock/watch.This time is time for twenty
vibrations.
Repeat steps 13 to 18 two times more for same length.

19 Move the clamp up by 10 cm.

20. Lose the cork pieces and pull the thread out to increase its length by 10 cm. Now effective
length of pendulum becomes 90 cm. Bob will be again 2 cm above the laboratory floor.
21. Repeat steps 13 to 19two times to take in all the two observations for this newlength. Repeat
step 20.

22. Repeat step 21 and then steps 13 to 19 to take two observations each for lengths 90 cm,
100 cm, 110 cm, 120 cm and 130 cm.

3. Record all the observations as given ahead.

OBSERVATIONS
vernierconstant of Vernier Callipers (V.C)=.Cm.
Lero error of vernier callipers (e):

.. cm, (i). Cm, (in) Cm.

Mean zero error, (e) Cn

ean zero correction ()=-e=.C

Observed diameter of the bob:

)Cn, (11) Cm, (7) Cm.

Mean observed diameter, ao Cm
Mean corrected diameter,

Mean radius of the bob, cm

h n
ength of hook of the bob,
otandardvalue of g= 980 cms
 8
2. Least count of stop clock/watch=.
Comprehensdue Practical Physics
Zero error of stop clock/watch=
Zero correction of stop clock/watch=S
3. Table for Length () and time (T)

5. No. Length of Time for 20 vibrations

Time period
hread
Pendulam Mean T=
Obs.
l= +h+r ( 20

(cm) s)
78.4 80.0 35 37
6
1.8 3.24
2 88.4 90.0 38 38 8 8 1.9 3.61
3 984 100.0 40 40 40
2.0 4.00

108.4 110.0 42 42 42 21 441

18.4 120.0 45 44 44 2.2 4.84

128.4 130.0 15 46
2.28 5.20

(Note. Observations are

given as sample and z' is taken as 10)

CALCULATIONS
(a) With the table
For each
length, write mean time for 20
vibrations,

t
Write mean values
of t in
column (3) of above table.
me period T s and write its value in column4 a n d write value o
T in column 5 of the above
table.
FTgraph. Plot
graph between I (column, 2b)
a

X-axis and T along ¥axis. The graph comes to be

and T (column 5) by taking I along
line.
suegght
a
Motion Under oruviy and Acceleration Due to ravity 89

GRAPH

Grapti between / and T for a simple pondulum

Scale
xs1cm 10 cm ot
Y-axis:1 cm-0.4s of T

070 0 100 110 120 130

of pendulum 0 n om
Lengih

Fig. Graph between f and'T tor a aimple pendulum. it 18 a straight line.

lhe graph is a straight line because,

T. 27and 72 e1

T-4,lcomes to be 100 cm.

From
this graph, for 100
comes to be cmm.
Hence for second's pendulum (T- 25) length
ESUIT
100 cm
EXperimental length=
Actual length - 99.4 cm

Error 0.6 cm
100-0.6%
ercentage error x
99.4
i s error is within the limit of the experimerntal error

PRECAUTIONS
Lhread should be strong, weightless and inextensible.
in arigid support.
Point
of suspension should be fixed
Motond,
on Under Gravity and Acceleration Due to Gravity 93

VIVAVOCE
a
simple pendulum?
1. Whatis
Aas.An ulum consists of heavy point a (called bob) tied to one end ot
mass
a

pertecty nextensible, flexible and weightless string It is suspended from a rigid support.
02. Dowereally use an ideal simple endulum?
Auss. No. ne a s sonme size. The string is also extensible. he friction cannot be removed
completely.
03. Define length of a simple pendui
Aans. Itis the dustance between the point of suspension and the C.G. of the pendulum, which is C.G,
of bob itself.
Q4. What is the relation between time period and length of the simple pendulum?
Ans The relation is, T- 2 i/g.
Q5. Does a wall clock run slow or fast in winter?
Ans. A wall clock runs fast in winter, because decrease of length of pendulum decreases its time

period.
Q6. Does a wall clock gain or lose time in summer?

