Chapter 1

Introduction to dryland agriculture/ rainfed agriculture

 The term Rainfed agriculture is used to describefarming practices that rely on

rainfall for water. It provides much of the food consumed by poor communities
in developing countries.
 In India, about 52 % of total net sown area comes under rainfed lands. Rainfed
crops account for 48 percent area under food crops and 52 percent under non-
food crops.
 India ranks first among the rainfed agricultural countries of the world in terms of
both extent and value of produce. Due to population pressure on agricultural
lands, the poverty is concentrated in rainfed regions.
 The climate in India’s rainfed regions is characterized by complex climatic
deficiencies, manifested as water scarcity for rainfed crop production. The
climate is largely semi-arid and dry sub-humid with a short (occasionally intense)
wet season followed by long dry season.
 Rainfall is highly unreliable, both in time and space, with strong risks of dry
spells at critical growth stages even during good rainfall years. The fluctuations
are due to numerous factors affecting the monsoonal climate including the
atmospheric circulation and strong links to El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean.

Dryland farming:
Dry farming or dry land agriculture has not received sufficient attention as
they deserve and green revolution had certainly left the dry farming area in backlog.
Their contribution was not much as compared to irrigated areas, may be due to
continued low productivity, inhabitancy by poorest segments of the country, crop
failures, highly erratic and unpredictable rainfall pattern, intermittent dry spells during
crop growth, neglected soil and crop management practices and so on.
There is considerable yield gap in various dryland crops compared to the
potential yield indicating the need for concerted efforts through comprehensive
approaches to tap the yield potential (Table 1).
 Table 1: Yield levels of important dry land crops in farmers fields in comparison
with their potential yield (kgha-1) in the agro-climatic zones of south Karnataka

Crop PY Far Yield gap Farm  Yield gap Farmer  Yield gap

(potent mer (%) er (%) yield (%)
ial yield yield (Zone- 
yield) (Zon 6)
(Zone
e-4) -5)

Fingermillet 4000 2473 1527 (38.2) 2939 1061 (26.5) 2151 1849 (46.2)

Maize 5900 3510 2390 (40.5) 3510 2390 (40.5) 3414 2486 (42.1)
Bajra 1400 546 854 (61.0) 595 805 (57.5) 540 860 (61.4)

Redgram 1600 426 1174 (73.4) 453 1147 (71.7) 328 1272 (79.5)

Horsegram 1000 566 434 (43.4) 427 573 (57.3) 421 579 (57.9)

Black gram 750 472 278 (37.1) 429 321 (42.8) 415 335 (44.7)

Greengram 1200 461 739 (61.6) 336 864 (72.0) 324 876 (73.0)

Cowpea 1250 566 684 (54.7) 515 735 (58.8) 498 752 (60.2)

Groundnut 1000 908 92 (9.2) 1220 -220 (-22.0) 1017 -17 (-1.7)

Sunflower 1900 548 1352 (71.2) 442 1458 (76.7) 514 1386 (72.9)

Sesame 500 595 -95 (-19.0) 437 63 (12.6) 444 56 (11.2)

(Figures in parenthesis indicates per cent difference in yield gap)

Table 2: Crop wise yield gaps (kg ha -1) in the operational research project of
AICRPDA, Bengaluru.

Crop Experimental  Attainable yi Farmers  Best bet practices for up 

 eld (Farmers 
yield with im
Yield (k scaling and  bridge yield 
yield (kgha-1) proved techn
gha-1) gap*
ology) (kgha-
1
)
Finger mil Intercropping with Pigeo
4000 3644 1580
let npea
Crop rotation, intercropp
ing with Pigeonpea and 
Maize 5000 4000 2500
application of micronutri
ents

Pigeonpea 1600 1452 800 Wider spacing

Horsegra Line sowing and weed c
1000 800 500
m ontrol
Application of micronutr
Cowpea 1250 1000 700
ients
Application of secondar
y and micronutrientsand 
Groundnut 1500 650 400
intercropping with Pigeo
npea
Application of secondar
Sunflower 1800 1200 800 y  and micronutrients an
d thinning

Source: Ramachandrappa et al., 2014

15 to 20 % increase in yield by adopting in-situ mositure conservation practices
in dryland areas.

Definition:
Rainfed agriculture:
The term Rainfed agriculture or Dryland agriculture may be defined as
growing of crops entirely under rain water. Dryland agriculture is classified in to three
categories depending upon the amount of rainfall received viz., Dry farming, Dryland
farming and Rainfed farming. The distinction exists between these three, depending
on annual rainfall and other parameters (Table 3).

Dry farming: Cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall less than 750 mm.
Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop period.
These are arid regions with a growing season (period of adequate soil moisture) less
than 75 days. Moisture conservation practices are most important in these regions.

