12.

Atoms
Alpha particle scattering experiment (Rutherford or Geiger
Marsden experiment of scattering of Alpha particle)- For this,
sample of radioactive element like radium is placed in lead cavity
and radiation coming from it, is allowed to fall on gold foil.

Observation - 1] Most of α-particle passes straight through

gold coil.

2] A few α- particle about 1 out of 8000 gets deflected through 900

3] Occasionally α- particles suffer deflection of 1800 .

Conclusion - 1] As most of α-particle passes straight through foil hence space within atom must be
empty.

2] Entire positive charge of atom must be concentrated in small central core called nucleus.

3] The atom as whole is electrically neutral.

Distance of closest approach (Estimation of nuclear size) - The

minimum distance up to which α- particle can approach the nucleus just
before retracing its path is known as distance of closest approach.

Expression for distance of closest approach - Initial kinetic energy of -particle =

Electrostatic PE between α-particle and nucleus at distance r, U =

At distance => = U => = => =

Clearly radius of nucleus must be smaller than .

Impact Parameter - The perpendicular distance of velocity vector of α- particle from centre of
nucleus, when it is far away from the atom is called impact parameter
and given by

b = =

Significance – It gives an estimate of size of nucleus.

Rutherford model of atom- 1] Atom consist of very small central core called nucleus in which +ve
charge and almost all mass of atom is concentrated.

2] Radius of nucleus (about 10-15m) is very small as compared to the radius of atom.
 3] The nucleus is surrounded by electrons which are continuously revolving in circular orbit. The
required centripetal force for its motion is provided by electrostatic force between electron and
nucleus.

4] Total negative charge on electron is equal to the total positive charge on nucleus and hence atom
as whole is electrically neutral.

Drawbacks -1] It predict that atoms are unstable because accelerated electron radiate energy. But
this contradicts with stability of atom.

2] It cannot explain characteristics line spectra of atom.

Bohr’s postulates for explaining spectrum of H atom- 1] Nuclear concept - Electrons revolve
round the nucleus in certain circular orbit under the action of coloumb force of attraction between
electron and nucleus which provide necessary amount of centripetal force.

2] Quantization condition - Electrons can revolve only in those orbit for which their angular
momentum is integral multiple of h/2π

∴ L = mvr = where n = 1, 2 -----------

These orbit are called stationary orbit and hence electron do not radiate energy in this orbit.

3] Frequency condition - When electron makes transition from higher ( to lower energy orbit
( a photon is emitted which have energy equal to energy difference of two level.

i.e hν =

Bohr’s quantization condition of angular momentum using de-Broglie hypothesis – According

to de-Broglie, electron has wave nature hence a circular orbit can be taken as stationary energy state

If 2πr = n𝛌

But de-Broglie wavelength 𝛌 = => 2πr =

∴ Angular momentum L = mvr =

Expression for radius of Bohr’s orbit (r α ) - According to Bohr’s first

postulate

= => m = -------(1)

According to Bohr’s second postulate, mvr = ----------(2)

=> = --------- (3)

Eq. (3) ÷ (1) => = x => r = => r α

 For H- atom Z = 1 and for innermost orbit n = 1 => =

= 0.53 A0 This is called as Bohr’s orbit.

Expression for velocity (v α ) - Equation (1) ÷ (2) => = x

Velocity v = = x

v = α = where α = = - called fine structure factor.

=> v α

Expression for T.E of electron (E α ) - As K.E of electron = = m = )

And PE U = = -

T.E. of electron E = + U = )-

=- ( )

But r = => E = - x x => ∴ E = -

E =- x = -

where R = = 1.097 x - Rydberg’s constant.

For H- atom Z = 1 => ∴ = = eV

Note - 1] = - 13.6 eV 2] = - 3.4 eV 3] = - 1.51 eV 4] = - 0.85 eV

2] Total energy = E then, K.E = - E And P.E. U = 2E

1] Excitation energy – Energy taken by electron to jump from ground state to any one of the excited state.

E.g.- First excitation energy of hydrogen atom, - = - 3.4 - (- 13.6) = 10.2 eV

2] Ionization energy - Energy required to knock an electron completely out of the atom is called
ionization energy.

E.g.- Ionization energy of hydrogen = - = 0 - (- 13.6) = 13.6 eV

3] Ionization potential – Accelerating potential which is sufficient to ionize the atom by knocking out one of
its electron completely out of the atom.

E.g.- Ionization potential of hydrogen = 0 - (- 13.6) = 13.6 V

Spectral series of hydrogen atom – Energy of electron in energy level and is given by

= - and = -

∴ By Bohr’s frequency condition, hν = - = - +

= ( - ) => = ( - )

=> =R ( - )

where R = = 1.097 x m-1 - Rydberg constant.

The reciprocal of wavelength is called wave number ( ̅ ).

Origin of various spectral series in hydrogen spectrum – When electron makes transition from
different outer orbit (nth) to inner orbit (pth) then wavelength of emitted spectral lines is

= R[ - ]

1] Lyman series (Ultra violet region)-

When electron jumps from higher energy
level (n = 2, 3, 4 ----) to p = 1 then we get
Lyman series.

2] For Balmer series(Visible region)-

p = 2 and n = 3, 4, 5 -------------

3] For Paschen series(Infrared region)-

p = 3 and n = 4, 5, 6 -------------

4] For Brackett series(Far infrared region)-

p = 4 and n = 5, 6, 7 -------------

5] For pfund series( Very far infrared region)-

p = 5 and n = 6, 7, 8 -------------