Ans. A wall lock loses time in summer, because its time period increases due to increase of length
of the pendulum.
07. What is damping?
Ans. Itis opposition to free vibrations of bob of a simple pendulum due to presence of air around
t.
Q8. How does damping affect the amplitude?
As, Ihe damping decreases exponentialy the amplitude atter each vibration.

9.9. What is second's pendulum?

As, A simple pendulum whose time period is two seconds, 15 Called a second's pendulum.

10, What is the length of a second's pendulum?

is about 9s.4 cm.
.The length of a second's pendulum
u. What is a ticker-tape timer?
, It is a time measuring device. In it a vibrating strip makes dots on a moving paper tape at

constant interval.
Q12.1How is time period ofa simple pendulum ettected with change in value of g'?

T As'y decreases at height

and depth,
Tincreases. The value of gbecomes zero in free
infinite.

Or in a satellite. In that case,

Tbecomes
effected with change
in value ofg?
ch pendulum is not
A ertia and elasticity has no etect on its time period due to
n1
A spring pendulum, working
hange in value of g
90 Comprehesdve Practical Physics-XI
s a m e leve.
5. Lower faces of split cork should be in
to the plane of vibration of the pendulum.
4Splitting should be perpendicular
to have sin -
8. [when 6 S 18)
Amplitude should be small
line.
6. The bob should move along a straight
vibration.
7. The bob should not spin during
should be free from aisturbances ot building vibrations or air
Place of experiment
current.
switched off.
9. Laboratory fan should be
should include length of hook and radius of bob.
10. Length of pendulum
and started from zero.
11. Counting should be proper
12. Clock/watch should be accurate.
be increased in steps of 10 c m to bring appreciable change in time
13. Length of pendulum should
period.
Metre scale used should be
accurate.
14.

soURCEs OF ERROR
inextensible.
The string may not be weightless and
1.
2. Point ot suspension may not be rigid.

3. The amplitude may not be small.

4. The bob may spin.

5. The air currents may disturb vibrations.

6. There may be in
an error
counting8
7. The stop cdock/watch may be inaccurate.
8. There may be delay in starting and stopping the stopclock/watch:

EXPERIMENT 8 bo
taking
lengtn by
a
gth
AIM: To study variation of time period of a simple pendulum of a given
same size but different masses and interpret the result.

APPARATUS
s
w a t c h , metre

A clamp with stand, a split cork, thread, vernier callipers, stopclock/stopwa

pendulum bobs of different masses.

THEORY
1. Simple Pendulum: See Experiment 7.
2. Length of Simple Pendulum: See Experiment 7
 PTER Friction

7
7.01. FRICTION

the surface of another body force

(a)Definition. Whenever body a tends to
moves or move over
nto play wnich acts parallel to the surface of cotact and opposes the relative motion. This opposing
a comes

force is called friction.

(6) Type. It has tollowing types :

S t a t i c friction. It is the friction between two surfaces of bodies at rest due to impending
motion.
() Dynamic (or kinetic) friction. It is the friction between two surfaces of bodies in motion.
It is slightly less than the static friction.

Dynamic friction has two types:

0 Stidingfriction. It is the friction in sliding motion.
(#) Rolling friction. It is the friction in rolling motion.
is less than the slicding friction.
Rolling friction
c) Nature of static friction. It has following nature
itself.
force. It acts by
) Itis
(i) It is
a
self- acting
a self-adjusting force. It adjusts its magnitude and direction to keep itself always

the horizontal force aPpiied to move the body at rest.

equal and opposite to
(ii) It has a limiting value (maximum value) called limiting triction. The limiting friction is
move the body from rest.
equal to the least force required to

7.02. ORIGIN FRICTION

for the friction:
ne
tollowing two factors are responsible
. Roughness of surfaces is the cause ot triction. Lne roughness or irregularities of surfaces

provide the interlocking between the two ute w e surtaces are in relative motion.
the lower surface and bottom surtace
oE

Interlocking of the elevationsand

the depressions
ot the bodies are shown in (Fig 7.01). wnen the boay 15 pulled, elevations collide and triction

Tesults.