Dryland farming: Cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall from 750 mm
to 1150 mm. In spite of prolonged dry spells crop failure is relatively less frequent.
Dryland farming areas are grouped under semiarid tracts with a growing period
between 75 and 120 days. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop
production. However, adequate drainage is required especially for Vertisols / black
soils.

Rainfed farming: Crop production in regions with annual rainfall more than 1150
mm. Crops are not subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop period. Emphasis
is often on disposal of excess water. These are humid regions with growing period
more than 120 days.

Table 3: Distinction between dry farming, dryland farming and rainfed farming

Parameter Dry Farming Dry land farming Rainfed farming

1. Rainfall < 750 mm 750 – 1150 mm > 1150 mm

2. Region Arid Semi – Arid Semi arid – Humid
3. Risk Frequent Less frequent Safe
4. Conservation Conservation of soil Conservation of soil & Conservation &
Practices & Water Water + Drainage in Black disposal of Excess
soils water
5. Cropping Mono cropping Mono Cropping & Inter Double cropping
Cropping
6. Growing period < 75 Days 75 – 120 Days > 120 Days
7. Erosion Wind Wind & Water Water
8. Management Extensive Moderate Intensive
9. Yield Less stable Moderately stable Sustainable
Source: Anon., 2019
 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
distinguished dry land agriculture into two categories: dryland and rainfed farming
(Table 4).
Table 4: Distinction between dryland farming and Rainfed farming

Constituent Dryland farming Rainfed farming

Rainfall (mm) <800 >800

Moisture availability to the crop Shortage Enough

Growing season (days) <200 >200

Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as uplands Humid and sub-
of sub-humid and humid region humid region

Cropping system Single crop or intercropping Intercropping or

double cropping

Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

Source: Anon., 2017

Scope & Importance of Rainfed Agriculture

1. Out of 141.427 m. ha net sown area in India, 51.84 % (73.327m.ha) depends on
rainfall (Table 5).
Table 5: Pattern of land utilization in India during 2013-14 (Area: in million
hectares)

Total Net sown Current Total Net irrigated Net rainfed

Geographical area fallows cultivated
Area

328.726 141.427 14.154 155.581 68.10 73.327

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2017

2. Rainfed area contributes significantly both in area and production in India

 Table 6: Distinction of crops under Rainfed Agriculture

Area Contribution Production Contribution

Sorghum, Groundnut, > 90% Total Food grains 45%
Pulses

Maize, Chick Pea 82 – 85% Pulses 90%

Rape seed / Mustard 65.8% Oilseeds 75%

Cotton 78% Cotton 70%

Rice 61.7%

Barley 44 %

Wheat 35%

3. About 70% of rural population depends on success or failure of crops and in turn
rainfall for their lively hood.
4. Although, India is blessed with average annual rainfall of about 1200 mm, slightly
above the global mean of 990 mm, the fate of dryland crops oscillates with the
quantity, onset, and progress, spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon rains.
Of the mean annual rainfall, 30 per cent of the country gets less than 750 mm and
40 per cent between 750 and 1250 mm. Only 20 per cent area is blessed with
rainfall between 1250 and 2000 mm, leaving about 10 per cent area with annual
rainfall over 2000 mm.
5. Much of the increase in food production in the recent past is estimated to be mainly
due to irrigated areas. According to experts, even when the ultimate irrigation
potential is reached, 55 per cent of the net sown area will be still, rainfed.
Therefore, it is inevitable that in future the additional food has to come mainly
from the drylands.

6. At present, 3 ha of dryland crop produce cereal grain equivalent to that produced in

one ha irrigated crop. Hence, there is a great scope to increase productivity under
rainfed situation.

Rainfed Irrigated

Average productivity (t ha-1) 0.4 – 0.7 1.5 – 2.0

7. The per capita land availability, which was 0.28 ha in 1990, has declined to 0.19 ha
with limited scope for increasing the area under plough. Only option left is to
increase the productivity with the modern technology and inputs in drylands.
8. The productivity has already showed a plateau in irrigated agriculture due to
problems related to nutrient exhaustion, salinity build up and depleting water
table. Hence, the challenges are to make grey areas (drylands) as green.
9. Dryland offers good scope for development of Agroforestry, Social forestry, Horti-
Silvi-pasture and other similar systems which will not only supply food, fuel and
fodder, but forms a suitable vegetative cover for ecological maintenance.
10. Dry/ Rainfed land offers vast scope for increasing cropping intensity and
employment generation. The cropping intensity in rainfed areas is 110 – 115%
against 150 – 300% in irrigated areas.
History of Rainfed Agriculture:
Rainfed agriculture dates back to the origin of Agriculture itself. The systematic
study of constraints in dry farming was initiated during 1862 AD when USA
introduced Morill Bill Act. In this act, emphasis has been made to impart agricultural
education through the establishment of Agricultural College. Due to severe scarcity of
food, a famine commission was appointed in 1880AD to provide suitable measure to
overcome famine and started protective irrigation projects.
Meanwhile, H.W. Campbell, a progressive farmer started cultivating wheat on
large scale (300 ha) and harvested a bumper crop (12000 Bushels). However, the crop
was totally failed during 1882 AD because of drought and he started investigating
reasons for such failure. He tried to trace back the historical literatures and focused
his attention on the suggestions of the Father of Tillage, Jethrotull. In 1894, 1st Dry
Farming Experiment station was started at Cheyennue Well in Collarado State of
America.
Campbell published a book ‘Soil Culture and Farm Journal Manual’ in 1880. He
emphasized on the importance of summer tillage in harvesting early rains during
1898.
The historical premise for dry farming was explained by a Utah proponent Dr.
John A. Widstoe pioneer of dryland farming research and President of State
Agricultural College, Utah, USA in his book Dry-Farming, A System of Agriculture
for Countries Under Low Rainfall, defined dry farming as “the profitable production
of useful crops without irrigation on lands that receive rainfall of less than 500 mm
annually”. Widstoe summarized the practices for dry farming in his one more book
“Gospels of Dry farming” as follows:
a. Deep ploughing and Fall ploughing, b. Early sowing of crops c. Raising
drought resistant crops d. Fallowing alternate years under very low rainfall areas (<15
inch) and once in three years under low rainfall situation (15-20 inch)
1901: USA passed Arid Farm Bill and emphasized to start dry farming research
stations.
1904: Campbell summarized his findings and recognized as ‘Campbell System of Dry
Farming’. Practices advocated by Campbell are
a. Disc ploughing immediately after every harvest
b. Shallow light tillage operations after discing
c. Passing sub – soil packer
d. Smooth harrowing
e. Thin sowing using seed drill
1907 : A forum of progressive farmers and scientists were created to exchange ideas
in the name of “1st Dry Farming Congress”. Subsequently, 2nd& 3rd Dry Farming
Congress were held during 1908, 1909, respectively.
In India:
Dryland agriculture in India has been practiced since time immemorial. Unlike USA,
Australia, Canada where dryland agriculture is mechanized, Farmers in India
developed innovative methods to grow crops under dryland conditions.
Government of India, as per Famine and Royal Commission recommendations
established IARI and ICAR. Later in mid 50’s, a renewed efforts were made to
conserve natural resources to attain food security through establishment of Soil
Conservation Research Centers at 8 locations viz., Dehradun, Chandigarh, Ooty,
Bellary, Kota, Vasad (Guj), Agra and Hyderbad
The chronology of events in dryland agricultural research in India
is :
1920 : Scarcity tract development given importance by the Royal Commission on
Agriculture

1923: Establishment of Dryland Research Station at Manjiri (Pune) by Tamhane

1933: Research Station established at Bijapur and Solapur

1934: Research Station established at Hagari and Raichur

1935: Research Station established at Rohtak (Punjab)

1942: Bombay Land Development act passed

1944: Monograph on dry farming in India by N. V. Kanitkar (Bombay, Hyderbad,

Madras Dry Farming Practices)

1953: Established Central Soil Conservation Board

1954: Established Central Soil Conservation Centres, Bellary

1970: Establishment of the All India Co-ordinated Research Project for Dryland
Agriculture (AICRPDA) as a collaborative project between the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) and Canadian International Development Agency
(CIDA). The AICRPDA was initiated at 23 centers selected on agro-climatic
basis. These centers were under the State Agricultural Universities or ICAR
ResearchInstitutes

1972: ICRISAT was established under CGIAR at Patancheru, Hyderbad to take care
of research needs for semi-arid tropics

1974: Establishment of five Operational Research Centers were also initiated to test
the strength and weakness of the research findings on farmers fields. These
centres are at Hyderabad, Bangalore, Ranchi, Hoshiarpur and Indore. During the
Vlth Five Year Plan, four more were added at Anantapur, Solapur, Hisar and
Udaipur.
The primary mandate for the project was to improve and stabilize crop
production in dry lands of India through the following objectives
To evolve simple and easily implementable crop production practices to increase
production at least by 100 per cent,
To stabilize the production over years by providing alternate crop production
technologies to match weather aberrations, and
 To optimize the use of natural resources viz., land and water (rainfall).

1983: Started 47 model watersheds under ICAR

1984: Initiation of World Bank assisted “Watershed Development Programmes in

four states”. Establishment of Dryland Development Board in Karnataka

1985: Birth of Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture at Hyderbad

1990-91: Launching of NWDPRA (National Watershed Development Project for

Rainfed Area ) started in 25 states & 2 Union territories.