97
98 Comprchemsdoe Practical Physies
2. Force of attraction between molecules in the lower surtace and bottom surface of
surface of the
It is called adhesive force. boy.
Body

Elevation Depression

A
YTTTT
Surface
Elevalion Depression
Fig. 7.01. Interlocking of elevations and depressions.

7.03. FRICTION IS NECESSARY

plays an important part in daily life.
Friction In its absence, many acts may not be able to be
performed. They are given below

Without friction, motion cannot be started. We cannot walk

a on a

Without friction, a motion cannot be stopped. Brakes will not work if there is no friction.
frictionless surface
Without friction, a motion cannot be transferred. The belt will not be able to rotate a machine
wheel by motor whel if there is no friction between belt and wheels.
Without friction, knots will not stay Packing, tying, bandaging will be difficult.
Without friction, grinding will not take place. Wheat and spices will not be grinded.
Without friction, nails will not stay in position. lt will be difficult to assemble a furniture
item

Without
friction, match stick will not ignite.
Without
friction, writing on a surface will not be possible.
9. Without friction, holding the things will not possible.
10. Without friction, eating is not possible, etc.

7.04. FRICTION IS EVIL

Though friction is useful in many fields, it is harmful (evil in the followings:
Due to friction betweendifferent parts of a machine, wearand tear of parts take place and exces
heat is produced. This reduces the life of the machine.
There occus
unnecessary expense of energy to overcome the friction. Hence,
less than ingput o
 99
F r i c t i o n

REDUCTION OF FRICTIO
105.
In cases where triction is taken as an evil, it is desired to reduce it. The friction can be reduced

by
following methods:

1. Smoothening the surface by rubbing and polishing. Rubbing reduces height of elevations.
Polishing hiis the reduced depth of depressions. In the absence of elevations and depressions,

interlocking reduces. Friction gets reduced.

But too mucn smoothness of surfaces in contact increases friction. It is so because the molecules
of the two surtaces come in close contact. Attraction between the molecules increases, wnich

increases friction.

twO
2. Lubricating the surfaces in contact by a proper lubricant.
Lubricant between

surfaces keeps them separate and prevents interlocking. This reduces friction.

The selection of a lubricant must be proper. Grease must be used for heavy bodies, heavy oil

must be used tor bodies of moderate weight and light oil must be used for light bodies.

3. Lining the surfaces or surface with soft material. Hard material surfaces have more friction
due to strong forces of attraction between their molecules. (They are hard, because of this
strong force). To reduce friction between them, without effecting their strength, they are lined
(coated) with soft material. Contact between soft material surfaces experiences less friction.
Steel wheels of trains are lined with lead to reduce friction between them and steel rail track.
4. Converting sliding friction into rolling friction. When wheel is mounted direct on axle,
surface of wheel hole slides over axle surface as the wheel rolls [Fig. 7.02 (a)]. There is more
friction. The motion becomes slow.

wneel

Balls

Axle

(6)
a)

surface sliding o v e r axle surface (more friction)

Fig. 7.02. ()Wheel b e t w e e n i t and axle surtace. (less friction).
6) Wheel surface moving over balls rolling

Dut when balls (ball bearings) are introduced oetween axe surtace and hole surface of wheel.

tne wheel rolls, balls roll and surface

situation becomes different [Fig.
7.02 (0)1
OW, e
hence
balls,
triction is
considerably reduced.
m o v e s over rolling
 100 amprchensive Practical Physics-
It is for this reason that all movable heavy bodies are provided with wheels at bottom (ean
are hospital bed, stretcher, large-sized suitcases, etc.). examples
5. By streamlining. Friction due to air is reduced by streamlining the shape of the bodym
through air. For example, jets, aeroplanes, fast moving cars, etc.

7.06. INCREASING FRICTION

In cases where friction is necessary it is desired to increase it. The friction can be increased by
following methods (which are reverse of reduction methods).
1. Roughening the surface by chiseling it.

2. Sanding the surface.

3. Lining with hard material.

4. Converting rolling friction into sliding friction.

When brakes are applied on a moving vehicle, roling of wheels stops. Then wheels slide on the
road. Hence, due to friction, a vehicle stops.

7.07. LAWs OF LIMITING FRICTION

There are four laws of limiting friction. They are stated below:

1. First Law (law for direction). Limiting friction acts tangential to the surfaces in contact, in
backward direction (i.e., opposite to direction of
motion)
2. Second Law (law for magnitude). Limiting triction is directly proportional to the normal
reaction acting on the body
FcR F - juR

3. Third Law (law of dependence). Limiting friction depends upon the nature (rough or polished)
and the material (hard or soft) of the surfaces in contact.
4. Fourth Law (law for independence). Limiting friction is independent of thearea and the shape
of the surfaces in contact.

7.08. COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

Definition. The limiting friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction. e the
limiting friction and R be the normal reaction, then

F-uR
Here u i s called coefficient of friction.u does not have unit and dimensions because t ao

of two like
physical quantities.
Fnction 101

7.09. ANGLE OF FRICTION

that the resultant of limiting friction and normal reaction makes
Detinition.
with the normal
It is the angle
reaction. It is
shown 0in by diagram.
Relation. In Fig. 7.03,
F OA-limiting friction
R= OB =

normal reaction
R- OC-resultant
L COB- angle of friction
InA OBC,
tan6 BCOA
OB OBR
Hence, tangent of angle of friction equals co-efficient ot
static triction. Fig. 7.03. Angle of friction.

7.10. ANGLE OF SLIDING OR ANGLE OF REPOSE

Definition. It is the angle of inclination of a rough surface with horizontal, such that a body
kept over it, just begins to slide down.
Relation. Figure 7.04 shows a body of mass m and weight mg kept on a surface inclined at an
angle 8with horizontal.

Inclined
Surnace

mg cos 8

Horizontal
Fig. 7.04. Angle of sliding.

Forces acting on the body are also shown

in the diagram (Fig. 7.04).
When body just starts to slide down
For equilibrium along inclined plane, mg sin =F(limiting friction)
For equilibrium along normal to incined plane, mg cos 6- R (normal reaction)

mgsin E
Dividing. mg cos 8 R
102 Comprchensioe Practical Physics
or tan -
Hence, tangent of angle of repose is equal to the coetticient of static friction.

Application. Using an indlined plane with variable angle of inclination, coefficient c

t f friction
can be determined.

EXPERIMENT 9

AIM: To study the relationship between force

oflimiting friction and normal reaction and to find
the co-efficient offriction between ablock and ahorizontal surface.

APPARATUS
Wooden block(with a hook on one side), 50 g or 20 gweights, horizontal plane (table top) fited
with a frictionless pulley at one end, pan, spring balance, thread, spirit level.

THEORY
Sliding friction. Itis the friction between two surfaces of the bodies in sliding motion.
Force of sliding friction. It is the least force required to make a body start sliding over a surface.
Force of friction, Foc R
F- uR
where = Co-efficient of friction, R is the normal
reaction.
At equilibrium,
F-P+p 2)
and R=W+ .3)

DIAGRAM

R (Normal Reaction)

50 g Weight ()

Block- P+P Pulley

W+ W able Pan
(P)

Weight (p)

Fig. Studying the force of sliding friction.

Friction
103
PROCEDURE

1. Clean the hortzontal table top and

check the pulley to see that
2. Weigh the wooden block and
it is frictionless (oil if necessary)
put it on the table top.
(Check horizontality of table
leve.) top by spirit
3. Tie one
end ot thread
a
with the hook of the
must be horizontal). wooden blockand pass it over the pulley. (ihe thread
4. Find the weight of the pan.
Tie other tree end of the
thread with the
the wooden block pan and let the pan hang vertical. (the pan will pu
horizontally by
force equal to its weight).
a
6. Since the pan itselt does not
pull the block, put some
7. Tap the table top to make the weights in the pan (from weight box).
block just slide.
8 Increase weights in pan little
by little, till the block just starts sliding on
9. Note the total
weights put the pan then record them in observation table
in
tapping the table top.
pan and weights in pangives the force of (sum of weightof
sliding friction.)
10. Put one 50 gor 20 g
weight over the wooden block and repeat steps 8 and 9.
11 Repeat steps 8, 9, 10, six
times. Every time increase
weight by 50 g or 208
12. Record the observations in tabular form as
given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS
Weight of wooden block, W 8 Wt

Weight of pan,
P . 8 WE
Table for additional weights

Serial
Weights on Total weight befng pulled Weight on pan Total weight (force)
wooden block (w) (W+w) gwt) (P puling the bleck and
gwt Normal reaction (R) gwt) weights (P + p) g wt)
bs.
gwt) Limiting friction (P)
wet)
104
Comprehensdue Practical Physics-Xi
CALCULATIONS
Total weight (force) pulling the block and weights gives the value of force of
sliding. frictio
On horizontal surface, total weights being pulled give normal reaction R. Total weight
(force)
pulling these weights gives dynamic friction E.
Plot a graph between normal reaction R and limiting friction F, taking R along Xaxis and F
along ¥axis.

The graph comes to be a straight line as shown below.

Graph between Normal Reaction (R) and Limiting Friction (F)

Y X-axis: 1 cm 50 g wt of R
Y-axis:1 cm= 25 gwt of E
200

75

00

o0 50 100 150 200 250300 350 400

Normal Reaction ( ) g wt (W+ w)

Fig. Graph betwreen R and F.

RESULT
S.
aiso
tat u s the total weight pulled increases, force of lHmiting friction h
* d
increase s in direct proportiOn.

The graph shows that limiting friction F is directly proportional to the normal reaetion
of t h e law.
averification
agreement with law of limiting friction. (This experiment may be taken
as

calculated by finding slop

The constant ratio F/R, is called coefficient of friction (). It can De

of the graph.
 105
Frction

In&ABC,
slopeof straight line AB = tan 6- 150-s0
30-10 ..(1)
n0-5-05
uty
uR
...(2)

From equations (1) and(2),

= tan 0= 0.5

-0.5.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The surface (table top) should be horizontal.

The part of thread between block and pulley should be horizontal.
3. Wleight in pan should be increased in small steps and pan should not oscilate or rotate.
4. Table top should be tapped gently each time.
5. Pulley should be frictionless.

sOURCES OF ERROR
1. The table top may not be horizontal.
2. The thread part between block and pulley may not be horizontal.
3. Pulley may not be frictionless.
Note. Read all the Articles 7.01 to 7.10. (Every Article is a question.)

VIVA VOCE
Q.1. Whythread part between bloclkand pulley is kept horizontal?
Ans. It makes total weight of pan and weights effective in pulling the block horizontally

Q.2. Whyis pulley kept frictionless ?

Ans. It is done to keep the weight of pan and weights in it to be Tully effective. Friction in pulley will

reduce its effective value.

Q3. Whyroads become slippery after rains?
Ans. Rain water forms a thin layer between our feet and road. It acts as a lubricant preventing

on the surtace ot wheel and road. Friction becomes less and causes
interlocking of irregularities
slipping
Q4. Whybrake surfaces are kept flat, though area of surface does not increase friction?
Ans, Same force applied through more area teduces pressure. 1he surtace being braked is not

scratched.